Topic

Numbers

1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. Teach students on how to use correct base numbers related vocabulary; Demonstrate the concept of standard form and base number like binary number system commonly used by digital devices such as computers and CD players; Develop the maths concept in base conversion with a manipulative move to the representational or semi-concrete stage by drawing the table; Provide guided practice before independent practice to help students understand what to do and comprehend the reasons for each step; and Develop a meaningful way for the students to remember the steps of the problem solving strategy. 3.

4.

5.

X INTRODUCTION

Binary Code

Binary Watch

Figure 1.1: Binary Code and Binary Watch

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Modern computers use transistors that represent two states with either high or low voltages. The smallest unit of memory for this binary state is called a bit. Bits are arranged in groups to aid in processing, and to make the binary numbers shorter and more manageable for humans. Switches, mimicked by their electronic successors built of vacuum tubes, have only two possible states: open and closed. Substituting open=1 and closed=0 (or the other way around) yields the entire set of binary digits. It is used to perform integer arithmetic in almost all digital computers; some exotic base-3 (ternary) and base10 computers have also been built, but those designs were discarded early in the history of computing hardware. This base-2 system (binary) is the basis for digital computers. Look at Figure 1.1 for an example of the binary system, which shows the binary code and binary watch. More recently these groups of bits, such as bytes and words, are sized in multiples of four. Thus base 16 (hexadecimal) is commonly used as shorthand. Base 8 (octal) has also been used for this purpose.

1.1

PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)

Why do we teach our students about bases other than the usual base-10? Base 2, 8 and 16 are used in computers, as we will explain. Also, working in other bases helps them understand the place-value and methods of arithmetic in base 10. Moreover, other bases give an introduction to the very important area of modular arithmetic, which is one of the most basic techniques used in applications of mathematics to things like encoding data, digital signal processing and other important processes. Computers represent all data (numbers, text, symbols, etc.) as binary symbols. These are written on paper as the digits 1 and 0, though they are stored in the computer as patterns of voltages (usually +5 volts for 1 and 0 volts for 0). Using just the digits 1 and 0, numbers of any size can be built up.

1.2

STANDARD FORM AND BASE NUMBER

This module helps you to identify important properties of number with an emphasis on standard form and base number that help build a firm foundation for your students to understand the number base conversion and significant figure. You are strongly encouraged to use any software like the number base converter to build their understanding of concepts.

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Teachers can begin a class by explaining the basic idea of base number, by using the best analogy of learning to count in base 10 the sort of thing you did when you were a little child. You will remember columns marked hundreds tens and units etc. like in Table 1.1 as follows:
Table 1.1: The Denary (Decimal) System Hundreds Tens Units 1 8 6 4 0 3 0 7 4 x 10 + 0 = 40 8 x 100 + 0 x 10 + 7 = 807 Result 1 x 100 + 6 x 10 + 3 = 163

In the binary counting system, we have the same idea, except this time the columns contain powers of 2 rather than powers of 10. Refer to Table 1.2 as follows.
Table 1.2: The Binary System 8s 4s 2s Units 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 Resulting number 8 x 1 + 4 x 0 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 0 = 10 8 x 1 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 1 = 13 2x1+1x0=2 4x1+2x1+1x1=7 8 x 1 + 4 x 1 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 15

I have stopped the columns at the 8s column, but there is no reason why you can't go as far as you like. The next column would be 16s, then 32s, etc. You can explain further to your students about standard form by using the definition as follows. Definition of Standard Form: Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily. The rules when writing a number in standard form is that first you write down a number between 1 and 10 and then you write 10 (to the power of a number). For example, 10 = 1000, so 4 10 = 4000. Hence 4,000 can be written as 4 10. This idea can be used to write even larger numbers down easily in standard form. Small numbers can also be written in standard form. However, instead of the index being positive (in the above example, the index was 3), it will be negative.

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Please emphasise to your students that we use standard form in a lot of different situations. For example, look at Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Standard Form used in Different Situations Example 1: An electron's mass is about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 910 938 22 kg. In scientific notation, this is written 9.109 382 210-31 kg. The Earth's mass is about 5,973,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg. In scientific notation, this is written 5.97361024 kg. The Earth's circumference is approximately 40,000,000m. In scientific notation, this is written 4107 m. In engineering notation, this is written 40106 m. In SI writing style, this may be written 40 Mm (40 megameters). An inch is 25,400 micrometers. In this example, it is not clear if the trailing zeros really are zero or whether the conversion has been approximated. Describing an inch as 2.5400 104 m unambiguously states that this conversion is correct to the nearest micrometer. An approximated value would be 2.54 104 m instead.

Example 2: Example 3:

Example 4:

Ask your students to take a look around them to see if they can find other examples where standard forms are used our daily life.

1.2.1
Numbers

Standard Form and Operation of Base-10

As you know, we write all numbers using only the digits 0, 1, , 9, by using places to give the same digit different values. For example, in 492, the 4 means 4 hundreds, the 9 means 9 tens and the 2 just means 2. But why ones, tens and hundreds? If you think of a number as currency, this is clear; suppose we only have one ringgit, ten ringgit, and hundred ringgit bills. Then you can have any amount of money from RM0 to RM999 with at most 9 of each type of bill. Once you have
10 or more you have 10 or more tens, you can change 10 of them in for a hundred. To keep this up, the next denomination you need would be 10 hundreds, or one thousand, and so on. So, getting back to numbers, you start with the one's place, up to 9, the tenth one you change to 1 in the ten's place. After a 9 in the ten's place, you go to 10 tens, 1010 = 100, after 9 100's you go to 10100 = 1000 and so on.

