Everglades Ecology Nicole Chammings

The Everglades, often called the River of Grass, is a subtropical wetland on the tip of South Florida. The Everglades is the largest wetland in the United States, at roughly 6200 square kilometers. Fresh water in this region comes primarily from Lake Okeechobee, located just north of the Everglades. The lake is fed by the Kissimmee River, near Orlando, in Central Florida. When Lake Okeechobee overflows, it drains into the swamp region of the Everglades. Along the coastlines, the fresh water environment merges with the marine, therefore providing for a very high biodiversity in the region. Humans have drained the area in the past, but much of the Everglades are now federally protected, as the Everglades National Park. A major catalyst for the creation of Everglades National Park was the rapid decline of bird species in the area. Around the turn of the 20th century, the rapid alteration of the South Florida environment began to ruin the homes of many of these birds. Through conservation efforts and the creation of the national park, the Everglades are now a popular bird watching destination. Efforts have been made to conserve other species of wildlife, such as regulations and limitations on both recreational and commercial fishing in the area. Everglades National Park was also the first park to conduct a prescribed burning of parts of the environment, as a means of ecological control and removing some invasive species. This first prescribed burn took place on April 21, 1958. The success of this burn has led to many more efforts to preserve endemic species throughout the parks system in the United States. The Everglades were once dominated by sawgrass marshes. These are areas dominated primarily by sawgrass, with little other vegetation present. Sawgrass, Cladium, is a genus of large sedges. The sawgrass most evident in the Everglades is 2

Cladium jamaicense. These sawgrass marshes are dense, with plants up to nine feet tall. The marshes are denser in areas with a longer hydroperiod. Sawgrass grows in deep peat soil, and provides a habitat for animals such as alligators. While the sawgrass marshes once dominated the Everglades, they are now on the decline as many of them have been converted to agricultural land. An ecosystem still supporting many native species is the pineland. The dominant species in this ecosystem is the South Florida Slash Pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa). There are around twenty types of plant species in this area including two species of palmettos. These are the saw palmetto, Serenoa repens (Figure 1) and the cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto. Figure 1. Saw palmetto Serenoa repens.

The species native to the pineland, however, are easily competed by any invasive vegetation, including plants from other Everglades ecosystems. Plants from the hardwook hammocks, for example, are frequent invaders of the pinelands. To control for this and remove the invasive species, there are frequent natural fires in the pinelands. Pineland species are adapted to resist the destruction of these fires, but the invasive species are quickly swept out and some of the openness of the pineland is restored with each fire. Many of the species that invade the pineland come from the hardwood hammock ecosystem of the Everglades. Hardwood hammocks are fond in areas with elevation high enough to avoid seasonal flooding. The soil in these areas are shallow and build slowly. Unlike the pinelands, fire is a rare occurrence in the hardwood hammocks. The environment is too cool and moist in these environments to support fire. However, when fires do occur is it devastating. The thin layer of soil is burned, damaging tree roots and eliminating nutrient stores. Sink holes occur in the limestone bedrock after the soil is burned away. This area supports many different types of tropical plant species. None of these species are able to grow very tall, as they are almost constantly damaged by storms, hurricanes, and colder temperatures. The tree species that grow in the hardwood hammocks include southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), West Indian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), Florida royal palm (Roystonea regia), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), and strangler fig (Ficus aurea). These trees provide abundant shade, and therefore there is not much understory in the central areas of the hardwood hammocks. There are, however, bromeliads (genus Bromeliaceae), ferns (Pteridophyta) and orchids 4

(genus Orchidaceae), growing on the limbs and trunks of these trees. Around the edges of the hardwood hammock, where there is less shade because the trees are less dense, there are smaller understory species. These include saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum), and other shrubs and vines. These hardwood hammock environments create a cool, moist habitat for ferns, mosses and fungi. The marsh ecosystem of the Everglades with the shortest hydroperiod is the marl prairie. Marl prairies are places with very thin, calcitic soil on top of limestone bedrock. Because of this thin soil and limestone base, there are many solution pits, formed when the limestone is dissolved. The result is a hole filled with water. These holes are essential in providing habitats for aquatic species during dry periods in other parts of the Everglades. These aquatic species, in turn, are then food for wading birds during these dry periods. Marl prairies feature other formations such as pinnacle rocks and other projections of exposed limestone. While marl prairies are the driest of the marsh environments, sloughs have a hydroperiod almost a full year. The hydroperiod in a slough is eleven months, and they are the deepest of the Everglades ecosystems. They are found in the primary areas of water flow throughout the Everglades. The water in these areas can reach depths of up to three feet, and has an annual average of around one foot. Beneath the water is peat soil, which is able to support many different aquatic plants, both floating and submerged. These include spatterdock (Nuphar lutea), maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) and bladderworts (genus Utricularia), which are carnivorous plants (Figure 2). Along with these plant species, there are many fish and invertebrates found in the 5

water flow. There are often tree islands throughout the slough, where the ground is high enough to avoid all flooding.

