Consumer culture brand positioning strategies: an experimental investigation

Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh and Sam C. Okoroafo

College of Business Administration, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, USA
Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of global consumer culture positioning (GCCP) in comparison to local consumer culture positioning (LCCP) strategies on consumer evaluations of a new unknown brand. Design/methodology/approach Using an experimental method in the USA and India, the paper examines if the use of such positioning strategies in a print advertisement stimuli inuence consumer evaluations of a ctitious brand. Findings The results support the effectiveness of such strategies as demonstrated by overall improvement in subjects attitudinal evaluations of the ctitious brand when GCCP is used relative to the use of LCCP. Furthermore, our results show a moderation effect for subjects level of belief in global citizenship on the effectiveness of the GCCP strategy. These results were observed across the two samples. Research limitations/implications This study provides valuable managerial insights into the potential value of GCCP strategy and offers specic strategic positioning guides to brand managers competing in the global marketplace. Originality/value With the emergence of global market segments, it is important to assist brand managers seeking to strengthen their brands equity in a competitive global marketplace. This paper contributes to the literature on international brand positioning by empirically investigating the usefulness of GCCP as a strategic positioning guide for global marketing managers. Keywords Brands, Brand mangement, Consumer behaviour, India, Marketing strategy, United States of America Paper type Research paper

An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article.

Introduction
We live in an era of unprecedented and rapid globalization that presents unique opportunities and threats to marketing and brand managers. Rapid changes in information and communications technology (particularly in the internet) and transportation, and declining world trade barriers have brought consumers together, creating potential global consumer segments (Hassan and Katsanis, 1994). As Levitt (1983) asserted, if similar consumer segments could be found globally, the result is a new commercial reality the emergence of global markets for standardized consumer products on a previously unimagined scale of magnitude (Levitt, 1983, p. 92). With the emergence of global market segments, marketing and brand managers in companies whose market scope spans multiple cultures and borders are challenged with understanding shared sets of consumptionrelated symbols that are meaningful to such global segment members (Terpstra and David, 1991) if they are to serve such segments protably. To assist such managers seeking to strengthen their brands equity in an increasingly competitive global marketplace, Alden et al. (1999) conceptualized a new brand positioning strategy which they labeled global consumer culture
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positioning (GCCP), as contrasted with two other types of consumer culture positioning: local consumer culture positioning (LCCP) and foreign consumer culture positioning (FCCP). The authors suggested that these positioning strategies are intended to inuence brand value in an increasingly globalized market. Alden et al. (1999) reported that their study results supported the presence of the GCCP, LCCP, and FCCP strategies in brand advertising from multiple countries and, as a potential future research effort, they encouraged researchers to investigate the managerial use of these positioning strategies. However, the potential contribution of GCCP, FCCP, and LCCP positioning strategies to brand performance would depend on consumers responses to such brand positioning strategies. In addition, the effectiveness of such brand positioning strategies is believed to be driven by individual consumer differences (Alden et al., 1999; Batra et al., 2000). The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of a GCCP strategy in comparison to a LCCP strategy on consumer evaluations of a new unknown brand. In addition, we examine the moderating inuence of belief in global citizenship on the effectiveness of a GCCP strategy. More specically, using an experimental method applied to samples in the USA (developed economy) and India (developing economy), we examine if the use of GCCP in comparison to LCCP in a print advertisement stimuli would inuence consumer evaluations of a ctitious new brand. Our empirical results support the effectiveness of a GCCP strategy as demonstrated by overall improvement in subjects evaluations of the ctitious brand (i.e. brand attitudes, purchase intentions, word of mouth, and brand prestige) when GCCP is used relative to when LCCP is used. In addition, our results show some interesting interaction effects for subjects level of belief in global citizenship on the effectiveness of the GCCP strategy. From a managerial 48

Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

perspective, this study provides valuable insights into the potential value of these brand positioning strategies and offers specic strategic positioning guides to marketing and brand managers competing in the global marketplace. This paper rst provides a brief overview of the theoretical and conceptual foundations related to GCCP and LCCP and uses them to present our research hypotheses. In the second section, the research methodology is presented. Next, the data analysis and results are explained. Finally, the conclusions and implications, limitations, and future research direction are suggested.

samurai aired in Japan will be associated with a local culture (LCCP).