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1.2.2

Exponent and Mantissa Form

The other thing that I wanted to remind you about is when you learned scientific notation at school (also called Standard Form). This was written as follows: 3.611 x 1065 The decimal number at the front is called the mantissa and it always had to be between 1 and 10. The power is always a power of 10 and the power itself was called the exponent. In the example above, the mantissa is 3.611 and the exponent is 65. Numbers with a positive exponent were very big numbers. This following example shows a big number being converted to standard form: 7110 = 711 x 101 = 71.1 x 102 = 7.11 x 103

You can see that the number is continually divided by 10 until its mantissa is between 1 and 10. Numbers with a negative exponent are very small numbers (less than 1). This following example shows a small number being converted to standard form: 0.000053 = 0.00053 x 10-1 = 0.0053 x 10-2 = 0.053 x 10-3 = 0.53x 10-4 = 5.3 x 10-5 In this case, the mantissa has to be multiplied by 10 in order for it to be in the range 1 to 10, so the exponent has to be negative to compensate. 10-5 is equivalent to 0.00001, so 5.3 x 10-5 is the same as 5.3 x 0.00001 = 0.000053.

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Ask your students to practice all the questions in the examples as follows (Table 1.4).
Table 1.4: Examples Example 5: Solution: Write 81 900 000 000 000 in standard form: 81 900 000 000 000 = 8.19 1013 Its 1013 because the decimal point has been moved 13 places to the left to get the number 8.19

Example 6: Solution:

Write 0.000 001 2 in standard form: 0.000 001 2 = 1.2 10-6 Its 10-6 because the decimal point has been moved 6 places to the right to get the number 1.2

Note: On a calculator, you usually enter a number in standard form as follows: Type in the first number (the one between 1 and 10). Press EXP. Then, type in the power to which the 10 has risen.

1.2.3

Base-10 System (Powers of 10)

The Base (or Radix) is the number of digits in a number system. The base-10 system is another name for the decimal number system (denary) that we use every day. The decimal number system that we use every day has 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and so it is base-10. Binary digits can only be 0 or 1, so they are base 2. Base is also the number that is going to be raised to a power. Please refer to Figure 1.2 to look at the base and index or power.

Figure 1.2: Base and Index or Power

This means 10 10 (10 is used 2 times in the multiplication). The index of a number shows you how many times to use the number in a multiplication. Refer to Table 1.5.

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Table 1.5: How Many Times to Use the Number in a Multiplication Example 7: 103 = 10 10 10 = 1,000 In words: 103 could be called 10 to the third power, 10 to the power 3 or simply 10 cubed Example 8: 104 = 10 10 10 10 = 10,000 In words: 104 could be called 10 to the fourth power, 10 to the power 4 or simply 10 to the 4

Powers of 10 is a very useful way of writing down large numbers. Instead of having lots of zeros, you show how many powers of 10 you need to make that many zeros. Can you see that 104 is a handy way of making 4 zeros? We can see a similar example in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Example of Powers of 10

Example 9:

Scientists and engineers (who often use very big or very small numbers) find it very useful to write numbers this way, such as:
x x

9.46 x 1015 meters (the distance light travels in one year), or 1.9891 x 1030 kg (the mass of the Sun).

It saves them writing down lots of zeros. While at first it may look difficult, there is an easy trick you can share with your students: The index of 10 says how many places to move the decimal point to the right (Table 1.7).

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Table 1.7: Places to Move Decimal Point to the Right Example 10: What is 1.35 x 104? You can calculate it as: 1.35 x (10 x 10 x 10 x 10) = 1.35 x 10,000 = 13,500. But it is easier to think move the decimal point 4 places to the right like this: 1.35 13.5 135. 1350. 13500.

Ask students to notice that the number of zeros matches the index number, like this one in Table 1.8.
Table 1.8: The Number of Zeros Matches the Index Number 102 103 104 105 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

1.2.4

Negative Powers of 10

Negative? What could be the opposite of multiplying? Dividing! A negative power means how many times to divide by the number. Negatives just go the other way (Table 1.9).
Table 1.9: Negatives just go the other way Example 11: What is 7.1 x 10-3? Well, it is really 7.1 x (1/10 x 1/10 x 1/10) = 7.1 x 0.001 = 0.0071 But it is easier to think move the decimal point 3 places to the left like this: 7.1 0.71 0.071 0.0071

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1.2.5

Multiplication and Division

You should know that when numbers are multiplied together, it doesn't matter what order we do this. Since numbers in standard form involve powers of 10, when we have to multiply or divide them we can combine the powers together to make things easier. The use of standard form can make calculations so easy that a calculator is not needed. No, really! Let's look at some more examples in Table 1.10 as follows:
Table 1.10: Examples Example 12: Without the use of a calculator, work out the following, making sure the answer is in standard form: (a) (b) Solution: (a) (b) 2 x 106 x 3102 8 x 1060 x 2 x 1020 2 x106 x 3102 = 2 x 3 x 106 x 102 = 6 x 106+2 = 6 x 108 8 x 1060 x 2 x 1020 = (8 x 2) x 1060-20 = 4 x 1040

Notice that we just add the powers of 10 easy! When dividing, we subtract the second power. Ask your students to check the answers by using calculator.

