The Transatlantic Trade in African Ancestors: Mijikenda Memorial Statues (Vigango) and the Ethics of Collecting and Curating

Non-Western Cultural Property Author(s): Monica L. Udvardy, Linda L. Giles, John B. Mitsanze Reviewed work(s): Source: American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 105, No. 3 (Sep., 2003), pp. 566-580 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3566906 . Accessed: 16/04/2012 09:39
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Ethics Forum

MONICA L. UDVARDY LINDA L. GILES JOHN B. MITSANZE

Trade in African Ancestors: The Transatlantic MijikendaMemorialStatues (Vigango) and the and Curating Ethicsof Collecting Non-Western CulturalProperty
in obstacles deterrence theglobal to of trade non-Western ABSTRACT This article details cultural and the properties examines ethics andcurating suchproperty. focus thetheft global of We on and ofmemorial ofWestern statues erected collecting marketing (vigango) of an well-documented study, the case two from theft their their to Africa, by Mijikenda peoples East relating unusually tracing statues inU.S.museums. describe large-scale We the extraction suchstatues of from anditsimpact theMijikenda, on their appearance Kenya inU.S. and efforts. callfor We activism Western and museum anthrostaffs, quantity distribution museums, localdeterrence greater by in to curb trade non-Western the and scholars cultural We (1) (2) properties. recommend tightening loopholes, pologists, other legal of andtheU.S.and international observance international museums' codesofethics, stepping field (3) strengthening agreements up the aboutthis trade. efforts deter to and East international theft, (4) educating public growing [Keywords: Africa, Mijikenda peoples, in museum trade African cultural ethics] property, Artwas inventedsimultaneously with collecting, and thetwoareinconceivable without each other. -Shelley Errington trade in non-Western culturalproperties and the of ethicsofWestern and curating such objects.1 collecting on It does so byfocusing thetheft globalmarketing and of memorial statues erected theMivigango (sing.kigango), by coast and hinterland. jikendapeoples of the East African We recount unusually an firsthand case well-documented, of the theft, sale and resale, and subsestudy probable quent donationto U.S. museumsof two of these statues, stolen fromKatana (a pseudonym),a Kenyan Giriama was conducting anman, in 1985,when Monica Udvardy in fieldresearch the region. The case is conthropological textualized our on extracthrough research the large-scale tion of these memorial statues,primarily a single by theirconsiderable and distribucollector/dealer; quantity tion in U.S. museumsand private and the locollections; cal levelimpactsof their theft the Giriama on widespread and other Mijikenda.
AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST 105(3):566-580.

ISSUES the HIS ARTICLE RAISES concerning global

Our account coincides with increasingdistressin scholarlycirclesabout the global trade in non-Western materialculture.Simon Robinsonand Aisha Labi (2001) cite an Interpol-based of figure US$4.5 billionperyear-a that has more than quadrupledover the past decfigure ade-as the estimated value of the worldwide, illicittrade in cultural also note thatinterest Afriin properties. They can objects appears to be at an all-timehigh. Recently, such as former directors of prominentKenyanofficials, the National Museumsof Kenya (NMK), RichardLeakey (Kariuki1999) and GeorgeAbungu (Robinsonand Labi theft viof 2001),2 have calledfora haltto thewidespread forultimate to Western sale but collectors, thesteps gango we requiredto do so are complex. Throughthis article, contribute concreterecommendations these concerning but of efforts, we believethatclose examination the curtradein thesestatues broader has rent, lively applicability. It raisesat least threeethicalissues concerning the relabetweenpartiesinvolvedwithobjectsfrom the tionships non-Western world. in memorial like First, statues, globaltraffic Mijikenda tradein otherforms African of is a form Western of "art,"
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Ancestors 567 and Mitsanze * Transatlantic TradeinAfrican Giles, Udvardy,

The continuedgross economic and culturalimperialism. betweenthe West and the restis the economic disparity is on foundation which the Western collector/dealer prothe cheap purchaseof obvided economic gain through of and sale at markups several hundred jectsin Africa their foldin the West (cf.Steiner1994:8-9; Eluyemiin Robintheirbusiness,collecson and Labi 2001). In conducting turna blindeyeto thedevastating tors/dealers impactthat have on non-Western theftand sale of culturalproperty Dealersmustbe awareof at individuals and communities. because it is the artifacts' least some of these effects very of meaningand use in the context the authenticity-their in culture whichtheyare produced-thatmakesthemdeFor the to sirable the collector/dealer. the Mijikenda, global oftheir ancestors has tradein thetangible representations harmto their cultural integrity. wrought irreparable Our case illustrates that,more oftenthan not, nonWesternartifacts eventually are donated to museumsby individuals who buy themfromcollector/dealers. private Hence,a secondethicalconcernarisesabout the natureof of the sometimesamicable relationship museumpersonin nel to privatecollectors/dealers non-Western objects, even in thefaceofthe tacitknowledge thatmostmuseum conditionsunder personnelhold about the unscrupulous whichmostAfrican objectsareoriginally acquired. The third ethicalissueconcerns repercussions the arisof for the because ingfrom definition "art," it is ultimately as theyare regarded "art"in the West that such cultural as vigangoarestolen,sold,and exported. Whileby objects no meansin consensus, is thedynamic it between interplay of in the West-artists; threecategories interested parties and collectors, dealers,and philanthropists; museumpersonnel and relatedacademics-who define whichcultural statusof "art." Like Pimedia may hold the privileged to casso's attraction the nonrepresentational in Afristyle can art in the early 20th century(Danto 1988:18-19), Westernartists may be drawn to particular high-profile culturalmedia. These, in turn, qualities of non-Western and the of collectors, dealers, mayattract attention Western whose collecting be driven forays may by philanthropists, these fashions, personalinterest, as in the case of or, by dealers,by profitmotive (Wade 1985). Where Western collectors also wealthy, are their collections and collecting when theydonatecollections to tastesbecome influential museumsand then fundwhole wingsin which to house the them (Clifford 1988). Finally, critical dialoguesabout and the exhibitscreatedby museum artisticattributes, express,and personnel and related academics, reflect, of dealcollectors, push the extantviewpoints the artists, with to ers,and philanthropists, respect theseobjects. and Hence,because museumprofessionals academics of contemporary conceptualizations art,and if legitimize art is inventedthroughcollecting(as is suggested Erby of then quotationat the beginning thisarticle), rington's and inmuseumprofessionals academicsare inextricably withcollectors all kinds-be theydealers, of tertwined prior vate collectors, philanthropists. feel,therefore, We that to museum personnelhave an ethical responsibility be in of moreproactive deterring destructive the effects dealof ersand collectors non-Western objects. Mostmuseumpersonnel privy horror are to stories dethewaysin whichnon-Western cultural tailing properties are acquired.Theyremainsilentbecause theycannotprovide needed evidence specificto objects in theircollections thatwould convictthievesand dealers.The following accountis unique because almostall the eventsin the of trafficking Katana's vigango are known and can be documented. servesnot only as an exampleof the traIt of eventsthatare triggered when vigangoare stojectory but as an exampleofthewidespread inlen, repercussions volvedwhen a category non-Western of cultural property becomestargeted marketing Western collectors. for to art THECULTURAL OF CONTEXT MIJIKENDA MEMORIAL STATUES(VIGANGO) The Mijikenda consist ninerelated of peoples-the Giriama, Kauma,Jibana, Chonyi,Kambe,Ribe,Rabai,Duruma,and TanzaDigo-who residealong the Kenyanand northern nian coast and hinterland(see Figure1). They subsist animalhusbandry, cash-earning and ocfarming, through to Islam and others cupations. Althoughmany profess ancestral continueto play an practice Christianity, spirits role important formostMijikendaand are believedto inthe fluence activities theliving.Descendents of offer them libationsroutinely sacrifices specialoccasions.The and on manifestations ancestralspirits of (koma)are sevearthly eralkindsofwooden posts;claypots signify femaleancestors(see Udvardy 1990a, 1990b,1992). of Amongthe northern Mijikenda,markers the ordideceasedare short, unelaborated statuettes erected in nary family compounds. The northernmost Mijikenda also erecttall(approximately three nine feet to high)memorial statuescalled "vigango."Carved fromcertainspecies of hardwoods,vigango resemblehuman males in abstract form.The body is decoratedwith elaboratechip carving and is oftenpainted.Vigangoare carvedand installed exand formembers the Gohu society, semiof a clusively by fraternal withbranches local neighin secret, organization borhoods.Members male elders are who have been elected and experience, and who are able to pay the substantial fees(see Udvardy 1990a). membership the death of a Gohu memIdeally,shortly following shouldcommission local Gohu society the ber,his family to carvea kigangoin his honorand hosta feast accomto installation. Most Mijikendaerectvipany its permanent within their gangoon graves respective kaya(thesymbolic centerof each subgroup), but the Giriama politico-ritual also raisevigangoin the patrilineal, extendedfamily comwithotherancestral pound, wheretheyare oftenerected or than on markers, at the edge of the compound,rather the grave itself(Giles and Mitsanze 2001; Parkin1991; 1990a). Udvardy
by other Gohu for their outstanding qualities of wisdom