Background and hypotheses generation

Global and local consumer culture positioning A GCCP strategy is dened as one that identies the brand as a symbol of a given global culture for example, the postsecond world war, cosmopolitan segment (Alden et al., 1999, p. 77). The advertising process through which this occurs is termed meaning transfer (McCracken, 1993) in which the brand is associated with other signs that reect this cultural orientation. Robertsons denition of globalization as the crystallization of the world as a single place (Robertson, 1987a, p. 38) and the emergence of the global human condition (Robertson, 1987b, p. 23) was used by Alden et al. (1999) in conveying the thought that advertising featuring the idea that consumers all over the world consume a particular brand or appealing to certain human universals might invest the brand with the cultural meaning of being a conduit to feeling at one with global culture (p. 77). One of the well-known examples the authors used to illustrate the GCCP is the advertisement by Benetton The United Colors of Benetton emphasizing the unity of mankind. The LCCP strategy as dened by Alden et al. (1999), is a strategy that associates the brand with local cultural meanings, reects the local cultures norms and identities, is portrayed as consumed by local people in the national culture, and/or is depicted as locally produced for local people (p. 77), for examples, Chevy trucks and Dr Pepper soft drinks positioned in US advertising as part of the American way of life. Likewise, we see the Marlboro cowboy as an LCCP strategy catering to a meaning only shared in the USA. The major bases used for consumer culture positioning are language, aesthetic styles, and story themes. Alden et al. (1999) have provided an excellent discussion on these three dimensions of consumer culture positioning, and a summary is provided here as the context for understanding the design of the advertisement copies used in this research (experimental) study. The reader is invited to review the paper by Alden et al. (1999) for further details. Generally, the use of the English language in advertisements conveys modernism and internationalism to many consumers, since it is the primary language of international business, the mass media, and the internet. Thus, the use of English (used globally) conveys a GCCP identity. A spokesperson who is recognized as part of a global culture (e.g. Michael Jordon) can give a brand a more global image. Similarly, an Indian locally-known spokesperson in an ad promoting curry powder aired in India will convey a local image. A story-theme employing a young executive driving a Mercedes advertising the image of success will convey a GCCP identity when aired in the USA, Malaysia or Jordan, while a story-theme about the life of a 49

Research hypotheses Does the perceived non-localness of a brand impact on consumer evaluation of a brand, and thus, the likelihood of a purchase? Rejuvenated and active research interest in this relationship took off in the 1990s with the reported ndings of Shocker et al. (1994) and Keller (1998) in that perceived brand globalness creates consumer perceptions of brand superiority and, thus, preference for global brands even when quality and value are not objectively superior (Ozsomer and Altaras, 2008, p. 5). Batra et al. (2000) found a direct relationship between the perceived nonlocalness of the brand and attitude toward the brand. A study by Steenkamp et al. (2003) investigating consumers from the USA and South Korea found that perceived brand globalness is positively related to both perceived brand quality and prestige, and resulting from this relationship, to the likelihood of a brand purchase. Holt et al. (2004) found that quality explained on average 44 per cent of brand preferences, lending further support that perceived quality has a signicant direct association with global brand preference. We conclude that extant research ndings tend to support the positive relationship between the perceived globality of a brand and overall consumer attitudinal responses to the brand. Thus, these ndings lead us to hypothesize that: H1. Consumer evaluations (measured in terms of brand attitude, purchase intentions, word of mouth, and brand prestige) of a new brand when global positioning is used will be higher than when local positioning is used.