Figure 2. Bladderwort flower with insect prey.

The edges of the Everglades, along the coast of Southern Florida, are often damaged by hurricanes. The environment left behind by this damage is the coastal prairie environment. Hurricanes often blow trees down and cover coastal areas with salty, silty soil left by the ocean. This buildup of soil results in an area of slightly higher elevation with salty, dry soil. Few trees are able to live in this area. Over time, some plants such as buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) and orchids (genus Orchidaceae), as some short herbs like pickerelweeds (genus Pontederia), are eventually able to move

back into the area. These low plants provide cover for small mammals, but not much else is able to live in the coastal prairie areas. The southern and western coasts of the Everglades are entirely made up of mangrove swamps. Mangroves are trees that are adapted to growing in salt water. They are able to withstand tidal changes and moving water. These mangrove trees protect the land from hurricanes and rising water. They provide a very supportive environment for a wide variety of fish and invertebrates. The mangroves include red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) on the outermost edges of the Everglades, black mangroves (Avicennia germinans) further in, and white mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) on the interior of the mangrove swamps. There are many different species of animals that make their homes in the Everglades, including amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles. The animals present range in size from tiny tree frogs to giant crocodiles. The Everglades is a kind of crossroads, where species from both the Caribbean and North America are able to live together in the warm, wet climate. One distinctive wading bird in the Everglades is the roseate spoonbill (Ajaia Ajaja). This bird boasts a pink coloration, which comes from the red pigment in some of the crustaceans that they eat. Altogether there are sixteen different species of wading birds in the Everglades. Wading birds generally have very long legs, in order to stand in somewhat deeper water and forage for food, usually fish. One exception to this is the White Ibis (Eudocimus ruber). The white ibis prefers to eat crayfish, rather than fish. In

order to dig in the mud and find these crayfish, the white ibis has evolved a long, slim, curving beak (Figure 3). Figure 3. White ibis head and beak.

Another significant wading bird in the Everglades is the Wood Stork (Mycteria americana). This bird is a larger wading bird, and is an endangered species. The Wood Stork is distinctive in its feeding habits. The bird plants its beak in the water, then begins shuffling its feet. Frightened fish swim quickly away from the storks feet, and directly toward the beak. The stork has very fast reflexes, and quickly clamps down on the fish. Some other wading birds frequently observed in the Everglades include herons, such as the Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), and egrets, such as the Reddish Egret (Egretta rufescens). 8

Aside from the wading birds, there are many other bird species in the Everglades. The anhinga (Anhinga anhinga), for example, is a diver. These birds are prominent in the region, and can often be seen hunting fish, frogs, and even juvenile alligators in the mangrove swamps. They accomplish this feat with long, snakelike necks and sharp pointed beaks, allowing them to reach and quickly grab their prey. Between the marine coastlines and the freshwater marshes, there are over three hundred species of fish living in the Everglades. One of the most ecologically significant of these fish species is the Florida gar, Lepisosteus platyrhincus. The Florida gar is an apex predator in the waters of the Everglades, and is highly abundant throughout the region. This fish feeds on anything from amphibians to insects and crustaceans to even other fishes. Another ecologically important fish in the Everglades is the yellow bullhead, Ameiurus natalis. This abundant catfish can act as both predator and prey, a key link in many food chains throughout the region. While this fish is omnivorous, it is primarily predatory in the Everglades, feeding on crayfish, insects, worms, and smaller fish. Predators of this fish can include larger fish, birds, and turtles. A wide variety of mammals can be found in the Everglades. Many of these are species that are usually suited for drier climates, but have adapted to the moist environment of this region of South Florida. One distinctive example of an adapted mammal is the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). These deer are often found in the sawgrass marshes and hardwood hammocks. They are very similar to the deer found in the rest of the eastern United States, just smaller in size. This is because they