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/S
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1. ritual FIGURE ThenineMijkenda and respective subgroups their centers(makaya;sing. kaya) at the end of the 19th century StateUni(adaptedfrom Spear 1978:87;map formatted Illinois by for 2001). Graphics Gilesand Mitsanze versity

In 2001, the estimated cost of erecting kigangowas a 15,000-16,000Kenyanshillings(US$187.50), a considermostMijikenda.Becauseoftheexpense,kiable outlayfor erection usuallydoes not occuruntilthehomestead gango An to experiencemisfortune. installedkigangois begins of as theincarnation thedeceased,is spokento interpreted withpalm wine libations(Parkin and directly, propitiated 1991; Udvardy 1990a). from koma statuettes only not ordinary Vigangodiffer in sizeand elaboration also bya strict but prohibition against If shouldbe removal. a householdmoves,thekigango their and left behind, undisturbed, a specialkindofsubstitute post at (kibao)shouldbe erected the new home sitein its stead. times overthecourse Becausehomesteads maymoveseveral left of its members' lives,old vigangoare often in unoccuareaswheretheycan easilybe takenby the unscrupupied lous or uninformed 2). playsa (Figure As long as the spirit occasionalvisits shouldbe rolein the household, signficant After madeto thekigango propitiation. twoto three for genthe whenfirsthand of erations, fades, memory theindividual on the sitewillbe neglected,3 theprohibition disturbing but Such acts incurthe curseof the koma, kigangoremains.4 and misfortune who inflict continual upon theculprit(s) on of ancestor. thedescendents theoffended markers the deceased fallinto of Perhapsuniversally, the category "singular of 1986; Udvardy objects"(Kopytoff

FIGURE2. An abandoned kigangoleftbehindwhen homestead vion moved.The strict members Mijikendaprohibition moving are with which the (Photo: they imbued. gangosignifies sacredness MonicaUdvardy, 1985)

thoseimbuedwitha sacredstatusthat 2001)-specifically, the all setsthemapartfrom others-however, explicit prointhemas especially on movingvigangomarks scription is the alienable.To uproota kigangofor purposeofprofit a to affront the ancestralspirits, likely flagrant particularly as in such serious sanctions infliction to result supernatural the of insanity Beckerleg 1994). Removing kigangoof (cf. deathto the for one's own ancestors thispurpose maybring and many vigango offender and other familymembers, The collecto thesecurses. thievesperform rituals counter artifacts tion of vigangoas worksof artor as ethnological their and therefore violates thusclearly tradition, Mijikenda increasing appearancein privateand museumcollections decadesis highly overthelastthree disturbing.
FROM KENYA TO AMERICA'S HEARTLAND: VIGANGO IN THE WEST

On February 1985, duringanthropological fieldwork, 19, manat hisresidence an Giriama interviewed elderly Udvardy

TradeinAfrican Ancestors 569 and Mitsanze * Transatlantic Giles, Udvardy,

Katana showed in the remoteKenyancoastal hinterland. his her a matchingpair of vigango that commemorated Weeks later,when Udvardyretwo deceased brothers. of turnedwithphotographs them,Katanabecame visibly thatshortly after visit,the her he related upset.Tearfully, two vigangohad been stolen,and he appealed to her for help in locatingthem. Udvardysearched coastal touristshops and hotels Whileshe sold or displayed. wherevigangowereroutinely failedto findKatana's statues,she learnedthat vigango maleGiriama werestolenfrom homesteads unemployed, by for youthswho sold them to coastal shopkeepers about US$50. Udvardywas told that an art dealer fromthe to referred as "John"(a pseudoUnitedStates, henceforth conductedexpeditionsto the Kenyan nym),periodically whichshop ownerssold to him coastto purchase vigango, for between US$100-$300. Udvardylater learned that and scholars, thatviJohnwas widelyknownto Africanist art as gango werefetching much as US$4,000 in Western withUdcommunication markets (David Parkin, personal 1987). vardy, August In 1992, as a faculty memberat IllinoisStateUniverLinda Giles was amazed to discovera large sity (ISU), of whichhad been pernumber vigangoin ISU's museum, havclosed in August1991. Giles remembered manently withthe Giriama fieldwork that prior ingbeen toldduring theirsiteofinstallashouldneverbe movedfrom vigango tion.Hence,to conductmoreresearch vigango, ciron the of into the incumstances theirremoval,and theirentry ternational market, enlistedthe aid of her Kenyan art she Giriamaresearch assistant, JohnBaya Mitsanze,who had in Giriamaculturalherilong been interested preserving on out tage.Mitsanzecarried morefieldwork thesetopics, with the Giriama, but also includingotherMiprimarily he jikenda.With Giles's assistance, designeda questionto nairethathe thenused in Mijikendahomesteads gather and duringSeptember of more systematic information, 2001 Gilesreturned Kenyato help withthisresearch. to In 1999, Giles organizeda panel on aspects of Mifor of Studjikendaculture theannual meeting theAfrican ies Association. a Udvardypresented paper on the Gohu slidesofKatanaat his homestead beside society, including the the twovigangothatwerelaterstolen.Gilesdiscussed withillustrative slides,and vigangoin the ISU collection, the problemthatsuch collections pose forthe Mijikenda. Udvardyrecognizedamong During Giles's presentation, Katana 15 the ISU vigangoone ofthevigangostolenfrom thenvisitedISU to positively idenUdvardy yearsearlier. distinctive the physitify memorialstatuesby comparing of cal characteristicss the actual ISU kigango with the slides she had of those in situ in Katana's homestead. Whileperusing numerous museumexhibit Giles catalogues, and Udvardy discovered Katana's otherstolenkigangoin in the collectionof Hampton University Virginia(Vogel resee Figure We arecurrently 1988:147-148, 3). pursuing Katana'sfamily.6 of patriation bothvigangoto Katana's kigangoin ISU's museumwas one of 38 in of their theircollection.'Donatedby a variety individuals, transfers weremade overtheyears1979-86 through sina BusinessManagement(IBM) gle company,International and ofCulverCity, California,8 their rangefrom appraisals Theirrecorded collectionsitesinclude US$2,200-$5,000.9 a wide swathof coastaland inlandnorthern Mijikendalocations(Illinois State Museumn.d.);four even are University recorded originating KayaFungo, sacredcenter as at the of the Giriama (Parkin 1991). people Katana'sotherstolenkigango one of 99 vigangoacis between1979-87. All but quiredby HamptonUniversity fivewereobtainedin KenyabyJohn,althoughtheywere donated by variousindividuals(MaryHultgren, personal communication withGiles, 8, July 2002). The collectiondate forboth of Katana's vigango is 1985, the same year that Udvardyrecordedtheirtheft. Theircollection is site,however, listedas the coastaltown ofMambrui, from far Katana'sinlandhomestead. Presumthe ably,thievestransported statuesto the coast in order to sell them.Although ISU accessionrecordcontains the no information about the collector, HamptonUniverthe Museumidentifies him as John. John,therefore, sity preboth of Katana'svigangoin Mambrui. sumably purchased The following year,1986,bothwereaccessioned thereby universities. the appraiser'snote for spective Ironically, Katana'skigango the ISU collection in callsattention its to fresh of and paint,and the survival the plasterwork cloth ties "whichattests the continuing to and recent ofthe use workin a ritual context" Museum (IllinoisStateUniversity noteby Alfred n.d., appraisal Inc.). Scheinberg, Table 1 lists the museumsthat contain the 294 viin gango we have verified U.S. collectionsto date.10Vidonorsincludesuch celebrities ShellyHack,Dirk as gango LindaEvans,Gene Hackman, and Powers Boothe. Benedict,
TABLE1. Mijikenda memorial statues(Vigango)in U.S.museums (verified).