Furthermore, previous research suggests that consumer dispositional characteristics inuence their global brand attitude and preference. In this study, we focus on one individual difference variable belief in global citizenship (BGC). Strizhakova et al. (2008) dene belief in global citizenship as the belief that global brands create an imagined global identity that a person shares with likeminded people (p. 59). The authors argue that global brands, as they become part of consumers daily life around the world, create global communities linked through their shared references to global brands (Alden et al., 1999; Holt et al., 2004; Steenkamp et al., 2003). The authors show that global brands are central to consumers global citizenship beliefs, and that they are preferred across product categories. More specically, consumers with high levels of belief in global citizenship perceive themselves as less local and more international and tend to have a positive bias toward globally perceived products (Strizhakova et al., 2008). As such, they would be more responsive to global consumer culture positioning strategies and, thus, be more likely to positively evaluate brands they perceive to be global. In our study, BGC is treated as a moderator variable, leading to our second hypothesis: H2. Consumer belief in global citizenship will moderate the inuence of the brand positioning strategies on consumer evaluations of a new brand.

Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

Methodology
Research design and stimuli In our study, an experimental design was used to investigate the effects of the brand positioning strategies (global vs local) on consumer evaluations. The experimental stimuli consisted of a print advertisement (see Appendix 1) for a new product in the digital camera category. Our pre-tests indicated that digital cameras were relevant and interesting to the population under study. Two versions of a print advertisement were manipulated to create two different brand positioning strategies for a new (ctitious) brand of digital camera (VEKAM). The two ads were identical except for three parts of the ad in which we changed the ad copy and the images displayed to generate the two positioning conditions. Accordingly, we have a single factor design with two levels: global positioning and local positioning. First, the opening headline in the upper center of the page introduced the new digital camera including a statement rated among the top new digital cameras. This claim was explained at the bottom of each ad as based on consumer surveys across nine countries for the global positioning for all subjects (see Figure A1(a)); based on consumer surveys across nine states for the US subjects (see Figure A1(b)) or based on consumer surveys across nine Indian cities for the Indian subjects (see Figure A1(c)) under the local positioning condition. In the second part (the middle of the page) ve pictures were shown of different attractions associated with images all around the world, images unique in the USA, or images unique in India, each reecting a selected positioning strategy, i.e. GCCP, LCCP (USA), and LCCP (India), respectively. In addition, for the global positioning, a statement appeared below these pictures stating used by people around the world to bring their images to life. The words around the world were changed in the ad copy to, around the USA, or around India to reect local US and Indian positioning strategies, respectively. The third part of the ad was the same for all conditions (the lower half of the page) that listed ve camera features along with a picture of a digital camera and the brand name. Pre-tests were conducted to validate the study stimuli. First, the ctitious brand name was pre-tested with a group of undergraduate students. More specically, pre-test participants mean attitudes toward VEKAM brand name was 4.11 (on a Likert scale of 1 to 7), which was not signicantly different than the neutral points of 4 (t 0:32, n 15, p 0:75), indicating that the name itself is neutral and should not affect the participants evaluations of the new digital camera. Next, we pre-tested the study stimuli on another group of undergraduate students (n 31) to validate our positioning strategy manipulation. Randomly assigned subjects were asked to evaluate the perceived localness/globalness of the VEKAM digital camera on a number of items adapted from Steenkamp et al. (2003). Specically, we asked subjects to respond on a 1 to 7 Likert-type scale to two items anchored by to me this is a local brand/to me this is a global brand and I dont think consumers overseas buy this brand/I do think consumers overseas buy this brand. These two items were combined to form a net perceived brand localness/globalness score to assess our manipulation. Subjects in the global positioning condition rated the brand signicantly higher on perceived brand localness/globalness relative to subjects in the local positioning (USA) (MGlobal 5:19, Mlocal 3:9, F 1;30 11:44, p 0:002). The overall results of our pretest 50