do not require the extra layer of fat possessed by deer living in more northern, colder climates. Another example of an adapted animal is the bobcat (Lynx rufus), which can be observed hunting in the mangrove swamps. The endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor) is another large cat that makes its home in the Everglades. One species of rabbit can also survive in the swamps of this region, the marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris). It has adapted to life in the fresh water marshes and pinelands by developing the ability to actually swim. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are common to most of the environments in the Everglades. They are omnivores, and prefer to eat turtle eggs, along with small aquatic animals. The opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), the only marsupial found in the Everglades, is also an omnivore. Foxes and otters also make their homes in the Everglades. The gray fox (Urocyon cineroargenteus) lives primarily in the hardwood hammock environments, and is the only fox that can climb trees. These foxes make their dens under roots of trees in the ground, as well as in the hollows of trees. River otters (Lutra canadensis), long, shiny, streamlined brown animals with webbed feet, are often observed in springs in this area. They feed on turtles, fish, and even baby alligators. Alligators are perhaps the most well-known reptile of the Everglades. The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), a federally threatened species, is an inhabitant of this area, as are the caiman (Caiman crocodilus) and American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus). Alligators play a significant role in Everglades ecology. They create small ponds, called alligator holes. These are circular holes dug out and maintained by alligators because they need water for reproduction and survival. By 10

digging out these holes they are able to catch rain and flood water, and therefore create a source of year-round water availability. In addition to both adult and juvenile alligators, many other species of both plants and animals are supported by alligator holes. The depression itself provides a wet environment for aquatic species, while the excavated sediment from the holes creates a higher, drier environment for more terrestrial organisms (Figure 4). White-tailed deer, for example, sometimes will depend on the alligator holes for water during dry seasons. Figure 4. Alligator hole cross-section.

An invasive reptile that is becoming alarmingly more common in the Everglades is the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus). These snakes are popular pets, with sales of pythons in Florida alone reaching nearly $10 million in one year. Many people, however, find that they are simply unable to care for such a large and expensive pet and decide to set them free in the Everglades, an environment not natural but certainly well suited for supporting pythons. The warm temperatures and moist conditions are

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ideal conditions for python populations, and they breed quickly. One female can lay up to 100 eggs at one time. As many as 150,000 Burmese pythons are now thought to be living in the Everglades, threatening many already endangered species native to the area. They have been known to eat such important species as white-tailed deer, wood storks, and even alligators as large as six feet. These snakes are unnaturally threatening even the top of the Everglades food chain, and have no natural predators in the area to stop them from taking over. Some small mammals will eat python eggs, but once they are grown the pythons face no threat of predation. Along with crocodilians and the large invasive pythons, some smaller reptiles also inhabit the Everglades. There are, in fact, more than fifty different types of reptiles. They include small lizards such as the green anole (Anolis caroliniensis), snakes such as the Florida cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorous), and turtles such as the Soft-shelled turtle (Apalone ferox). Soft-shelled turtles are common in the Everglades. While their shells do not provide the same level of protection as those of other species of turtles, they make up for this with increased speed in the water. Soft shell turtles also have long noses adapted for snorkeling while swimming through the water (Figure 5). Figure 5. Soft-shelled turtle.

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The high level of species diversity makes the Everglades a key link between the tropics and the more temperate northern environments. It is an ecological crossroads of sorts, with tropical and subtropical species coexisting with organisms usually better suited for colder regions. Many threatened and endangered species of both plants and animals are able to find a protected home within the Everglades National Park, and will therefore continue to contribute to the diversity of the region.

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Works Cited

Brennan, M. A., and A. Dodd.2009. "Exploring Citizen Involvement in the Restoration of the Florida Everglades." Society & Natural Resources . GreenFILE. EBSCO. Campbell, M. R., and F. J. Mazzotti. 2004. "Characterization of Natural and Artificial Alligator Holes." Southeastern Naturalist . Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Frances, P. and A. G. Guerrero. 2006. Ocean: The Worlds Last Wilderness Revealed. New York, NY: DK Publishing. Kushlan, J. A., and E. M. Smith-Cavros. 2007. "Human Heritage and Natural Heritage in the Everglades." International Journal of Heritage Studies. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Loftus, W.F. 2009. "Age, differential growth and mortality rates in unexploited populations of Florida gar, an apex predator in the Florida Everglades." Fisheries Management & Ecology. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Nico, L. G. 2009. "Variable growth and longevity of yellow bullhead ( Ameiurus natalis) in the Everglades of south Florida, USA." Journal of Applied Ichthyology. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. O'Hare, N. K., and G. H. Dairymple. 2006. "Growth and Survival of South Florida Slash Pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa) on Restored Farmlands in Everglades National Park." Ecological Restoration. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Perry, S.A. 2004. "Assessing researcher impacts from a long-term sampling program of wetland communities in the Everglades National Park, Florida, U.S.A." Freshwater Biology. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Padgett, T. 2009. "Postcard: The Everglades." Time. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. TARSHIS, L. 2010. "MONSTERS of the Everglades." Scholastic Scope. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO.

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-----. 2011. Nature & Science. National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/ever/naturescience/index.htm

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