MuseumofArt 50 originally) (ca. Birmingham MuseumofArt Brooklyn and Sciences DaytonaMuseumofArt DenverMuseumofNature and Science Detroit Institute Arts of Museum HamptonUniversity HarnMuseumat University Florida of IllinoisState Museum(formerly IllinoisState at University MuseumofFineArts, Houston MuseumofFineArts Indianapolis LoweArt of Museum, University Miami Milwaukee PublicMuseum MuseumofArt Minneapolis San Diego Mesa College Smithsonian NationalMuseumofAfrican Art St.LouisMuseumofArt of Collection, Stanley University Iowa of at Art Sweeney Gallery, University California Riverside TexasSouthern in University Houston Minimum total:

ca. 20-30 1 ca. 12 28 at least1 99 1

Quantity

38 5 18 3 2 2 28 1 1 1 28 5 294

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in FIGURE Two memorial 3. seen here(left)insitubefore their theft from informant 1985.Theyare now locatedintwo statues, Udvardy's U.S. museum collections: Illinois The State Museum(middle)and the Hampton Museum, (Photoleftby Monica University Virginia (right). Photoright Center African for 1985.Photomiddle Illinois StateUniversity Arts) by Graphics. by Udvardy

The latter donatedeightto ISU in 1986,including Katana's personalcomkigango(ISU museumn.d.; MelissaFalkner, withGiles,April10, 2000). The late pop artist munication to AndyWarholis also reported have purchasedvigango withGiles, from communication John(Ivan Karp, personal March 25, 2001; David Parkin, communication personal

withGiles,March2, 1999). Indeed,threevigangoappear in the Sotheby's catalogueof Warhol'sartcollectionauc2322tionedafter death (Sotheby's1988, lot numbers his 2324). The sourceforall these vigangois almost invariably who appearsto have collectedapproximately John, ninety

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of percent thevigangonow in U.S. museums.Well known cultural museumpersonnelof African to NorthAmerican his a materials, Johnmaintains websiteadvertising African art galleryand featuresvigango as among the objects available. He has collectedvigango that have been feaInstitute's turedin such majorvenues as the Smithsonian StudiesAssoNationalMuseumof African the African Art, ciationmeetings (see Figure and New York'sCenterfor 4), is African Art.This collector/dealer aware of the cultural contextof vigangobecause he has conversedwith Gohu withGiles, elders(David Parkin, personalcommunication a March2, 1999) and written book about vigangothatfeaart turesessaysby a prominent historianand an anthropologist. Ironically,in this volume, the anthropologist finds acquisitionofvigangoto be troubling. the
LOCAL VIGANGO TRAFFICAND EFFORTS TO COMBAT IT

thefts vigangoin every of Mitsanzerecorded Mijikendalowith wherehe interviewed.12Of the 40 interviews cation"1 victimsof theftconductedso far,11 had vigango stolen withinthe lastdecade, includingone case wherethe same occasions. kigangowas actually stolen on two different

Africa the and African Diaspora: Future Present, Past,

Assocation
Annual 44th Meeting
November 2001 13-8.

Afrcan Stud es

HOt. Texa

at FIGURE4. Vigango are once again being given prominence the Thiskigangofrom HousAfrican Studies Association meetings: ton Museumof FineArts servedas the artistic logo forthe 2001 and other of in With collaboration museum the meeting Houston. such statues have appeared in UnitedStates' staff, professional and exhibits sincethe late 1970s. displays museum

Thieves steal vigango not only fromdesertedareas but also fromthe midstof occupied homesteads.Theirillicit removalis so commonplace todaythatthe KenyanCoastal Forest ConservationUnit reportsthat Mijikenda elders will no longerdivulgethe locationsofvigangoforfearof theirtheft (Tengeza2000:183). While theftremainsa significant problem,trade in the statuesis less blatanttoday.In September 2001, many to reported Giles that theyno longer Kenyanmerchants on openly displayvigango.Nonetheless, request,Nairobi and markettraders broughtthem to her surreptitiously, some told her that special ordersfor vigango could be placed. A few were for sale in a Mombasa shop, and a Malindi shopkeepertold her that some, kept in locked could be viewedby appointment. storage, The Mijikenda regardvigango thieves as social outassistantlocation chief described casts; one 35-year-old themas "a curseto our culture. Theyhave put moneyas a values.Theyneed to be seriously overour cultural priority punished" (Gede-Mkenge,respondent 5, conversation with Mitsanze,Jan. 3, 2001). One kaya elder suggested theybe finedthe equivalentassessedforkillinga human a because a kigangorepresents person.Most being (kore), the thievesto repaythe costsoferecting wantedconvicted kigangoand to be jailed, some adding that they should also pay a fineto the Gohu or kayaelders.Older Giriama believe thatillicitremovalof vigangohas caused such reor cent calamitiesas drought, flooding, crop loss, as well In as family catastrophes. the wordsof one elderlyGohu member,"Vigangothieveshave deprivedus of our blessings, our health, and desecrated our customs" (GedeMabuani, respondent 1, conversation with Mitsanze, 1, January 2001). that removalof In 1986, Parkin(1986:19) suggested resistedthan abandoned vigango would be less strongly revealsa differtheft newlyinstalledones. Our research of thattheywould Askedabout this,eldersreply ent picture. be upset in eithercase and thatthe same sortsof troubles would result. relocating, Theyexplain that,foryearsafter to residents return abandoned homesteadsto proformer various Eldersare able to enumerate pitiatethe ancestors. to attributed theftof vigango in forfamilycatastrophes merhomesteads. During the fall of 2001, Giles and Mitsanze located Gohu membersacquainted with John. Told about his of global marketing vigango,theyresponded,"Of all the occupationsin the world,why did he choose to tradein with Gohu elders,conversation our ancestors?" (Marereni we Mitsanze,October25, 2001). Everywhere discussedhis them. eldersagreedthat he had badly betrayed activities, One exclaimed:"He wantsus to die! He is the main cause of the problemsthe Mijikendaface today!" (Kaya Fungo, withGiles and Mitsanze,Sep5, respondent conversation tember 2001). 20, Innovativelocal-levelapproachesto combat vigango Some Giriama to theft beginning emerge are spontaneously. erected now setthebase ofnewly postsin concrete. vigango

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a theft, theyare creating new,indigenous, conceptualdistinction betweenauthentic and inauthentic vigango. Mostinformants statedthatrecovered vigangocannot be reinstalled, theyinsistthat theybe returned. Embut elders members, phasizingthat vigangoincarnatefamily the explain that if a familymemberdies in the forest, home, and a libationmade to the spirit corpseis brought it in whilewelcoming home. Fora returned kigango, place of burial,a Gohu membershould lay it underritually aptrees(Gede-Mabuani, withGiles propriate groupinterview and Mitsanze,September 2001). To date, only two of 2, our 40 respondents considered unimportant have reit to coveredvigangoreturned them,and ofthese,one was a to who suggested them coastalarea museumworker donating to themuseuminstead. The best remedyfortheftis, of course,prevention. of Hence, we are gathering descriptions stolen vigango, and, whenever possible,photographing vigangoin situin a order construct databaseforfuture to cases oftheft.
CURBING THE GLOBAL TRAFFIC IN NON-WESTERN CULTURAL PROPERTY