1.2.6

Addition and Subtraction

Once the numbers have the same base and exponents, we can add or subtract their coefficients. Here are the steps to adding or subtracting numbers in scientific notation: (a) (b) Determine the number by which to increase the smaller exponent by so it is equal to the larger exponent; Increase the smaller exponent by this number and move the decimal point of the number with the smaller exponent to the left the same number of places. (i.e. divide by the appropriate power of 10.); Add or subtract the new coefficients; and If the answer is not in scientific notation (i.e. if the coefficient is not between 1 and 10) convert it to scientific notation. Please refer to Table 1.11.

(c) (d)

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Table 1.11: Addition and Subtraction Example 13: Solution: 2.456x 105 +6.0034 x108 =? 1. 2. 3. 4. 8 - 5 = 3. The smaller exponent must be increased by 3. 2.456x 105 = 0.002456x 108 0.002456x 108 +6.0034 x 108 = 6.005856x 108 6.005856 x108 is in scientific notation.

Thus, 2.456x 105 +6.0034x 108 = 6.005856x 108. Example 14: Solution: 5.10802103 -6.110-2 = ? 1. 2. 3. 4. 3 - (-2) = 5. The smaller exponent must be increased by 5. 6.1x 10-2 = 0.000061x 103 5.10802x 103 -0.000061x 103 = 5.107959x 103 5.107959103 is in scientific notation.

Thus, 5.10802103 -6.110-2 = 5.107959x 103.

1.3
Numbers

STANDARD FORM OF BASE-2 AND BASE-8

In the following sections, show your students the methods to identify the standard form of base 2 and base 8.

1.3.1

Base 2 (Binary)

A very similar format is used to represent floating point numbers in binary. In this case, the power is always a power of 2 (not 10) and the mantissa has to be divided or multiplied until it is in the range 1 to 2 (not 1 to 10). Refer to Table 1.12.
Table 1.12: Base 2 (Binary) Example 15: 1. 7.1 = 3.55 x 21 = 1.775 x 22 2. -0.0356 = -0.0712 x 2-1 = -0.1424 x 2-2 = -0.2848 x 2-3 = -0.5696 x 2-4 = -1.1392 x 2-5

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Youll notice that the second example is a negative number. Standard form numbers can be positive or negative just as any other numbers can.

1.3.2

Base 8 (Octal)

A base-8 system (octal) was devised by the Yuki of Northern California, who used the spaces between the fingers to count. An older computer base system is octal, or base eight. The digits in octal math are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The value eight is written as 1 eight and 0 ones, or 108. Refer to Table 1.13.
Table 1.13: Base 8 (Octal) Example 16: 1. 25 = 3.125 x 81 2. 250 = 31.25 x 81 = 3.90625 x 81 x 81 = 3.90625 x 82

You can also add, subtract, multiply and divide in base 2 as well as base 8. Can you apply the method used in decimal (as example 12 and 13) to solve problems encountered that involve the standard form of base 2 and base 8? Discuss with your students in class.

1.3.3

Conversion of Numbers from One Base to Another

Converting between different number bases is actually fairly simple, but the thinking behind it can seem a bit confusing at first. And while the topic of different bases may seem somewhat pointless to our students, the rise of computers and computer graphics has increased the need for knowledge of how to work with different (non-decimal) base systems, particularly binary systems (ones and zeroes) and hexadecimal systems (the numbers zero through nine, followed by the letters A through F). When writing binary numbers students will need to signify that the number is binary (base 2) for example take the value 101, as it is written it would be hard to work out whether it is a binary or decimal (denary) value. To get around this problem, it is common to denote the base to which the number belongs by writing the
base value with the number. For example:

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1012 is a binary number and 10110 is a decimal (denary) value. Once we know the base, then it is easy to work out the value. For instance: 1012 = 10110 = 122 + 021 + 120 = 5 (Five) 1102 + 0101 + 1100 = 101 (One hundred and one)

1.3.4

Converting Binary to Decimal

To convert binary into decimal is very simple and can be done as shown in Table 1.14 as follows. Say we want to convert the 8 bit value 10011101 into a decimal value, we can use a formula like in the following Figure 1.3: 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Figure 1.3: Convert the 8 bit value 10011101 into a decimal value

As you can see, we have placed the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 (powers of two) in reverse numerical order and then written the binary value below. To convert you simply take a value from the top row wherever there is a 1 below and add the values together, for instance in our example we would have 128 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 157. For a 16 bit value, you would use the decimal values: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, 8192, 16384, 32768 (Powers of two) for the conversion. Because we know binary is base 2 then the previous could be written as: 127 + 026 + 025 + 124 + 123 + 122 + 021 + 120 = 157