suggest that participants perceptions of the perceived localness/globalness of the advertised brand are signicantly different and in accordance with the intended manipulation. Measures We measured four dependent variables in this study using measures adopted from published research including: brand attitude (BA) using a three-item scale from Simonin and Ruth (1998), purchase intentions (PI) using a three-item measure from MacKenzie et al. (1986), word-of-mouth (WOM) using a single item measure and brand prestige (Bpre) using a single item measure adopted from Steenkamp et al. (2003). We also measured subjects belief in global citizenship as a potential moderator using a three-item scale adopted from Strizhakova et al. (2008). In addition, we measured subjects perceptions of the brand localness/globalness using the same two items described in our pre-tests. Furthermore, an additional sevenpoint Likert-type scale item anchored by this brand is sold only in America (India)/this brand is sold all over the world was used to assess perceived brand localness for each sample, respectively. These three items were used as a check for the brand positioning strategy manipulation (see Appendix 2 for study measures). The experiment Study participants in the USA (nUSsample 106) and India (nIndiasample 71) were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions (GCCP and LCCP strategies). Participants were students at major universities located in a mid-western US state and south India respectively[1]. The experiment was conducted in three phases. In phase one, subjects read the instructions on the cover page and answered questions in a booklet containing measures of consumer belief in global citizenship and questions about demographic characteristics. Next, the subjects completed a distracter task unrelated to this study. In the third and nal phase, subjects were given a second booklet that included the experimental stimuli and were instructed to study the print advertisement and complete the measures on the remaining pages of the booklet including the dependent variables and the manipulation check questions. Finally, the two booklets for each subject were attached together.

Results
Measurement assessment and manipulation checks All of our measures achieved good reliability levels (ranging between 0.65 and 0.97). Exploratory factor analysis indicated that for each construct all items loaded on a single factor. In addition, the lowest average variance extracted for the study constructs was 60 percent (see Appendix 2), above the 50 percent benchmark suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). For the manipulation check, subjects were asked to evaluate the perceived localness/globalness of the VEKAM digital camera on the same items described above (Steenkamp et al., 2003). For both samples, subjects in the GCCP condition rated the brand signicantly higher on perceived brand localness/globalness relative to subjects in the LCCP condition (US sample: MGlobal 5:31, Mlocal 3:7, F 1;104 34:743, p 0:000; Indian sample: MGlobal 4:2, Mlocal 3:3, F 1;69 7:752, p 0:007). In addition, the additional item described previously was used to assess subjects perception of VEKAMs brand localness. This item

Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

assessed whether study subjects believed that this brand was sold only in the local market (USA for the US sample and India for the Indian sample) or all around the world. Subjects in the LCCP condition rated the brand signicantly lower on this item relative to subjects in the GCCP, indicating that they believed that this brand was sold only in their local market (US sample: Mlocal 3:76, Mglobal 5:12, F 1;104 15:91, p 0:000; Indian sample: Mlocal 3:23, Mglobal 4:89, F 1;69 26:42, p 0:000). These results suggest that the studys manipulations were successful across both samples. Hypothesis testing GCCP vs LCCP In H1 we propose that global positioning would lead to higher consumer evaluations than local positioning. Our graph (of mean ratings) in Figure 1 clearly shows higher ratings on the four dependent variables when global positioning strategy was used than when local positioning strategy was used across the two samples. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) for each of the four dependent variables with the level of brand positioning strategy as the between-subjects factor resulted in a signicant brand positioning strategy effect in both samples. The Figure 1 Mean brand evaluations