FIGURE5. The aftermath one incident Mijikenda of of memorial statuetheft. such are (Photo: Unfortunately, occurrences common. John Mitsanze)

Even this precaution, however,does not alwaysprevent In theft. one case, a kigango was stolen,located,retrieved, in and thenreinstalled concrete, and onlyto be sawedoff stolenagainduring night! the One elderly Gohu initiateand kigangocarver behas to implement otherstrategies reducetheft. to Thieves gun stole a kigangothat represented grandfather his recently but leftintactotherslocatednearby(Figure The latter, 5). he explained,had purposely been crudely carvedin order to make them less attractive thieves. Followingthe to this carverbegan makingvigango forcommercial theft, sale in orderto prevent theft real ones. Carving the of vigango fornonritual purposesis believedto be punishable by death, usuallythe death of a memberof the carver's the family.However,afterpetitioning elders,this carver was permitted perform sacrifice orderto circumto a in vent this curse.In carvingsubstitute vigango,he neither followedthe properritualsnor selectedthe propertree to We speciesnorpaid close attention coloration. knowof carver who has adopted thisstrategy. onlyone other vigango While theirefforts represent proactiveways to combat

The intent thisarticle of the goes beyondbringing tradein call vigangoto a halt. It is also a concerted to actionto all those concernedwith culture-be they culturalanthroart or pologists,archaeologists, historians, museologists, interested laypersons-tobecome moreproactivein haltIf ing all illicittradein cultural property. we are not,then we will indeed, through our passivity, complicitwith be in those dealerswhose continuedsuccessin trading these willsoon destroy pastand present the cultural objects patof world.Exceptforthe analogy rimony the non-Western drawn to the efforts contemporary of zoological parks, many of the followingobservationsand recommendations are not new (see, e.g., Schmidtand McIntosh1996) but theyareall important. Legal Loopholes: Vigango and International Agreements In 1970, UNESCO addressedthe international commuthe nity'sconcernregarding erosion of culturalheritage the worldwide loss of materialcultural draftthrough by and adoptingthe Conventionon theMeans ofProhibing the and itingand Preventing Illicit Import, Export, Transfer of Ownership CulturalProperty UNESCO Convenof (the the "undertake oppose to tion).Parties signing convention a and putting stopto current practices, by helpingto make the necessary must (Article Signing 2). reparations" parties set up national servicesto draftlaws to protectcultural cultural property; developa listofpublicand private propthatshould not be exported; reerty develop institutions to ensurethe preservation cultural of esquired property; tablishrulesforcurators, collectors, antique dealers,etc; take educational measures to "develop respectfor the
such practices . . . particularlyby removing their causes,

Trade in African Ancestors Giles,and Mitsanze * Transatlantic Udvardy, culturalheritageof all States"; and publicize the disap(Article 5). pearanceofany cultural property The UNESCO Conventionprovidesimportant measbut it appliesonlyto parties who voluntarily it, ures, sign In and this is its most fundamental limitation. her 1996 Maria Kouroupasnotes thatthe UnitedStateswas article, nationto signit. Sincethen, the onlymajorart-importing the UnitedKingdom and Francehave done so, but others, and Belgium,have not. such as Germany, Switzerland, Whereassome African statessigned,a numberof them, includingKenya,have not yet done so, perhapsbecause seemed too costlyor complex (cf. Prott implementation 1996:33-34). Hence,a majorloophole existsin theprotecof tion and return vigangobecause legal means cannotbe used untilKenya-as well as moreof the majorEuropean the nations-signsand implements convenart-importing tion. to withrespect itsdefiis The convention also limited mustoffi"Cultural nitionof cultural property" property. as ciallyhave been designated inalienableby the originatjudgment ing state,which it does based on the scholarly Listsof inalienablecultural of the academic community. property mayinclude,interalia: rarecollections, property or to history nationalfigures, archaeological proprelating Howor interest. and objectsof ethnological artistic erty, and sanctioned iftheyhave not been acknowledged ever, as sufficiently significant-andhence inalienculturally ofor experts by authorized scholarly able-by recognized as excludeitemsidentified the listmaypotentially ficials, communities. nonremovable indigenous by considThishas been thecase withvigango.Although eredinalienableby theMijikenda, theyhave notbeen recuntilthe officials ognizedas such by Kenyangovernment of fewyears.Forexample,when a personalcollection past Art at was exhibited theMuseumofAfrican at the vigango in Institution the late 1970s,the KenyanamSmithsonian to "It bassadorremarked, is gratifying see such worksbein exhibited the nationalcapitalof the UnitedStates" ing government (Wolfe 1979:1). His commentdemonstrates about the cirbut pridein the statues, a lack of awareness cumstancesof theircollectionand a lack of concernfor removalfrom their Kenya.Forat leastthe nextdecade,viby gangowereexported dealersforsale abroadand promiand nently displayedand sold in Kenyanhotels,galleries, touristshops, not only on the coast but also in the nainterfertional capital of Nairobi, withoutgovernment ence. today are increasingly Kenyan officials Importantly, in and traffic vigango.But,to about the theft outspoken listedas inalienare stillnot officially ourknowledge, they able cultural Thus,theconsiderable globaltraffic property. in vigangohas been able to proceedunabated. is of limitation the UNESCO convention that Another items acquired "with the consent of the competent to of of authorities the country origin"are considered be and cannot,thereofcurrent therightful owners, property be (Article Thisis a significant 4c). fore, reclaimed loophole

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because it is not uncommonin African nations forcustomsagents permit-actively passively--important to or culturalmaterials leave the country, to thoseorigiincluding nally stolen fromtheirindigenouscontextsof creation. Once theyhave lefttheirnation of origin, such objectswhether the stolen,exported originally through payment of bribes,or lawfully considacquired-are subsequently eredto havebeen acquired "with consent authorities" the of and no legalrecourse exists their for repatriation. The UNESCO convention also not retroactive, is and, hence,itemsthatweretakenin thepast,likethemanyviare gango alreadyin U.S. and Europeancollections, not covered itsprovisions. by Forobjectsmarked repatriation for those (specifically, forwhich no "consentof competent authorities" be can UNESCO requiresthat the requesting state established), to the "innocentpurchaser" person or pay compensation who holdsvalid titleto the object(s),as well as the costof the of returning object(s)to its country origin.In thebest but of all possible worlds,this is a valid requirement, and the giventhehighcostoftransport, especially soaring art on values of African and artifacts the Western market, are in no financial mostAfrican positionto governments this fulfill stipulation. not Another limitation, onlyofthe UNESCO Convenis tion but also of most otherinternational agreements, are definedas nationthatbecause the partiesconcerned norotherlocal communeither ethnic, states, indigenous, involvedin international deterrence nitiescan be directly efforts. or repatriation Instead, the state must be persuadedto acceptthe Conventionand thento enactclaims But on behalfof a local community. the stateis seldoma reliableagentforcultural 1996:23). It (Schmidt protection about the matter, especially may not be veryconcerned to when it pertains the needs of internal groupsor comwho do not have powerful advocateswithinthe munities when the state does press a reMoreover, government. it cultural of property, is often quest forreturn important than in rather interested claimingthe object(s) foritself to or suchproperty thecommunity groupoforireturning as maybe appropriated an aspectof gin. Thus the artifact its but nationalheritage, it may stillbe alienatedfrom inFor context. example,in the digenousownersand cultural case of Katana's stolenvigango,Giles had contactedthe in them.The NMK NMK to requestassistance repatriating theseto a new coastal museumbefirst proposedadding however,when Giles and Uding planned; fortunately, be shouldfirst madeto rereminded themthatefforts vardy to turn vigango Katana's the family, theyagreed. The UNESCO conventionrequiresthat state parties to theircultural set up adequate services protect heritage. and badlyneeded,manyAfriWhilethisis both desirable the can nationsdo not have themeans,or sometimes will, of to do so. Hence, manyrequestsforthe return cultural to property theirindigenousownersmay continueto be ignored.