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Table 1.14: The Conversion Table for Decimal and Binary System binary (base 2) 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 10000 decimal (base 10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 ones 1 one 1 two and zero ones 1 two and 1 one 1 four, 0 twos, and 0 ones 1 four, 0 twos, and 1 one 1 four, 1 two, and 0 ones 1 four, 1 two, and 1 one 1 eight, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 0 ones 1 eight, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 1 one 1 eight, 0 fours, 1 two, and 0 ones 1 eight, 0 fours, 1 two, and 1 one 1 eight, 1 four, 0 twos, and 0 ones 1 eight, 1 four, 0 twos, and 1 one 1 eight, 1 four, 1 two, and 0 ones 1 eight, 1 four, 1 two, and 1 one 1 sixteen, 0 eights, 0 fours, 0 twos, and 0 ones

Converting between binary and decimal numbers is fairly simple, as long as your students remember that each digit in the binary number represents a power of two. Look at Table 1.15.
Table 1.15: Converting between binary and decimal numbers Example 17: Solution: Convert 1011001012 to the corresponding base-10 number. I will list the digits in order, and count them off from the RIGHT, starting with zero: digits: numbering: 101100101 876543210

The first row above (labelled digits) contains the digits from the binary number; the second row (labelled numbering) contains the power of 2 (the base) corresponding to each digits. I will use this listing to convert each digit to the power of 2 that it represents:

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128 + 027 + 126 + 125 + 024 + 023 + 122 + 021 + 120 = 1256 + 0128 + 164 + 132 + 016 + 08 + 14 + 02 + 11 = 256 + 64 + 32 + 4 + 1 = 357 Then 1011001012 = 35710.

1.3.5

Converting Decimal to Binary

To convert decimal to binary is also very simple. Just inform your students to simply divide the decimal value by 2 and then write down the remainder (as in Table 1.16). Repeat this process until you cannot divide by 2 anymore, for example let's take the decimal value 157:
Table 1.16: Converting Decimal to Binary 157 y 2 = 78 78 y 2 = 39 39 y 2 = 19 19 y 2 = 9 9 y 2 = 4 4 y 2 = 2 2 y 2=1 1 y 2=0 with a remainder of 1 with a remainder of 0 with a remainder of 1 with a remainder of 1 with a remainder of 1 with a remainder of 0 with a remainder of 0 with a remainder of 1

<--- to convert write this remainder first.

Next, write down the value of the remainders from bottom to top (in other words, write down the bottom remainder first and work your way up the list) which gives: 15710 = 100111012

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1.3.6

Converting Octal (Base 8) to Decimal

Table 1.17 below summarises how to convert octal (base 8) to decimal.

Table 1.17: Converting Octal (Base 8) to Decimal Example 18: Solution: Convert 5458 to the corresponding decimal number. I will follow the usual procedure, counting off the digits from the RIGHT, starting at zero: digits: numbering: 545 210 Then I'll do the addition and multiplication: 582 + 481 + 580 = 564 + 48 + 51 = 320 + 32 + 5 = 357

Then the corresponding decimal number is 35710.

1.3.7

Converting Decimal to Octal (Base 8)

Table 1.18 below summarises how to convert decimal to octal (base 8).
Table 1.18: Converting Decimal to Octal (Base 8) Example 19: Solution: Convert 35710 to the corresponding base 8 number. I will do the usual repeated division, this time dividing by 8 at each step: Remainder 5 4 5

357 y 8 = 44 44 y 8 = 5 5 y 8 = 0

<--- to convert write this remainder first.

Then the corresponding octal number is 5458.

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1.3.8

Converting Octal (Base 8) to Binary

Table 1.19 below shows the conversion for octal and binary system.
Table 1.19: The Conversion Table for Octal and Binary System Base 8 Base 2 0 000 1 001 2 010 3 011 4 100 5 101 6 110 7 111

Each base-8 digit corresponds to a block of three base-2 digits (because the 8s place is in the second place in base 8, but is the fourth place in base 2). Refer to Table 1.20.
Table 1.20: Each base-8 digit corresponds to a block of three base-2 digits Example 20: Solution: Base 8 Base 2 5 101 2 010 7 111 Convert 5278 to the corresponding base-2 number.

Then the corresponding binary number is 1010101112.

1.3.9

Converting Binary to Octal (Base Eight)

To go from base 2 to base 8, ask your students to break up the base 2 number in blocks of three (starting at the right, and adding 0s on the left if necessary) and convert in the other direction (Table 1.21):
Table 1.21: Converting Binary to Octal (Base 8) Example 21: Solution: Convert 111001011112 to the corresponding base-8 number. 111001011112 = [011][100][101][111]2 Base 2 Base 8 011 3 100 4 101 5 111 7

Then the corresponding octal number is 34578.

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Point to Ponder: (a) You can do the same converting between base 4 and base 2. Since 4 = 22, we use blocks of two: 111001011112 = [01][11][00][10][11][11]2 = 1302334 (b) If you want to convert between base 4 and base 8, this simple trick doesn't work because for example there is no eights place in base 4. One way to do it is to go via base 2. Give an example and ask your students to solve the problem.

1.4

SIGNIFICANT FIGURE

Please remind your students of the importance to be honest when reporting a measurement, so that it does not appear to be more accurate than the equipment used to make the measurement allows. We can achieve this by controlling the number of digits, or significant figures, used to report the measurement.