differences between the GCCP and LCCP strategies were statistically signicant in each case for both samples: US sample (BA: 4.71 . 3.96, F 12:558, p 0:001; PI: 4.31 . 3.43, F 6:669, p 0:011; WOM: 4.57 . 3.80, F 8:870, p 0:004; B pre: 4.31 . 3.75, F 4:899, p 0:029), Indian sample (BA: 4.81 . 4.18, F 9:951, p 0:002; PI: 4.44 . 3.92, F 3:771, p 0:057; WOM: 4.40 . 3.74, F 4:389, p 0:040; B pre : 3.88 . 2.85, F 8:021, p 0:006). H1 is supported in both of the samples, leading to the conclusion that consumer evaluations (i.e. brand attitude, purchase intentions, word of mouth, and brand prestige) of the ctitious unknown brand when GCCP was used is higher than when LCCP was used. Moderation analysis Since we measured subjects belief in global citizenship, we were able to create high and low groups of belief in global citizenship based on a median split of the measured variable. We introduced this variable as a second factor and tted a 2 2 model to examine the moderating inuence of belief in global citizenship on brand positioning strategies for each of

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the two samples. To begin with, we tted analyses of variance (ANOVA) models for each of the four dependent variables with the level of brand positioning strategy (global vs local) and level of belief in global citizenship (high/low) as the between-subjects factors. For the US sample, the ANOVAS showed signicant twoway interactions between brand positioning level and belief in global citizenship for BA, WOM, and Bpre while the two-way interaction for PI was not signicant (BA: F(1,102) 3.452, p 0.066; PI: F(1,102) 0.990, p 0.322; WOM: F(1,102) 3.879, p 0.052; Bpre: F(1,102) 5.223, p 0.024). Next, we only examined the pattern of means for the three signicant dependent variables for the US sample. Paired comparison results show that for each one of the three dependent variables (BA, WOM, and Bpre), subjects in the high belief in global citizenship group evaluated the brand under a GCCP condition signicantly higher than their evaluation of the brand under the LCCP strategy (see Figure 2). There was no Figure 2 The moderation effect of belief in BGC US sample

signicant difference in evaluations of the brand between GCCP and LCCP strategies for subjects in the low belief in global citizenship group. The other signicant differences involve the means on global positioning across subjects in the low and high belief in global citizenship groups. The mean evaluations on each one of the three dependent variables (BA, WOM, and Bpre) for the subjects in high belief in global citizenship group were signicantly higher than the mean evaluations of the brand for the subjects in the low belief in global citizenship group. For the Indian sample, the ANOVAS showed signicant two-way interactions between brand positioning level and belief in global citizenship for the four dependent variables (BA: F 1;69 5:670, p 0:020; PI: F 1;69 3:758, p 0:057; WOM: F 1;69 4:395, p 0:040; B pre : F 1;69 3:996, p 0:050). Next, we examine the pattern of means for all the four signicant dependent variables for the Indian sample. Paired comparison results show that for each

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Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

one of the four dependent variables (BA, PI, WOM, and Bpre), subjects in the high belief in global citizenship group evaluated the brand under a GCCP condition signicantly higher than their evaluation of the brand under the LCCP strategy (see Figure 3). There was no signicant difference in evaluations of the brand between GCCP and LCCP strategies for subjects in the low belief in global citizenship group. The other signicant differences involve the means for each of the positioning strategies across subjects in the low and high belief in global citizenship groups. Under the global positioning condition, the mean evaluations on two of the dependent variables (WOM and Bpre) for subjects in the high belief in global citizenship group were signicantly higher than the mean evaluations of the brand for subjects in the low belief in global citizenship group, whereas under the local positioning strategies, the mean evaluations for BA for the subjects in low belief in global citizenship group was signicantly higher than Figure 3 The moderation effect of BGC Indian sample

the mean evaluations of the brand for subjects in the high belief in global citizenship group. Our previous analyses show general support for the proposition that beliefs in global citizenship moderate the inuence of the brand positioning strategies on consumer evaluations of the new brand across the two samples, thus supporting H2.