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AmericanAnthropologist * Vol. 105, No. 3 * September2003 its objectsthatcan be parties, applicationonlyto cultural to documented have been stolenand to cases wherestate laws make exportillegal.In addition,formakinga claim, of narrowtime limitation a UNIDROIT stipulates rather stateparty threeyearsfromthe momentthe requesting of learnsthewhereabouts an object. UNIDROIT,like the UNESCO Convention, Although and obis moreeasilyapplied to state-owned antiquities its enhanced language in institutional collections, jects makesit moreapplicableto all objects,even those found acwhich have been illicitly outside such organizations, concernfordamages mentions it specifically quired.First, of caused, not only to the cultural heritage nation-states or but also to that of tribal, indigenous, othercommunities. Second, it includes "objectsused in livingculture" that a state (Prott1996:35). Third,it notes in particular imcan the of party request return an objectifitsremoval or "thetraditional ritualuse of the objectby a tribal pairs or indigenous 5, (Article 3d). community" thatit "will The UNIDROITconvention acknowledges a solutionto theproblems raised ilnot in itself by provide licittrade," it does makeneededstepsin thisdirection. but these to States applyneither theUnited Unfortunately, steps nor to Kenyabecause neithernation-state signedit. has And if,as Prott "it observes, is clearthatthe dealercomhard againstU.S. munityin the United Stateswill fight to (1996:36), it is unlikely be acceptedby participation" also emthe UnitedStatesanytime soon, unless,as Prott are phasizes, U.S. anthropologists willing and able to as lobbyas effectively dealersaredoingtoday. in Variouscodes thataddressethicalproblems the acof cultural have been established. One quisition property is ofthe mostimportant the International CouncilofMuseums(ICOM) Code of Ethics, adoptedin 1986. The ICOM Code statesin section3.2 "thatit is highlyunethicalto market anyway,directly indirectly" in the or support illicit ef(1986:3.2,emphasisadded). It goes on to saythatevery fort must madeto ensure be thatan object, acquired through or purchase, gift, loan, has not been illicitly acquiredin or of exportedfromits country origin,and that "due dilishouldestablish fullhistory the the of gencein thisregard item fromdiscovery production, or beforeacquisition is in considered" (1986:3.2).Once again,however, mostcases, of the fullhistory the item is verydifficult ascertain. to as Prott codes do not have thesame Moreover, pointsout, as law, althoughtheycan be enforceability international used to shameoffenders (1966:37). The numerousloopholes in international legislation notedabovepassively allowfor conand codesofethics the in In tinuedtraffic vigango. 1990,theUnited States adopted the Native AmericanGraves Protection Act (NAGPRA), morestringent interwhich,ifused as a modelforcreating national legislation, has the potentialto providegreater for protection such cultural objectsas vigango.Forexamin additionto humanremains and associated ple, funerary NAGPRAspecifiesas repatriable artifacts those objects, consideredsacred (definedas ceremonialobjects needed

was hinof Implementation theUNESCO Convention deredby aspectsofprivate law,as are foundin manylegal systems that protect bona fide purchasers. Because over privatelaw, they reUNESCO had no jurisdiction for Institute theUnification thattheInternational quested Law (UNIDROIT) addressthe problemof illicit of Private and set up minimumrulesfor tradein cultural property and return restitution (Prott1996:35). Chapter2 of the UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or IllegallyExported CulturalObjectswas adopted in 1995. It statesthatanyit must return one possessingillicitly acquired property diliof and willreceive onlyifa highdegree compensation gentinquiryhas been conductedinto the provenanceof the artifact. LyndelProttpoints out that this stipulation set out to change "the widelyacceptedcommon practice and dealersof not rigorously checking among collectors "due diligence," the (1996:35). To determine provenance" that states UNIDROITconvention ofacquisition, circumstances shall regard behadtoallthe the of the paid, including character theparties, price accessiconsulted reasonably whether possessor the any and releof cultural bleregister stolen objects, anyother which and vant information documentation couldhave the and been reasonably obtained, whether possessor or consulted accessible step a agencies took other that any in circumstances. have taken the would reasonable person 4, [Article4] showsconsiderable thisdefinition thought Although its leavesmuchto inand admirable intent, interpretation most Moreimportantly, objectsdo not dividualjudgment. come with such completeprovenancethatthe initialreare moval of the object and its varioustransferals docusetmented.Objects stolen fromtheirlocal community or are almostneverinventoried described sufficiently ting It to to allow themlegally be claimedunderthisprovision. definewhat othertypesof information to is also difficult should be consideredreasonablyobtainable.We believe to shouldbe required investigate the purchaser ethnological information about the role the object plays in its inwithregard its removalor to especially digenousculture, information shouldneverbe solicsale. Such ethnological actualor potential conbecause of their itedfrom dealers, The case describedin this articleof the flictof interest. that while John, in traffic vigango amply demonstrates in the major collector/dealer vigango,has considerable about them,theMijikendaprohiethnological knowledge his bitionon theirremovalhas in no way deterred busiin nesstransactions theseobjects. Inquiriesshould insteadbe put to an anthropologist of of or reputable member the object'scommunity origin who is knowledgeable about indigenous beliefsand practices.Ifit is learnedthatobjectsare considered indigeby nous communities be inalienable, to theirappearanceon withsuspicionand the global market should be regarded and sale. efforts shouldbe made to stoptheir purchase as UNIDROIT has many of the same constraints the UNESCO Convention regardingthe signatureof state

Trade in African Ancestors Giles,and Mitsanze * Transatlantic Udvardy, forpresent-day NativeAmerican traditional obpractices), as (defined anyobjectthatis of jectsofcultural patrimony such importance the indigenous to groupthatit is consideredinalienable),and nonassociated objects(i.e., funerary those that do not contain human remains). If the used thislanguage, UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions as then vigangowould be protected sacredobjects,items ofcultural and funerary objects. patrimony, nonassociated NAGPRA also statesthata museumdoes not have the rightof possessionunless it has obtainedan object with consentof "an individual who has the right thevoluntary to alienate that object" (San FranciscoState University underNAGPRA, museums never hold the 1998). Moreover, ofpossessionin objectsofcultural nor rights patrimony to human remainsor associatedfunerary Boththese objects. than what is stipulated either in provisionsare stronger theUNESCO or theUNIDROITconventions. Finally,NAGPRArequiresthat museums and other of objectsprovidelistsof the possessors NativeAmerican contentsof theircollectionsin orderto initiateconsultaffiliated tribal ation with federal agenciesand culturally of this require(i.e., indigenous) groups. Incorporation ment into the UNESCO and UNIDROIT conventions would shift burdenof providing the evidenceof the locaof objects fromthose communities tion and provenance in to interested makingclaimsforrepatriation, museums and otherinstitutions house collections. that

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NationalResponses Kenyan
Since the mid-1970s,the Giriamahave become increastheirefof inglyvocal about the theft vigango,however, forts to littleeffect. one incidentfromabout are During a as 1990, local police intercepted notorious vigangothief he tried boarda south-coast to witha sackofvigango. ferry But because no law was everpassed in Kenyaagainstthe of arrest tradeor exportation vigango,theycould neither him nor appropriate vigango(Kaloleni,informant the 1, conversation withMitsanze, 8, April 2000).13Furthermore, because Kenyahas signedneitherthe UNESCO Convento eventhe most tionnorUNIDROIT,it is difficult initiate such as apprehending thisindividual, deto basic efforts, terthe international tradein Mijikendavigangoor other cultural artifacts. for institution The governmental directly responsible of all preserving aspectsof the nationalheritage Kenyais whichis composedof the theNationalMuseumsofKenya, museums. NairobiMuseumand variousregional Although African museuminone of the oldestand mostrespected witha highdegreeofprofessionalism, stitutions manyobstacleswithinthe economicand politicalclimateofKenya of implementation its mission(Chapuimpedethe proper with Udvardy, rukhaKusimba,personalcommunication March10, 2003). vocal while the NMK is becomingincreasingly First, inabout the need to preserve Kenya'sculturalheritage, museum accusations periodic implicating cludingvigango,

staff the illicittradein artifacts in bedamagesthe trust tweenthe NMK and the Kenyanpublic and its countermuseumstaff involvepartsabroad.Allegations concerning mentin the illicittradein vigangohave been reported in the weekly news magazineTheEastAfrican (Kariuki 1999) and the widely read MuseumSecurity Mailinglist Report withtheMijikendahas 2002). NMK'strust (Schipepechero also been compromised Giriamaelders toldus that locally. believesome staff the coastalGede Museumlinked at they of (Gede-Mabuani, prospective buyers vigangowiththieves interview with Giles and Mitsanze,September 2, group 2001). In 1996, ChapurukhaM. Kusimbapointed out that the NMK has failedto protect manyoftheinvaluableSwahili historical and archaeologicalsitesalong the Kenyan coast,as well as the Mijikendasitesin the coastal hinterland. These failures, notes,are because of a combinahe tion oflackofpersonnel, and educainadequatetechnical tional infrastructure, an almost exclusivefocus on and thosehigh-profile thatattract funds the to projects foreign detrimentof more modest conservationprojects. The NMK eventually become interested preserving did in the sacred Mijikenda forestsand ritual centers (kaya, pl. makaya)but as Kusimba(1996:217) notes,this was after been destroyed. thisend, the To theyhad alreadylargely NMK Coastal ForestConservation Unit (CFCU) was created in 1992, and fiveyearsofinternational were funding obtained in 1995.14 The NMK-CFCU'sprimary objective remnants appearsto be an ecologicalmissionto preserve ofthe endemicforest theritual centers themsurrounding selves. Hence, the centralCFCU projecthas been to gazettethe kayaforests nationalmonuments as and to supthe role of the kaya elders as forestprotectors port 1996, 1998). (Nyemweru Althoughtheyhave focusedless on the preservation of the cultural and historical of heritage the kaya,CFCU's missiondoes encompasssuch conservation, makingthem an organization thatcould play a majorrolein protecting Githotho, vigango(CFCU Coordinator Anthony personal communication withGiles,March17, 2003; CFCU EducationOfficer with JohnMitsanze, personalcommunication as Giles,April 2000). However, we foundto be thecase 22, in the primary Giriamakaya,KayaFungo,we suspectthat most of the vigangoin the Mijikendakaya have already been stolen.Moreover, noted above, Giriamavigango as are mostlylocated outsidethe kaya. Hence, preservation of the Giriamakayaand surrounding forests would be insufficient safeguard to Mijikendavigango.5is Formedthroughthe arbitrary boundariesdrawnby the Europeancolonial powers, nation-states manyAfrican maintain policies designed to deepen the awarenessof nationhoodamong theircitizens, sometimes so at but do the expenseofsufficient and to sensitivity the rights voices of indigenousethnic groupsand local communities. In this climate, smalleror otherwisemarginalizedgroups the who are locatedfarfrom capi(such as the Mijikenda, tal cityand national politicalcenter)may be ignoredor

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AmericanAnthropologist * Vol. 105, No. 3 * September2003 NMK director yetbeen appointed.Currently, adhas an ministrator from prisonssectionof the ministry, the with no background museums,is acting director in (Kenyan museum personnel in Kenya, personal communication withUdvardy, March2003). Such mechanicaland logistical problems, well as politically as sensitive appointments of as these,also limitthe ability an international commuin nityof concernedscholarsto combatthe globaltraffic illicitculturalproperties, it continuesto do formany as otherissuesofworldwide concern. Once Kenyahas signedthe UNESCO Convention, we recommend thatthe NMK createa Red Listof contemporary,historical,and archaeologicalculturalproperties, such as the one thatexistsunderthe auspicesofthe International Council of Museums (ICOM) forarchaeological of objectsat risk beinglooted.Vigangoshouldbe included on this list,and the list should prohibit categories all of on it from thecountry. objects leaving Efforts along the Kenyan Coast Atthegrassroots are their level,Mijikenda already creating own deterrents, such as those elderswho are refusing to divulgethe locationsof vigangountilassuredof the sinof and Gohu elderswho are becerity inquiring persons, to create different kinds of statues.The carver ginning who is makingsimpler and unconsecrated vigangoto preventthe theft realvigangois marking beginning of of the an entrepreneurial of created industry vigangospecifically forsale to an outsidemarket. thisend, we recommend To that such vigango be made sufficiently distinctso that cannot be confusedwith consecrated ones. Statues they made forsale could,forexample,be made at leasttwofeet shorter than authentic vigangoin orderto fitinto a tourThe original ist'ssuitcase. intent carving of and raising Mideceased Gohu elders jikenda statuesto commemorate would be preserved, while tourist in interest the objects would be satisfied of the smallerand throughpurchase nonconsecratedversion. Unfortunately, collectors and dealerswill stilldesireand seekto purchaseauthentic vigango. The NMK-through its museums at FortJesus in Mombasa and Gede at the coast, and at Rabai in the coastalhinterland-couldengagein the following preventionand educationefforts: * Document in as vigango situ, we havebegunto do. * Create didactic labelsthatinform aboutthesingularity and theendangerment their that and of vigango theft sale pose to theintegrityMijikenda culture. Giriama of eldersexpressed concernthat the displayof three Museumin MomJesus veryold vigangoat the Fort basa encouragestheft creating demand forviby gango by touristsand other artifactcollectors with Giles and (Gede-Mabuani,group interview Mitsanze, 2, September 2001). Indeed,the museum has posted verylittleinformation about vigango,

if advocatesin the overlooked theydo not have powerful national government Kusimba1996). Our discussion (cf. the above regarding need to includelocal community repin cultural resentation determining endangered properties to continues applyto the tradein vigango.Despitethe reof cent and sporadicefforts the variousbranchesof the as Giriama elderscomplainedto us as recently 2001 NMK, to of to about the futility theirattempts call attention the theftof vigango, exclaiming"We have no widespread with Giles and voice!" (Gede-Mabuani,group interview 2, Mitsanze, September 2001). Duringthe last decade,the NMK has become increasKenya'scultural propinglyawareof the need to prevent including vigango,fromleavingits borders. George erty, Generalof the NMK from Director 1999-2002,is Abungu, in international efforts addressthe ilto heavilyengaged While Director of licittradein African cultural properties. a the NMK, he "assistedin drafting bill thatforthe first timewill addressthe issue of illicittraffic destruction and of heritage and providesforstiff penaltiesforoffenders," beforeParliathe bill has not yetbeen brought although ment (George Abungu, personal communicationwith March21, 2003, and March24, 2003). Gilesand Udvardy, of Duringa visitto Kenyain September 2001, Giles in discussedthe traffic vigangowith Mzalendo Kibunjia, NMK's AssistantDirector for Sites and Monuments. thattheNMKwas encouraging Kenthe Kibunjiareported to yan government join UNESCO and to sign the 1970 Convention.He statedthatthe NMK also proposedworkexportof important ing closelywithCustomsto prevent materials and thattheirHeritage Officers should cultural of Affairs Internaand be attachedto the Ministry Foreign tional Cooperationand posted to Kenyan embassiesin D.C., Berlin, Paris,and Tokyo.These officers Washington, for of would coordinatenegotiations the return Kenya's on illicitly articulate obcultural material, Kenya'spolicy tained culturalmaterials, and explorecollaborative projects.Gilesand Kibunjiaalso discussed plans to use public of mediato educateKenyans aboutthecultural context viof gango and the inappropriateness their removal and trade(Mzalendo Kibunjia,personalcommunication with Giles,September 2001). 25, Because internationalcommunicationstechnology suchas e-mailand internet accessis sporadicand costly in and because directorial in nationalgovKenya, positions ernment the organizations including NMK arepoliticalapfilledand removedat the directive current of pointments it is difficult ascertain to deadministrations, government tailed information about how many of these aims have been accomplishedto date. We have learnedthatKenya has joined UNESCO and intends to sign the UNESCO Convention(Abungu, withGiles personalcommunication and Udvardy, March 24, 2003), althoughwe have been unable to learnwithcertainty whether not Kenyahas or done so to date. Partof the difficulty obtaining in definitive responsesis turnover: Abunguwas removedby the former in Kenyangovernment fall of 2002, and no new

Ancestors Trade in African Giles,and Mitsanze * Transatlantic Udvardy, and no mentionis made of the Mijikendaprohibitionon vigangoremoval.16 * Trainmuseum and incorabouttheaboveissues guides narratives. suchissues into their porate * Throughthe NMK's Coastal ForestConservation education Unit,which alreadyconductslocal-level conissuesand othercultural about environmental and modules primary create servation issues, for simple aboutthe that educate schoolteachers youths secondary and the value of heritage importance theircultural heritage. objectssuchas vigangoadd to their * Convene awarein to localelders' groups order heighten the all nessamong Mijikenda regarding issueofvigango action and they maydeany theft facilitate coordinated This may include encouraging is termine necessary. eldersto meet local Gohu carversand important in authorities and othergovernment withmuseum orderto establishpolicy,make recommendations, a and to formulate plan ofaction. * Usepublicmedia,suchas radioand local theater, to and aboutvigango the inform publicat large creatively cultural other heritage. of aspects their

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and for Recommendations Museums Anthropologists in the West

thatcollectors to maybe unaware Responding suggestions of the prohibitionagainst removingvigango, one Mijikendaelderstated,"Boththe buyerand the thiefare at the thiefto steal the because the buyerencourages fault, with 5, kigango"(Kaya Fungo,respondent conversation Gilesand Mitsanze, 20, September 2001). The relationship of museum personnelto collectorsand dealers of nonwill intertwined art Western and artifacts remainsimilarly In this unlesschangesare implemented. researching case, in these contexts whichwe felt numerous we encountered bedfellows indeed. For exdisparatepartiesto be strange ample, we foundthat most museumpersonneland acaknowJohn demicswithwhomwe communicated well,are of aware of the scale of his marketing vigango,and, in and in withhim on exhibits some cases,have collaborated no to ourknowledge, one has attempted Yet, publications. to deterhim. We encounteredother troublingsituationsas well. of Forexample,althoughthe appraiser one of Katana'svihe, gango noted "signsof recentritualuse," neither nor about the recorded the receiving curator, any reservations the of circumstances collection.Similarly, essay on the collection speaks Museum African Hampton University withprideabout how the vigangoand otherKenyanartithe factscollectedby John demonstrate museum'sdual and use as well as aesof "investigating mission meaning and Hultgren value" (Zeidler thetic 1988:110). Yetthemuseum seemsunawareof the breachof indigenouscustom of constituted removal vigangoand by their appearance by museumcollection(cf.Steiner in a Western 1994:122). Fior nally, we question the scientific public educational

Museum'sacquisitionof 99 need forHamptonUniversity numberobtainedby the ISU muvigango.Even 38, the seum,seemsexcessive. 17 resome ofthe problematic These examplesillustrate and donors. of dealers, lationships museumsto collectors, the following To begin to remedy these,we recommend policies: * Museum shouldnotcollaboand personnel academics esart and rate with dealers collectors contributing by or by publishing in says to their publications if from latter, there the thatreceive funding journals is any riskthatby doing so, any of the following in mayensue: (1) an increase the lootingof theobjectsin question;(2) thattheymaylend the profesas and of status scholars thereby sionalism their public in enhancethe imageof thosewho traffic theseobon art/ar"experts" non-Western jectsas legitimate in or (3) an increase thevalue ofsuchobjects tifacts; on theglobalartmarket. * Museum or to own must enforce adhere their personnel more The codes ethics rigorously. UNESCO Convenof tion, and the codes of ethicsof the International Council of Museums(ICOM) and the International Council of African Museums (AFRICOM),all contain statements museumpersonnel be to requiring in and proactive exposingillicitly vigilant acquired donations. AssoSo, too, does the code of ethicsof the American ciation of Museums,which statesthat "the museumensures that acquisition,disposal, and loan activitiesare the protection conductedin a mannerthat respects and of and cultural resources discourand preservation natural Association (American ages illicittradein such materials" of Museums2000). Although U.S. curators well are many withJohnand, fromfirst-hand of acquainted knowledge how other African are looted,aretherefore surnot objects of theft vigango,we prisedto hear about the widespread have yetto encounter curators involvedin or able to cite efforts discourage to international tradein any proactive vigango. It is laudablethatsincethetimethatKatana'svigango wereaccessionedin the mid-1980s, policiessuch as NAGPRAin the UnitedStatesare beingtailoredto addressthe heriof human rights indigenousgroupsto theircultural must also be made morevigorousefforts tage. However, communitiesto concerningthe rightsof non-Western that cultural oftheir those tangible patrimonies have been whatis leftin to the West,and to protecting expropriated their local communities. as Therefore, perhapsusingNAGPRA a model,ICOM, an and the AAMmustdraft additional, AFRICOM, stronger to museumpersonnel thatspecifically statement requires for and other source donors acquipersons museum question and abouthow they of abouttheprovenance objects sitions should also spell wereoriginally acquired.This statement which kindsof provenanceare unacceptable, out clearly

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AmericanAnthropologist * Vol. 105, No. 3 * September2003 erode the popularity and prestige value of maincollections non-Western of taining private objects. To conveyinformation thesethreetopics,the followon venuesshouldbe used: ing * As didactic labelsdo in zoological theme parks, every museum labelshould include aboutthe culinformation turalcontext riskfrom and objects. theft particular of if 4), Similarly, an objectis used as a logo (See Figure it should be accompaniedby a shortdescription whichincludes suchinformation well. as * Special exhibits should designed inform public be to the abouttheabovethree topics. * Teaching modules beprepared classroom by can use for and secondary schoolteachers. These may inprimary cludetraveling information made available exhibits, fordownloadingfreeof chargethroughmuseum or volunteers who offer classroom websites, museum lectures. * Forcollege university especially large and in lecture use, in courses Anthropology Africa-related oron introductory more all concerning aspects theinternafilms topics, of in non-Western tionalillicit cultural objects trafficking be A notableexample should produced distributed. and is Walter Beek's Van video,"TheAfrican (1990), King" which successfully Dutch publicattention brought to and raisedawareness the concerning complicity of artcollectors dealersin thistrade(McIntosh and 1996). * Museums needtoplaceexhibits international in airports. This venue will capture attention the travelof the therecan educatenot only ing publicand exhibits about all threetopicsbut also about the value of art its tourist for local income-generating supporting the Such exhibits should also clarify dispotential. between for tinction localartcreated toursupporting authentic istsand purchasing thatshouldnot objects be disturbed. Association Finally, the AmericanAnthropological an can craft explicit as a collective (AAA) body policylendfor of ing its support the efforts such extantorganizations as ICOM, AFRICOM,and others.The role of anthropoloand is as advocates, gistsin theseefforts crucial, educators, The whistle-blowers. AAAas a collective body,and anthroin mustbe morevigorous voicing as pologists individuals, are and pursuingremedieswhen discoveries objections of made of the violationof the rights local communities. as We must actively assistlocal communities well as nato cultural tion-states document their property effectively, enact protective cases of culturalloss, measures,report and pursueclaimsforreturn. And we mustbecome more involvedin creating effective international laws and policies to stoptheloss ofcultural property.