1.4.1

Determining the Number of Significant Figures

The number of significant figures in a measurement, such as 2.531, is equal to the number of digits that are known with some degree of confidence (2, 5, and 3) plus the last digit (1), which is an estimate or approximation. As we improve the sensitivity of the equipment used to make a measurement, the number of significant figures increases. Refer to Table 1.22.
Table 1.22: Sample of Related Significant Figures Postage Scale Two-pan balance Analytical balance 3 1 g 2.53 0.01 g 2.531 0.001 g 1 significant figure 3 significant figures 4 significant figures

Point out to your students about the rules for counting significant figures: (a) (b) (c) Zeros within a number are always significant. Both 4308 and 40.05 contain four significant figures. Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point are not significant. Thus, 470,000 have two significant figures. Trailing zeros that aren't needed to hold the decimal point are significant. For example, 4.00 have three significant figures.

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If you are not sure whether a digit is significant, assume that it isn't. For example, if the directions for an experiment read: Add the sample to 400ml of water, assume the volume of water is known to one significant figure.

1.5

ROUNDING NUMBERS

When we carry out calculations, we often get the result as a number with many digits. We usually do not need them all. Sometimes we report to the nearest whole number. For example, 53.2 to the nearest whole number is 53. This is rounding to no decimal places, if you like. We round up or down just as we did for any other number of decimal places. If the first figure after the decimal point is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 we round down, if the first figure after the decimal point is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 we round up. Hence 53.2 to the nearest whole number is 53. We round down because the first digit to be cut off is 2. On the other hand, 53.6 to the nearest whole number is 54. We round up because the first digit to be cut off is 6. When your students have to round a number, they are usually told how to round it. It's simplest when they're told how many places to round to, but they should also know how to round to a named place, such as to the nearest thousand or to the ten-thousandths place. You may also need to teach them how to round to a certain number of significant digits. In general, students round to a given place by looking at the digit one place to the right of the target place. If the digit is a five or greater, they round the target digit up by one. Otherwise, they have to leave the target as it is. Then they have to replace any digits to the right with zeroes (if its to the left of the decimal point) or else they delete the digits (if its past the decimal point). I'll use the first few digits of the decimal expansion of pi : 3.14159265... in the examples in Table 1.23.

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Table 1.23: Examples

Example 22: Solution:

Round pi to five places. To five places means to five decimal places. First, I count out the five decimal places, and then I look at the sixth place: 3.14159 | 265... I've drawn a little line separating the fifth place from the sixth place. This can be a handy way of keeping your place, especially if you are dealing with lots of digits. The fifth place has a 9 in it. Looking at the sixth place, I see that it has a 2 in it. Since 2 is less than five, I won't round the 9 up; that is, I'll leave the 9 as it is. In addition, I will delete the digits after the 9. Then pi, rounded to five places, is: 3.14159 Round pi to four places. First, I go back to the original number (not the one I just rounded in the previous example). I count off four places, and look at the number in the fifth place: 3.1415 | 9265... The number in the fifth place is a 9, which is greater than 5, so I'll round up in the fourth place, truncating the expansion at four decimal places. That is, the 5 becomes a 6, the 9265... part disappears, and pi, rounded to four decimal places, is: 3.1416 Round pi to three places. First, I go back to the original number (not the one I just rounded in the previous example). I count off three decimal places, and look at the digit in the fourth place: 3.141 | 59265... The number in the fourth place is a 5, which is the cut-off for rounding: if the number in the next place (after the one you're rounding to) is 5 or greater, you round up. In this case, the 1 becomes a 2, the 59265... part disappears, and pi, rounded to three decimal places, is: 3.142

Example 23: Solution:

Example 24: Solution:

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Below are some concepts and skills for in-class activity. Please encourage your students to involve in a small group discussion. (a) The first significant figure of a number is the first digit which is not zero. Hence the first significant figure of 20,499 is 2 and the first significant figure of 0.0020499 is 2. The second significant figure of a number is the digit after the first significant figure. This is true even if the digit is zero. Hence the second significant figure of 20,499 is 0, as is the second significant figure of 0.0020499. The third significant figure of a number is the digit after the second significant figure. This is true even if the digit is zero, and so on. Hence the third significant figure of 20,499 is 4 and the fourth is 9, as are the third and fourth significant figures of 0.0020499. 20,499 to three significant figures is 20,500. We round up because the first figure we cut off is 9. 0.0020499 to three significant figures is 0.00205. We do not put any extra zeros in to the right after the decimal point. This is because we do not need them to hold the correct place value for the significant digits. If the last significant digit of a number is 0, we include this. For example, 0.0020499 to two significant figures is 0.0020. The first significant digit is 2 and the second significant digit is 0. The next digit is 4, so we round down.

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

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ACTIVITY 1.1
(a) Convert 9710 to a binary number by using the table as follows: Decimal Number = 97 Division Quotient Remainder Direction Expression 97/2 48/2 24/2 12/2 6/2 3/2 1/2 Binary Number =

(b)

Now, ask your students to convert some decimal to binary for each number below.

1. 4.
(c) (d) (e)

59 112

2. 5.

72 196

3. 6.

92 272

What is 23,432 to the nearest thousand? What is 47.743 to the nearest whole number? Give the following numbers to three significant figures:

1. 3. 5. 7.