Discussion and managerial implications

In conclusion, rst, this study shows that consumer evaluations as measured by four variables brand attitudes, purchase intentions, word of mouth, and brand prestige were higher for global brand positioning relative to local brand positioning strategies. Testing for the moderating effect of belief in global citizenship on the four dependent variables revealed that consumers who have higher levels of belief in global citizenship were more positive about global brand

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positioning relative to local positioning for all cases across the two samples except for PI in the US sample. The results here support Alden et al. (1999) in general by substantiating global and local consumer cultures as viable brand positioning options. Specically, it posits the GCCP strategy option as having the most consumer receptivity and appeal. Support is provided to Sandler and Shanis (1992) study that brand strategy needs to be global, not local. Also, it supports the nding of Dimofte et al. (2008) that global brands have a positive effect on consumers evoked set. Additionally, the ndings validate two of three dimensions of global consumer culture studied by Zhou et al. (2008). One of the most difcult decisions encountered by marketing managers is whether to use the same strategy worldwide (global) or to adapt and localize. Every aspect of international marketing (e.g. in advertising as in Pae et al. (2002) and brand positioning as in Wong and Merrilees (2007)) is impacted. Additionally, the choice made is critical to a host of performance measures (Theodosiou and Leonidou, 2003; Lehmann et al., 2008; Wong and Merrilees, 2007). Our ndings imply that marketing managers should use global branding strategies, particularly when dealing with consumers that have high levels of belief in global citizenship. Identifying consumers who identify themselves with a global identity shared with like-minded people can be achieved through international segmentation strategies. One way to achieve this is to use Cleveland and Laroches (2006) multifaceted scale that captures acculturation to global consumer cultures while accounting for their multidimensional drivers (refer to cited article for more details).

Note
1 English was employed in both studies since the Indian sample was drawn from college students who were English speakers.

References
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Limitations and directions for future research

Like other research efforts, our study has several limitations. First, the generalizability of our results is limited by the fact that we used one product category (a digital camera). Although consumer high-tech durables (such as cameras and computers) are used worldwide in similar ways and it follows that the use of GCCP strategy is potentially more relevant in such product categories in which consumers exhibit common behaviors across the world (Alden et al., 1999), future research efforts should examine the robustness of our results across different product categories. For example, would the use of GCCP relative to LCCP be less effective in the food product category? Alden et al. (1999) found that the frequency of the use of GCCP strategies was the highest for high-tech consumer durables, followed by low-tech consumer durables, food nondurables, and consumer services. Second, although a sample of college-age young people tends to be homogeneous, and thus, appropriate for our experimental research design, using college students limit our ability to generalize our results. Future research should examine our ndings across different age groups. Finally, a key strategic issue for managers involves identication of country, consumer segment, and product category factors that favor the use of GCCP or LCCP strategies (Alden et al., 1999). In our study we investigated the impact of one consumer individual difference characteristic (i.e. belief in global citizenship) on brand positioning strategies. Future research should address other individual difference variables that might moderate consumer responses to culture positioning strategies, for examples, consumer ethnocentrism and cultural openness.

Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

Robertson, R. (1987a), Globalization and societal modernization: a note on Japan and Japanese religion, Sociological Analysis, Vol. 47, March, pp. 35-43. Robertson, R. (1987b), Globalization theory and civilization analysis, Comparative Civilizations Review, Vol. 17, pp. 20-30. Sandler, D. and Shani, D. (1992), Brand globally but advertise locally? An empirical investigation, International Marketing Review, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 92-103. Shocker, A.D., Srivastava, R. and Ruekert, R.W. (1994), Challenges and opportunities facing brand management: an introduction to the special issue, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 149-58. Simonin, B.L. and Ruth, J.A. (1998), Is a company known by the company it keeps? Assessing the spillover effects of brand alliances on consumer brand attitudes, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 30-42. Steenkamp, J.-B., Batra, R. and Alden, D.L. (2003), How perceived brand globalness creates brand value, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 53-65. Strizhakova, Y., Coulter, R.A. and Price, L.L. (2008), Branded products as a passport to global citizenship: perspectives from developed and developing countries, Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 57-85. Terpstra, V. and David, K. (1991), The Cultural Environment of International Business, 3rd ed., South Western, Cincinnati, OH. Theodosiou, M. and Leonidou, L. (2003), Standardization versus adaptation of international marketing strategy: an integrative assessment of the empirical research, International Business Review, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 141-71. Wong, H. and Merrilees, B. (2007), Multiple roles for branding in international marketing, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 384-408. Zhou, L., Teng, L. and Poon, P.S. (2008), Susceptibility to global consumer culture: a three-dimensional scale, Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 336-51.

Appendix 2
Table AI Measurement items, internal consistency, and exploratory factor analysis
Brand attitudesa (Batra et al., 2000) (USA: a 5 0.89, explained variance 5 83 percent; India: a 5 0.65, explained variance 5 60 percent) Purchase intentionsa (MacKenzie et al., 1986) (USA: a 5 0.96, explained variance 5 95 percent; India: a 5 0.79, explained variance 5 84 percent) Word of mouthb I think this brand is bad/I think this brand is good I have a negative opinion of this brand/I have a positive opinion of this brand I dislike this brand/I like this brand Unlikely/likely Improbable/probable

Brand prestigea (Steenkamp et al., 2003) Belief in global citizenshipb (Strizhakova et al., 2008) (USA: a 5 0.97, explained variance 5 94 percent; India: a 5 0.86, explained variance 5 78 percent) Manipulation checks (Steenkamp et al., 2003)

Please indicate whether you would recommend the VEKAM digital camera to others This is not a very prestigious brand/ This is a very prestigious brand Buying global brands makes me feel like a citizen of the world Purchasing global brands makes me feel part of something bigger Buying global brands gives me a sense of belonging to the global marketplace To me, this is a local brand/to me, this is a global brand I dont think consumers overseas buy this brand/I do think consumers overseas buy this brand

Appendix
Figure A1 Advertisement stimuli

Notes: aUsing seven-point Likert scales; busing seven-point Likert scales anchored by (1 strongly disagree, and 7 strongly agree)

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Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

About the authors

Bashar S. Gammoh is currently an Assistant Professor of Marketing, College of Business Administration, at University of Toledo, Toledo, USA. His major research interests are in the areas of marketing strategy and brand management. His research has appeared in Journal of Product & Brand Management, Psychology and Marketing, and Marketing Letters. Bashar S. Gammoh is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: bashar.gammoh@utoledo.edu Anthony C. Koh is the Chair and Associate Professor in the Department of Marketing and International Business, College of Business Administration, University of Toledo. His research focuses on international marketing, cross-cultural issues, branding and consumer culture positioning, and marketing strategies and internationalization of family-owned businesses. His publications include articles in International Marketing Review, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Global Marketing, and Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. Sam C. Okoroafo is a Professor of Marketing and International Business, College of Business Administration, University of Toledo. His major research interests are in the areas of international business and marketing. His publications include articles in Journal of Business Research, Journal of African Business, Management International Review, Industrial Marketing Management, International Marketing Review, and Journal of Global Marketing.

Executive summary and implications for managers and executives

This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benets of the material present. For marketers and brand managers, the scope to create global consumer segments is one of the most signicant developments of globalizations unrelenting surge. Advances in technology and infrastructure combined with the elimination of many world trade barriers means that widespread standardization of consumer products has become increasingly more feasible. The notion of a global segment is one in which members share beliefs and requirements that must be interpreted and understood by the marketing fraternity. In recognition of the need for greater understanding, certain scholars propose a new brand positioning strategy. Termed global consumer culture positioning (GCCP), the concept is designed to aid the creation of brand equity in a globalized marketplace characterized by growing competition. The studies differentiate GCCP from local consumer culture positioning (LCCP), whereby the emphasis is on creating brand associations that resonate with cultural norms, identities and meanings that are more localized. Research has pointed out that some marketers are already incorporating this idea of a global culture into their promotional strategies. Benetton advertisements signaling the unity of mankind through its United Colors of Benetton slogan is cited as an instance where a GCCP strategy is deployed. In contrast, Chevy, Dr Pepper and 56

Marlboro are all examples of brands that adopt an LCCP approach to advertising in order to position themselves as being highly signicant only within US culture. How do companies position their brands within a local or global culture? The literature posits three dimensions: language used, aesthetic styles and story themes. It is argued that a GCCP strategy will involve using the English language within advertisements. The premise here is that the language is perceived as contemporary due to its prominent function within international business, mass media and the internet. Endorsement from a globally-recognized spokesperson can also help GCCP succeed as can using a story theme that consumers in different nations will interpret as reecting business success. For an LCCP approach, each of the dimensions would need a distinctly local avor to have the desired effect. Examples here might include use of a local personality to promote curry powder in India or a story aired in Japan based on the life of a samurai. Another issue to receive some attention is how the perceived local or nonlocal nature of a brand inuences consumer evaluation and purchase intention. In this respect, investigations conducted in different countries have found that consumers perceive brands they consider global as being of superior quality and more prestigious. This tendency prevails even when the objective truth indicates otherwise. Perceived quality has been identied as having a considerable impact on brand preference and the likelihood of purchase. Evidence suggests that attitude and preference is also inuenced by consumer dispositional characteristics. Certain scholars have identied belief in global citizenship (BGC) as a potentially signicant variable of this type. The concept refers to the global communities that allegedly emerge due to shared consumer interest in global brands. It is suggested that the local identity of people rating high in BGC becomes subordinate to their international identity. As a result, they demonstrate a greater partiality for products perceived as global and are thus likely to respond more positively to a GCCP strategy. Gammoh et al. investigate the impact of different brand positioning strategies in a study involving students at major universities in the USA and India. A total of 106 participants were recruited in the USA and 71 in India. Experimental design was used and subjects were asked to respond to print advertisements for a new ctitious brand of digital camera. The advertisement was manipulated to produce two different versions to represent local and global positioning strategies for each sample. In both cases, the stimuli were identical except for some changes to copy and images to make the ads appropriate to either a global or local positioning condition. Following pre-tests to evaluate the manipulation, participants in each country were randomly assigned to either a GCCP or LCCP strategy. After responding to questions about demographic characteristics and BGC, they were asked to indicate their perceptions of the print advertisement. As predicted, the experiment revealed that: . consumer evaluation in terms of brand attitude, purchase intentions, word of mouth and brand prestige of the ctitious brand was higher for the GCCP strategy than for the LCCP strategy; and . for both samples, consumers with higher levels of BGC were more positive about global brand positioning than

Consumer culture brand positioning strategies Bashar S. Gammoh, Anthony C. Koh, and Sam C. Okoroafo

Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 Number 1 2011 48 57

local brand positioning. The only exception was for purchase intention in the US sample. Marketing managers face a difcult choice of whether to adopt the same strategy in every market or to modify in order to make their campaigns more culture-specic. Other researchers have found consumers to be more attracted and receptive to global branding strategies. The results here support these earlier ndings and suggest that GCCP could prove more effective, particularly with consumers who strongly believe in global citizenship. The authors claim that marketers can use international segmentation strategies to identify such consumers. Use of a single product category is likely to limit the signicance of these ndings. Even though scholars have

previously noted the relevance of high-tech durables like cameras to GCCP, Gammoh et al. recommend further study using a wider range of product categories. Limited evidence suggests that the effect of GCCP strategies may be weaker in the food product category, so additional investigation in this area is one possible option. Using different age groups in future research may also help generalize the results. The signicance of BGC indicates that consideration of other individual difference variables such as ethnocentrism and cultural openness is also warranted. (A precis of the article Consumer culture brand positioning strategies: an experimental investigation. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

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