and the specificrecoursetriggered each kind of reby sponse. * Museums must establish standards whatis considfor ered appropriate an number items all categories of for of educational display and objects necessary for purposes and should not supersede this number. Reasonable standards would not onlyeliminate such collection sizes as 99 vigango,but would also deterthe ease withwhichfirms, suchas thenow defunct IBM,can facilitate use ofAfrican the cultural as properties tax deductions thewealthy. for In additionto the above, a central partof any policy the loss of cultural should be to raise addressing heritage in awareness thegeneral The upsurge plunamong public. cultural and deringof non-Western properties the underin lyingignorance the West of the local impactseffected the and collecting such objectsreof through purchasing halfof the mindsus of similarattitudes, held in the first mam20th century, towardthe huntingof largeAfrican mals with riflesand the wearingof theirhides for the of In frivolous impetus fashion.18 thatexample,zoological wereable to combat personnel parksand naturalresource deleterious attitudes and practicesby educatingand inand the forming publicabout the endangerment environmental perils to animals wroughtby human activities. Consequently, today, the average Westerncitizen is at animal speciesexawarethatendangered least minimally to shootlargeAfriist.It is no longergenerally acceptable withanything moreinvasive thana camera, can mammals withimitation are fur. and mostfashion followers content and attiThe exampleof changingpublic perception Museum personnel tudes towardwildlifeis instructive. of similar efforts stopthetheft cultural to mustexert properties from non-Western the world.The following recomin mendations designedto beginto curbthe traffic viare to but we believe they have applicability other gango, of as forms cultural property well. These publiceducation on areas: efforts mustconcentrate at leastthree the 1. Educating publicaboutthevalueand meaning of intheir cultural context. raising awareobjects By public ness about the holisticcontextin which cultural objectsare createdand used, the publicwill come to appreciate integral the partplayedby objectsin other lifeways. 2. Educating publicaboutthevaluetoscholars obthe of related conveying cultural to the jectsin situ.Closely context objectsdescribed of above,thisknowledge also suppliesinformation about the methodsand techniquesused to researchculturesholistically, and the value to researchers keepingobjectsin of their placesoforigin. 3. Educating public the aboutthescaleoftheillicit traffic incultural and property thedevastating effects Westof to non-Western andartifacts "art" on desires collect ern will local communities. such knowledge Eventually,

Trade in African Ancestors Giles,and Mitsanze * Transatlantic Udvardy, CONCLUSION

The case of stolen vigango is representativeof the wholesale looting of non-Western cultural materials and it underscores the urgency for enhanced prevention efforts. Be secular objects, or ancient materials,we call they vigango, on museum personnel, interested scholars, and members of the AAA to be more proactive. Such efforts particuare larly urgent for the Mijikenda because vigango are especially inalienable. The current trade in them must be halted before more damage is done. Like so much cultural propertythat has already been disturbed, vigango should be left,as they were intended, forthe ancestors.
MONICA L. UDVARDY Department of Anthropology,Univer-

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sityof Kentucky, Lexington,KY 40506-0024 LINDA GILESIndependent scholar L. JOHN B. MITSANZE Coastal Forest Conservation Unit, National Museums of Kenya

NOTES
We the whogenerously shared Acknowledgments. thank Mijikenda information withus, MitsanzeMrambaforunflagging assistance, N. ThomasHakansson, and reviewKasfir, theanonymous Sidney ersofAmerican We to for Anthropologist. are grateful thefollowing theirassistance: LornaAbungu, GeorgeCrothers, Chap Kusimba, Wille Ostberg, Robert Tannenbaum, Andrew S. Paul Sinclair, M. and Susan Vogel.Monica Udvardy's 1984-86 fieldwork Udvardy, was sponsored theSwedish Research Councilin theHumanities by and Social Sciences, Swedish the and Studies Institute, theAfrican Richard activities were Wahlgren's Program, Uppsala University. in for this especially inspirational Udvardy preparing piece. 1. Portions this manuscript of were presented the 1999 and at 2001 African StudiesAssociationmeetings, the 2001 Triennial Art and Anon Symposium African (ACASA), at the2002 American Association We for (AAA)meetings. thanklisteners thropological in theirexcellentcomments and encouragement. Field research in was conducted 1982,1984-86,1993,and 2000-01. Kenya 2. Although called "Swahiliposts"in the vigangoare mistakenly article. should 3. Vigangoand otherkoma in the main kaya,however, attended the kayaelders.Sadly, when continueto be carefully by in Gilesand Mitsanze visited mainGiriama the kaya,KayaFungo, had been stolenfrom toldthemthatthevigango 2001,kayaelders thekayalongago. or 4. Thispointis often misunderstood, conveniently overlooked, and artscholars written commendealers, providing by collectors, aboutvigango. tary and 5. Facialfeatures, colorpatterns, the locationof unintended darkstreaks thewood. on 6. Approximately yearsold in 1985, Katana is now seventy-five shouldhave these deceased. his Nonetheless, descendents probably to the of vigangoreturned them.We have contacted curator colat and of ISU lections Hampton University, thedirector theformer was acquired, more for museumat the timethatKatana'skigango We for from information comment. are waiting information and about Katana'skithe former the latter and claimsno knowledge gango. the African collection 7. During fall, 2001,ISU relinquished entire to IllinoisStateMuseumin Springfield. in 8. IBM is no longer business. 9. Appraisals Alfred Inc., by Scheinberg, ofNewYorkCity. 10. Personalcommunication betweenLinda Giles and Barbara Blackmun (3/29/01),Ted Celenko (3/18/03),Melissa Falkner AnitaHeggli(12/5/00), Herold(3/6/03), (4/10/01), Joyce MaryLou

ManuelJordan Christine Kreamer (7/8/02), (3/28-30/01), Hultgren Maddox (3/27/01), CharlesMeyer(3/29/01), (12/03/01), Gregory RobinPoynor JohnNunley(4/11/01), (3/27/01), Allyson Purpura (3/16/01), ChristopherRoy (6/26/01), Anne-Louise Schaffer Kara Wil(8/13/01), Schneiderman (3/6/03), Sieber (11/18/00), Roy liam Siegmann Ulrich (2/19/02), (4/2/01), KyanThornton George and V. Also see Sieberand (3/30/01), Katherine Warren (3/6/03). Walker 1988:143. 11. A Locationis the second smallest administragovernmental tiveunit. 12. KayaFungo, areas.KateParGanze,andJilaremain hightheft sons also reports thatvigango"are stillstolenon demand"(Kate withGiles,July4, 2001). The Parsons, personalcommunication of is with collectors beproblem vigangotheft longstanding, early colonial government missionaries, administrators, ing Christian and researchers. Theftincreasedafterindependencewith the of The nature theviof growth thetourist industry. problematical which gangotradewas notedin a brief report SusanBeckerleg, by was reprinted a 1994ACASA in newsletter 41, December (no. 1994) and,morerecently, Wilsonand Omar(1996:236-237). by 13. Theydid, however, block his passageon the ferry, thus and mayhavebeenMijikenda policeofficers. 14. Fundingwas providedby the British OverseasDevelopment and UK. Nature, Authority theWorldWideFundfor 15. Gilesand Mitsanze have hoped to getCFCU moredirectly involvedwithvigangoprotection, the loss of CFCU's internabut tionalfunding makes thisunlikely thistime. at 16. In September 2001, Mitsanze of and Gilesmetwiththedirectorof Fort thatlabelswithsuch information Jesusand suggested shouldbe addedto theexhibit. 17. Roslyn Director theISU museum of whenthefirst two Walker, who laterbecameDirector theNaof vigangowereacquisitioned, tionalMuseumof African remarked, hearing on thatthe ISU Art, museum had acquired morevigango, 36 thatshe couldnotunderstandwhya museum wouldneed thatmany(Roslyn Walker, personalcommunication Giles,March8, 2003). with 18. Indeed,a recent New York Times article about an African art dealer him American "heportrayed as amongthelastofthegreat men" in themold of Ernest wildanimalsas Hemingway, hunting wellas African artifacts 2001:44). (Spindler

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