654.389 654, 389 0.03542210 45.989

2. 4. 6. 8.

65.4389 56.7688 0.0041032 2, 317, 995

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1.6

EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

In order to teach the topic effectively, you will have to know some historical and learning aspects about logarithms.
Logarithms were invented independently by John Napier, a Scotsman, and by Joost Burgi, a Swiss. Napier's logarithms were published in 1614; Burgi's logarithms were published in 1620. The objective of both men was to simplify mathematical calculations. This approach originally arose out of a desire to simplify multiplication and division to the level of addition and subtraction. Of course, in this era of the cheap hand calculator, this is not necessary anymore but it still serves as a useful way to introduce logarithms. Napier's approach was algebraic and Burgi's approach was geometric. The invention of the common system of logarithms is due to the combined effort of Napier and Henry Biggs in 1624. Natural logarithms first arose as more or less accidental variations of Napier's original logarithms. Their real significance was not recognised until later. The earliest natural logarithms occured in 1618. (Source: http://www.westcler.org/gh/outtda/pdf_files/History_of_Logarithms.pdf)

There are many things that grow exponentially, for example population, compound interest and charge in a capacitor. The special thing about exponential growth is that the rate of growth increases as time increases. You can see this in the graph at right. The curve gets steeper and steeper as time goes on. We can also have exponential decay (for example, radioactive decay). Ask your students to sketch the graph for radioactive decay. Refer to Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Exponential Growth

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The use of logarithms made trigonometry and many other fields of mathematics much simpler to calculate. When calculus was developed later in the century, logarithms became central to many solutions. Today, logarithms are still important in many fields of science and engineering, even though we use calculators for most simple calculations. Refer to Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions are Inverses

1.6.1
(a)

Use the Laws of Exponents and Logarithms

Laws of Exponents Exponents are shorthand for multiplication: (5)(5) = 52, (5)(5)(5) = 53. The exponent stands for however many times the thing is being multiplied. The thing that's being multiplied is called the base. This process of using exponents is called raising to a power, where the exponent is the power. 53 is five, raised to the third power. When we deal with numbers, we usually just simplify; wed rather deal with 27 than with 33. But with variables, we need the exponents, because we'd rather deal with a6 than with aaaaaa. There are a few rules that simplify our dealings with exponents. Given the same base, there are ways that we can simplify various expressions. (i) Whenever you multiply two terms with the same base, you can add the exponents as follows:

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( a m ) ( a n ) = a( m + n )

Example 25: Solution:

Simplify (a3)(a4) Think in terms of what the exponents mean: (a3)(a4) = (aaa)(aaaa) = aaaaaaa = a7 which also equals a(3+4).

Note that we cannot simplify (x4)(y3), because the bases are different: (x4)(y3) = xxxxyyy = (x4)(y3). Nothing combines. (ii) Whenever you have an exponent expression that is raised to a power, you can multiply the exponent and power as follows: ( am ) n = a m n

Example 26: Solution:

Simplify (a2)4 Again, think in terms of what the exponents mean: (a2)4 = (a2)(a2)(a2)(a2) = (aa)(aa)(aa)(aa) = aaaaaaaa = a8 which also equals a( 24 ).

(iii)

Whenever you divide two terms with the same base, you can subtract the exponents as follows:
Example 27: Solution: Simplify (a6) (a2) (a6) (a2) = (aaaaaa) (aa) = aaaa = a4 which also equals a6-2.

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(iv) If you have a product inside parentheses and a power on the parentheses, then the power goes on each element inside as follows:
( a/b )m = (a m)/(bm) and ( ab )m = (a)m(b)m

Example 28:

(a/b)3 = (a3)/(b3). Another example would be (ab2)3 = (ab2)(ab2)(ab2) = (aaa)(b2b2b2) = (aaa)(bbbbbb) = a3b6 = (a)3(b2)3.

Please remind your students that: This rule does NOT work if you have a sum or difference within the parentheses. Exponents, unlike multiplication, do NOT distribute over addition. For instance, given (3 + 4)2, you should NOT succumb to the temptation to say This equals 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25, because this is wrong. Actually, (3 + 4)2 = (7)2 = 49, not 25. When in doubt, write out the expression according to the definition of the power. Given (x 2)2, don't try to do this in your head. Instead, write it out: squared means times itself, so (x 2)2 = (x 2)(x 2) = xx 2x 2x + 4 = x2 4x + 4. The mistake of erroneously trying to distribute the exponent is most often made when the student is trying to do everything in his head, instead of showing his work. Ask them to do things neatly, and they won't be as likely to make this mistake. (v) Anything to the power zero is just 1, as follows: a 0 = 1 , a is not equal to 0. (b) Laws of Logarithms You students have learned various rules for manipulating and simplifying expressions with exponents, such as the rule that says that a3 a5 equals a8 because they can add the exponents. There are similar rules for logarithms. (i) (ii) logb xy = logb x + logb y logb (x/y) = logb x logb y

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(iii) logb (xn) = n logb x (iv) (v) logb (b) = 1 logb (1) = 0

Note: On our calculators, log (without any base) is taken to mean log base 10. So, for example log 7 means log107. Point out to your students that just as when they're dealing with exponents, the mentioned rules work only if the bases are the same. For instance, the expression logd(m) + logb(n) cannot be simplified, because the bases (the d and the b) are not the same, just as x2 y3 cannot be simplified (because the bases x and y are not the same). Refer to Table 1.24.
Table 1.24: Examples of Laws of Logarithms Example 29: Solution: Expand log 7x as the sum of 2 logarithms. Using the first law given above, our answer is log 7x = log 7 + log x Note: This has the same meaning as 107 10x = 107+ x Example 30: Using your calculator, show that log (20/5) = log 20 log 5. Solution: I am using numbers this time so you can convince yourself that the log law works. LHS = log (20/5) = log 4 = 0.60206 (using calculator) Now RHS = log 20 log 5 = 1.30103 0.69897 (using calculator) = 0.60206 = LHS

You can ask students to work out the logarithms laws for (3) to (5) by comparing the results from their calculators.

1.6.2

Usage of Logarithm Table

Ask your students to explore how logarithm can help them in their daily lives. Discuss with them the usage of logarithm table as follows:

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(a)

Natural Logarithm When using the component of the capacitor and so on with the electronic circuits, the logarithm must be computed to look for the electric current which flows through the circuit. The logarithm computation can be computed with the function computer but I show the tables of logarithm in this page. The formula is shown below and it looks for the X. e is the base of the natural logarithm and the value is 2.71828. n = ex It becomes the following when changing into the formula which looks for the X. x = logen So as not to confuse with the common logarithm (log10 or it is simply expressed with log), loge is sometimes expressed with the ln. x = ln n In case of n = 1, it becomes x=0 and when the n is less than 1, x becomes the negative value. When the n is less than 1, it becomes the same as the one to have made x which is due to the value of 1/n negative. Table 1.25 shows the natural logarithm table. Table 1.25: The Natural Logarithm Table ( 1.0)
n logen n logen n logen n logen

0.01 -4.60517 0.02 -3.91202 0.03 -3.50655 0.04 -3.21887 0.05 -2.99573 0.06 -2.81341 0.07 -2.65926 0.08 -2.52573 0.09 -2.40794 0.10 -2.30258

0.26 -1.34707 0.27 -1.30933 0.28 -1.27296 0.29 -1.23788 0.30 -1.20397 0.31 -1.17118 0.32 -1.13943 0.33 -1.10866 0.34 -1.07881 0.35 -1.04982

0.51 -0.67334 0.52 -0.65392 0.53 -0.63488 0.54 -0.61618 0.55 -0.59783 0.56 -0.57982 0.57 -0.56212 0.58 -0.54472 0.59 -0.52763 0.60 -0.51082

0.76 -0.27443 0.77 -0.26136 0.78 -0.24846 0.79 -0.23572 0.80 -0.22314 0.81 -0.21072 0.82 -0.19845 0.83 -0.18633 0.84 -0.17435 0.85 -0.16252

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(b)

Common Logarithm At the electronic circuits, the common logarithm (the logarithm having base 10) is used for the thing except above-mentioned natural logarithm. n = 10x ?x = log10n This value is used when it expresses the mu factor and so on and compares the two values. The common logarithm is used for the dB (decibel). The noise to the electric signal sometimes shows the 1/1000 or 1/10000 values and so on. It shows in the dB because the number of the figures increases when displaying just as it is. In case of the voltage ratio: dB = 20 log10 (V1/V2). In case of the electric power ratio: dB = 10 log10 (P1/P2). It represents as -60 dB in case of V1=0.001 V, V2=1 V. When the voltage ratio is twice, it is 6dB. When the electric power ratio is twice, it is 3dB. Table 1.26 shows the common logarithm table.
Table 1.26: The Common Logarithm Table n log10n n log10n n log10n n log10n

0.0001 -4.00000 0.001 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 -3.00000 -2.00000 -1.69897 -1.52287 -1.39794 -1.30103

1.0 0.00000 1.1 0.04139 1.2 0.07918 1.3 0.11394 1.4 0.14612 1.5 0.17609 1.6 0.20412

3.0 0.47712 3.1 0.49136 3.2 0.50515 3.3 0.51851 3.4 0.53148 3.5 0.54406 3.6 0.55630

5.0 0.69897 5.1 0.70757 5.2 0.71600 5.3 0.72427 5.4 0.73239 5.5 0.74036 5.6 0.74819

1.6.3

Understanding the Relationship between Logarithms and Exponents

Begin teaching your students by asking them a simple question likes below: How many of one number do we multiply to get another number? Look at the following example.

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Example 31: Solution:

How many 2s need to be multiplied to get 8? 2 x 2 x 2 = 8, so we needed to multiply 3 of the 2s to get 8. So the logarithm is 3.

(a)

Notice we are dealing with three numbers: (i) (ii) The number we are multiplying (a 2) How many times to use it in a multiplication (3 times)

(iii) The number we want to get (an 8) (b) How to Write it We would write the number of 2s you need to multiply to get 8 is 3 as log2(8) = 3. So these two things are the same: logarithm concept. (c) The Base The number we are multiplying is called the base, so we would say: (i) (ii) the logarithm of 8 with base 2 is 3 or log base 2 of 8 is 3

(iii) or the base-2 log of 8 is 3 Ask your students to practice all the questions in the examples in Table 1.27. After giving them some time, discuss with them the solutions.
Table 1.27: Example of the base Example 32: Solution: What is log5 (625)? We are asking how many 5s need to be multiplied together to get 625? 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 = 625, so we need 4 of the 5s ? log5 (625) = 4

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Example 33: Solution:

What is log2 (64)? We are asking how many 2s need to be multiplied together to get 64? 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64, so we need 6 of the 2s ? log2 (64) = 6

Logarithms are the opposite of exponentials, just as subtraction is the opposite of addition and division is the opposite of multiplication. Logs undo exponentials. Technically speaking, logs are the inverses of exponentials. In practical terms, I have found it useful to think of logs in terms of The Relationship (Figure 1.6):

The Relationship
y = bx
..............is equivalent to............... (means the exact same thing as) Figure 1.6: The Relationship logb(y) = x

On the left-hand side above is the exponential statement y = bx. On the righthand side above, logb(y) = x is the equivalent logarithmic statement, which is pronounced log-base-b of y equals x. The value of the subscripted b is the base of the logarithm, just as b is the base in the exponential expression bx. And, just as the base b in an exponential is always positive and not equal to 1, so also the base b for a logarithm is always positive and not equal to 1. Whatever is inside the logarithm is called the argument of the log. Note that the base in both the exponential equation and the log equation (above) is b, but that the x and y switch sides when you switch between the two equations. If your students can remember this relationship (that whatever had been the argument of the log becomes the equal and whatever had been the equal becomes the exponent in the exponential, and vice versa), then they shouldn't have too much trouble with logarithms.

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Let's look at some more examples in Table 1.28.

Table 1.28: Examples Example 34: Solution: Convert 63 = 216 to the equivalent logarithmic expression. To convert, the base (that is, the 6) remains the same, but the 3 and the 216 switch sides. This gives me: log6(216) = 3 Example 35: Solution: Convert log4 (1024) = 5 to the equivalent exponential expression. To convert, the base (that is, the 4) remains the same, but the 1024 and the 5 switch sides. This gives me: 45 = 1024 Example 36: Solution: Simplify log2 (8). This log is equal to some number, which I'll call y. This naming gives me the equation log2 (8) = y. Then the Relationship says: 2 y = 8 That is, log2 (8), also known as y, is the power that, when put on 2, will turn 2 into 8. The power that does this is 3: ?23 = 8 Since 2 y = 8 = 23, then it must be true that y = 3, and I get: log2(8) = 3 Example 37: Solution: Simplify log5 (25). The Relationship says that, since log5 (25) = y, then 5 y = 25. This means that the given log log5 (25) is equal to the power y that, when put on 5, turns 5 into 25. The required power is 2, because 52 = 25. Then 52 = 5 y = 25, so: log5 (25) = 2

SELF-CHECK 1.1
One of your student used calculator directly to solve log23. What is your comment?

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ACTIVITY 1.2
(a) Expand 1. 2. (b) log4( 16/x ) log5(x3)

Simplify 1. 4. log64(4) log4( 16) 2. 5. log6(6) log2(0) 3. 6. log3(1) logb(b3)

(c) (d) (e) (f)

If log (log x) = 1. What number is x? Given that log 3 = 0.4771. Evaluate log 3000 Find log 0.003. Given: log 6 = 0.7781. Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate the following. 1. log 600 2. log 60 3. log 0.6

(g) (h)

Given: log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771. Evaluate log 18. Given: log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 =0.4771 and log 5 = 0.6990. Use the laws of logarithms to find the following. 1. 4. 7. log 6 log 8 log 3000 2. 5. 8. log 15 log 30 log 12 3. 6. 9. log 4 log 300 log

(i) (j)

Solve for y in terms of x: log2x + log2y = 1. Chemists define the acidity or alkalinity of a substance according to the formula pH = log[H+]" where [H+] is the hydrogen ion concentration, measured in moles per liter. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic; solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic; solutions with a pH of 7 (such as pure water) are neutral. Suppose that you test apple juice and find that hydrogen ion concentration is [H+] = 0.0003. Find the pH ang determine whether the juice is basic or acidic. Discuss with your partner other activities that you can use for teaching exponents and logarithms.

(k)

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x x x x x x

The decimal number system (denary) that we use every day has 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and so it is base-10. A single binary digit (like 0 or 1) is called a bit. The word bit is made up from the words binary digit The word binary comes from Bi- meaning two. We see bi- in words such as bicycle (two wheels) or binocular (two eyes). The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication. The Relationship: logb(x) = y means the same thing as b y = x. Logarithms are really exponents (powers); they're just written differently.

Base-10 System Base-2 System Base-8 System Binary Binary Digits Bit Conversion Decimal Denary Division Exponent Hexadecimal System

Index Logarithm Multiplication Negative Exponent Octal Positive Exponent Power Round Down Round Up Rounding Numbers Significant Figure Standard Form

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Douglas, K.B. (2001). Teaching secondary mathematics (3rd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Michael, S. (2007). College algebra. Pearson. Ravichandran, D. (2007). Introduction to computers and communication. Tata Mcgraw Hill. Richard, J. (2000). Discrete mathematics (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. Ruud, W., & Shell, T. (2005). College algebra. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing.