AGILE TRAINING: AN INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS FOR EDUCATORS

A Masters Thesis Presented to the School of Public Administration, College of Information Science and Technology, And the Faculty of the Graduate College University of Nebraska

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Public Administration Master of Science in Management Information Systems University of Nebraska at Omaha By RJ Redden May, 2012

Supervisory Committee Dr. Peter Wolcott Dr. Gary Marshall Dr. Ilze Zigurs

AGILE TRAINING: AN INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS FOR EDUCATORS

RJ Redden, MPA, MIS University of Nebraska, 2012 Advisor: Dr. Peter Wolcott Abstract
Information technology (IT) plays a vital role in the growth of small businesses. Many businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called digital divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment. Efforts to train owners of microenterprises often employ plan-driven training, which emphasizes structure and linear learning with pre-defined learning objectives. Plan-driven training has been effective to a point, but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to cross the so-called digital divide. How can an effective pedagogical method be

developed for training microenterprises to use Information Technology? This study develops an alternative educational method known as Agile Training. Agile Training is adapted from the Agile method of information systems development. It is an iterative method, designed to produce a demonstrable set of valuable technical skills on a short timetable. This study uses action research methodology to study the development of the Agile Training process with twenty microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations) in the Council Bluffs/Omaha area. The findings of the study reveal that the Agile Training method produces significant effects for microenterprises, including a 95% skill/concept retention rate.

Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the many individuals whose invaluable assistance and cooperation were vital in the completion of this thesis. I would like to thank my committee Dr. Peter Wolcott, Dr. Gary Marshall, and Dr. Ilze Zigurs for their support and guidance throughout this project. I would like to thank Dr. Angela Eikenberry for inspiring me to explore my research interests. Her support and encouragement have been invaluable from the first graduate class I attended. I am extremely grateful to the Iowa West Foundation for funding the grant that made this study possible. This project would only be an idea, were it not for their involvement. The twenty microenterprises that opened their doors to me were patient, kind, and generous with their time. Their trust in me was humbling, and will always be remembered. Without the invaluable assistance of Andrew Lescelius, the project could never have happened. Andrew provided much more than research support for the project, and his contribution was instrumental. To the many friends and family who have only seen me through the back side of my laptop for about three years, thank you for your tireless support. Special mention goes to Rhonda Noel-Hurst, Shawn Steiner, Beth Colaric, Alyssa Gilliland, Rena Toomey, Sabrina Howes, Annette Beers, Rene Neun, Rochelle Cripe, Brad Cripe, Mary Ensz, and Jennifer Jahn. From the other end of the couch, Jazz the Dog closely supervised much of the writing of the thesis, and for her companionship I am very grateful. It is difficult to tie a final bow on a thesis and send it out into the world, but it must be done. This thesis is dedicated to everyone who helped me through this process. It is my hope that all these efforts will result in more good being done in the world.

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Table of Contents
1.0: Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1 2.0: Research Question ................................................................................................................ 3 3.0 Background ............................................................................................................................ 3 3.1: Mental Models .................................................................................................................. 3 3.2: Agile Education ................................................................................................................ 9 3.3: Agile Training ................................................................................................................. 14 4.0 Process ................................................................................................................................. 26 4.1: Methodology ................................................................................................................... 26 4.2: Impact ............................................................................................................................. 33 4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process .................................................... 34 5.0: Results................................................................................................................................. 41 5.1: Evolution of the Agile Training Method ........................................................................ 50 5.2 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 52 5.3: Limitations, Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................ 53 6.0 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 55 Appendices................................................................................................................................. 56 Appendix A: Initial Interview Questions ............................................................................... 56 Appendix B: Mental Model Survey ....................................................................................... 57 Appendix C: Twelve underlying Agile Manifesto principles. ............................................... 65 Appendix D: Breakdown of specific skills learned within an actual session......................... 66 References .................................................................................................................................. 67

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Table of Figures
Table 1: Mental Models ...................................................................................................... 7 Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009) ......................................... 13 Table 3: Agile Training Principles .................................................................................... 15 Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic ............................................................................ 27 Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall ............................................. 23 (Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge Management, 2003, 5)..................................................................................................... 23 Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time ......................................................... 30 Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions ............................................................... 43 Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time .................................................................. 44 Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation ............................................................................ 46 Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week) .................................... 47 Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings ............................................................. 48 Figure 8: Second Order Effects: Contact Base Growth .................................................... 49

1.0: Introduction
Microenterprises are a significant part of the economy in the United States. According to the Association for Enterprise Opportunity, microenterprises are defined as businesses with fewer than ten employees (Association for Enterprise Opportunity, 2011). These businesses constitute a vital part of a regions economy, providing not only jobs, but the innovation and entrepreneurial dynamic that benefit communities as a whole (Williams, 2011). Many businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called digital divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment. Discovering more efficient processes for keeping microenterprises abreast of technology skills and tools will help ensure that more businesses will be able to compete in the marketplace, thus sustaining and growing local economies. Information technology (IT) plays an important role in the growth of small businesses by increasing efficiencies, providing access to new markets, and fostering the development of new products and services. Microenterprises often face great challenges in using IT effectively. They may suffer not only from a lack of resources and skills, but also the awareness, knowledge, and confidence needed to adopt technology successfully (Kamal, 2009). In the field of technological instruction, plan-driven training has been effective to a point, but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to cross the digital divide (Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). In this context, plan-driven training refers to instruction in technology skills, with little attention paid to psychological factors (Kamal,

2009). Traditional education uses a plan-driven approach, documented through a course syllabus and training material prepared ahead of time. Technical training programs that are part of microenterprise development programs typically involve courses or workshops with well defined, but previously determined, learning objectives and pedagogical methods (Edgcomb, 2002). Even in more customized technical assistance, the training process typically begins with an interview of the subject, in which the technical needs of the subject are taken into account. Information from the interview is used to devise a technical instructional plan for the subject. Each instructional session is intended to move the subject closer to the overall goal of the plan. This is a linear process with prescribed goals that is difficult to adapt to changing circumstances. While such training often produces positive results, in other cases, the impact has been negligible. The elements that separate a high impact interaction from a low impact interaction are not well understood; however, psychological factors may play a role in the impact of the interaction (Cohen & Nycz, 2006; Kamal, 2009). This paper reports on research in progress to make technical training and assistance more effective in an unconventional educational setting, such as that of microenterprises. Through the use of Agile Training methods, participants (hereafter, called users) are expected to overcome the barriers to learning that arise from gaps between learning objectives and prior knowledge, skills, abilities, and perceptions (Cohen, 2009). The thesis is outlined as follows: a research question is proposed. A discussion of the background of Agile Training follows, including mental models and Agile principles in education. Agile Training methods are then introduced, along with a strategic toolkit and a model of the process. Next, the methodology for the study is outlined, impact is

discussed, and a sample technical walkthrough of the process is included. The results of the study are presented, accompanied by a section regarding the evolution of the Agile Training method. Limitations of the study are then discussed, along with potential contributions to knowledge, followed by a conclusion.

2.0: Research Question

How can an effective pedagogical method be developed for training microenterprises to use Information Technology (IT)? The goal of this research is to cultivate just such a method. Evidence of the efficacy of the Agile Training process will be presented in terms of effects on the individual, effects on the organization, and effects on the community. These effects will be measured both quantitatively and qualitatively, using surveys and interviews administered throughout the process. The purpose of this research is not to compare the effectiveness of Agile Training and plan-driven training. Rather, it is about the development of tools and techniques that will assist microenterprises to learn and use information technology. The comparative study of the effectiveness of Agile Training vs. plan-driven training is beyond the scope of this study, and is perhaps a question for future research.

3.0 Background
3.1: Mental Models What is Information Technology? Perhaps a definition could best be found by dividing the question in two: What is Information? What is Technology?

Websters defines information as news, advice, or knowledge, communicated by others or obtained by personal study and investigation; intelligence; knowledge derived from reading, observation, or instruction (Information, 2012). Information is something that humans have had to collect and process since the dawn of time. Where is a fruitful place to hunt? What might the weather do? What should we do for different sicknesses? The need for accurate, up to date information is not new. What is technology? According to Websters, technology is the application of knowledge for practical ends (Technology, 2012). Though technology is commonly perceived as inextricably connected to computers and the Internet, the term has actually been in existence long before the first computing machines were invented. In its purest sense, technology is what we do with the information we have at hand. If information consists of the knowledge of the size of a harvest, then a clay tablet is an example of the technology used to store that information. What is new, then? Websters defines Information Technology as The branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve and store and transmit information (Information Technology, 2012). The Internet allows individuals access to information in ways that were undreamed of even ten years ago. Information is stored, accessed and transformed at a rate that is difficult to comprehend. The role of information in a microenterprise is much broader than decision making. Microenterprise owners use information to create processes, design products, and interact and communicate with other businesses. Consequently, if microenterprise owners do not have access to current information, they risk making business decisions based on

incorrect or outdated information. Enough decisions made on outdated information, and the entire business may be threatened. This problem would seem to be solved by teaching microenterprises skills to connect to the information they need: tax information, supplier information, or zoning information. It seems only natural that if enough technical skills were presented to microenterprise owners, then making business decisions based on outdated information would happen less often. However, simply presenting microenterprise owners with technical skills has produced mixed results (Kamal, 2009). Just as business decisions are sometimes made based on outdated information, decisions about technology are made based on so-called mental models. Peter Senge's work with the concept of mental models led to many advances in the field of organizational theory. Mental models are the deeply held internal images of how the world works, images that limit us to familiar ways of thinking and acting (Senge, 1990). Individuals use mental models to comprehend and simplify complex situations in their environment (Malan, Erwee, & Rose, 2009). Mental models influence individual thinking processes, including decision making (Senge, Lichtenstein, Kaeufer, Bradbury, & Carroll, 2007). If a business owner has deeply ingrained beliefs about themselves using technology and how technology works in general, he/she takes actions based on those beliefs. When those beliefs are based on negative information, the business owner is likely to achieve negative outcomes.

problem(s) with mental models lie not in whether they are right or wrong. It is when they exist below the level of our awareness Because we remain unaware of our mental models, the models remain unexamined. Because they are unexamined, the models remain unchanged. As the world changes, the gap widens between our mental models and reality, leading to increasingly counterproductive actions (Senge, 1990).

Within the study, four mental models (fear, frustration, confidence, and empowerment) are examined. These four mental models emerged out of multiple years of experience with microenterprises. During training sessions, certain statements cropped up repeatedly, statements such as "I never get this right" or "The system just won't let me do anything. Researchers noticed that microenterprises with positive results also tended to make positive statements (reflecting confidence and empowerment), and vice versa with negative statements (reflecting fear and frustration). A clear understanding of mental models is essential for effecting change (Senge, 1990). Making decisions based on fear and frustration about technology leaves the typical small business owner mired in inefficiency. Attempting to teach individuals with undiscovered mental models leaves the trainer mired in inefficiency; as well. Consequently, a survey tool for measuring mental models is used in order to discover mental models both before the sessions begin and two months after the sessions have ended. Scores from both surveys are compared, in order to determine if mental models have shifted as a result of the interaction. (See Appendix B for a copy of the administered survey.) A literature review of the fear mental model reveals that the subject of Computer Anxiety (CA) has been studied numerous times over the years. CA has been defined as fear of the consequences of computer usage (Sievert, Albritton, Roper, & Clayton, 1988). CA can be

influenced by both psychological and environmental factors (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002). Also evidenced in the literature is fears relationship with the confidence mental model. Individuals who have more confidence in their capabilities tend to demonstrate lower levels of CA (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002). These two mental models measure how an individual feels about him/herself working with computers. How an individual feels about the system itself is also important. Experience with microenterprises suggests that the frustration mental model can be just as damaging (Kamal, 2009). Frustration statements abound in sessions with microenterprises, both singularly and combined with fear statements. Together, the frustration and empowerment mental models form the continuum that measures how individuals feel about computer systems (Table 1). They provide a fuller picture of the microenterprise owners range of mental models. Table 1: Mental Models Positive Self-Perception Confidence Negative Fear

System Perception

Empowerment

Frustration

The following are four scenarios which illustrate how the four mental models influence decision-making in organizations. All four scenarios have been taken from data collected during the study. The names and occupations of the users have been altered.

3.1.1: Confidence: I can do this. Sabrina had been getting instruction on a marketing campaign. One of the sessions was dedicated to teaching her how to design brochures for her scrapbooking store, using Microsoft Word. Two weeks passed, and when RJ and Andrew returned, Sabrina proudly showed them her new business card. She had taken the design principles she had learned from making the brochure, and transferred them to designing a business card using Vistaprint. It was a bit of a different format, but I knew that I could give it a try. And look how these came out! Im proud to give them out to my customers. 3.1.2: Fear: If I try to do this, something bad will happen. Steven, a massage therapist with a private practice, was interested in moving his business from paper to paperless. Ive always wanted to do this. I know that keeping everything on paper is killing me, but Im afraid that if I change the way I do things, I will lose all my data. I mean, the way I do things now is not how I would prefer to do it, but losing my data would force me to close my doors. I dont want that. 3.1.3: Empowerment: I wonder what else the system will let me do? Harold was interested in a strategy/marketing campaign. Late one night, he found himself working on a presentation in the Prezi format. He wanted to embed one of the videos from his website (designed by outside contractors), but the permissions had been restricted. Harold looked on his hard drive for an original copy of the video. He found one, and uploaded it to YouTube. He then edited the video to match the one on his website and embedded it into the Prezi he had been working on. Im sure I could have just waited and called the contractors the next day. But we had talked about

YouTube quite a bit, and when it came down to it, I wanted to see what the system would allow me to do. And now I dont need to be dependent on anyone else. 3.1.4: Frustration: The system wont let me do anything! Jennifer needed help with her basic understanding of computers. She was not of the generation that grew up with a cell phone in their hand. She had always run her business on paper, but she was realizing the importance of being able to handle clients efficiently through email, calendars, and tasking. During the session focusing on email, Jennifer got very agitated. This was expressed in her tone of voice, and her statements of I dont see where to do that, Its not here, and I dont understand what I am supposed to be looking at. In many cases, Jennifer had actually clicked the correct button, but was not pausing long enough for the computer to complete the operation. When subsequent buttons were clicked, the program stopped responding. It always does this. It never seems to work right. 3.2: Agile Education What does a software development method have in common with pedagogy? Educators have extracted principles from the Agile software development method and adapted those principles for use in traditional classroom learning situations (Stewart, DeCusatis, Kidder, Massi, & Anne, 2009). In the history of software development methods, the Agile method is a relative newcomer. Software development methodologies began in the 1960s with the Systems Development Life Cycle, or SDLC (Elliott, 2004). At that time, systems development was focused on large corporations. Functions of these large scale systems included

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activities such as basic data and transaction processing (Elliott, 2004). Given the large scale of these systems, the needed development method would be highly plan-driven, sequential, and heavily documented. The SDLC was designed to fit this methodological need. The SDLC was the reigning systems development method for many years. However, the rigidity of the SDLC was problematic, and often caused projects to surpass both time and budget limits. Over time, the need for more adaptive development methods arose (Elliott, 2004). The Agile software development method was devised as an alternative to heavyweight, inflexible software development methods. The principles underlying Agile software development were expressed succinctly in the Agile Manifesto: We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping others do it. Through this work we have come to value:

Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan

That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left more (Beck et al, 2001). The Agile method is characterized by adaptive planning, customer collaboration and rapid response to changes in the environment. This method has been successful in delivering high quality software products, particularly in chaotic environments where requirements change often (Satzinger, Burd, & Jackson, 2005).

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The success of Agile methods in software development has inspired Agile principles to be adapted for the field of project management (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). In the last few years, the discipline of project management has sought to redefine itself in todays knowledge economy. Projects are increasingly defined by complexity, uncertainty and change (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). Agile Project Management (APM) was created from the need for a more adaptive system of project management, as opposed to the rigid command and control approach. APM takes its underlying principles directly from the Agile Manifesto and the Declaration of Interdependence (Anderson, 2005). APM has been successful in a paradigmatic transformation of the discipline of project management (Koskela & Howell, 2002). Agile principles have also been adapted for education (Stewart, DeCusatis, Kidder, Massi, & Anne, 2009; Kussmaul, 2005). As in the software development and project management examples, Agile Education has evolved out of a need for a more adaptive method. Traditional educational methods are plan-driven and sequential, which resembles the SDLC system of software development. The syllabus is the foundation for the overwhelming majority of todays educational experiences. The syllabus sets the educational plan for the semester. Learning goals are predetermined by the instructor, along with the schedule. Though the schedule is somewhat subject to change, it is normally adhered to as much as possible. From an instructors perspective, the waterfall model has a lot of appeal. It is easy to describe and easy for students to understand. It fits well with the traditional academic model of assignments with due dates. This makes it simple to give all groups the same task (such as completion of the requirements specification) even though they are working on different projects.

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From the students perspective, however, the waterfall model makes less sense. They dont see the value of many of the tasks, and they are anxious to start the real work of coding. The waterfall model also has the same drawbacks here as it does in industry: requirements change, it is hard to estimate task duration, schedules slip, and testing suffers as a result if the project is completed at all (Hanks, 2007). However, according to Stewart, et al., it is not just the software community that has grave concerns that their methodology is too heavy-weight; the academic community has been working on developing techniques to increase student participation, rather than using planned curricula based on instructor lectures (Stewart et al., 2009). In response to these concerns, educators have begun looking toward more active and cooperative learning methodologies (Stewart et al., 2009). The first instances of using Agile principles in education originate in Computer Science courses concerning the software development process (Stewart et al., 2009). Researchers have mapped the Agile Manifesto principles to the classroom environment, using the Manifesto as a template (Table 2).

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Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009) Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in Traditional Classrooms Students over traditional processes and tools Working projects over comprehensive documentation Student and instructor collaboration over rigid course syllabi Responding to feedback rather than following a plan

Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan

As educators began teaching Agile methodology, they began to experiment with Agile as a pedagogical method (Hanks, 2007; Razmov, 2007, Hislop et al, 2002). For example, many software development courses are project based. Therefore, some instructors were able to run the project as though it were an Agile project, using daily standup/status meetings at the beginning of class and retrospectives at the end of class (Reed, 2008). The standup meetings were a review of the project status, and were used in place of traditional homework. The retrospectives gave the instructor feedback as to how well the students understood the material presented during class, and what needed to be addressed in the next class. Grading and evaluation also changed. While instructors still evaluated the final project, they put much more emphasis on process evaluation, using iteration planning and reflection documents (Hanks, 2007). Classes so different from their plan-driven predecessors measure success with working software delivered by students, and client satisfaction with the software. Further, the

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Agile classroom is often marked by instructor and student satisfaction with the process, and highly motivated students (Stewart et al., 2009). Agile Education is indeed an exciting concept for traditional education. However, a further adaptation is needed for instructional activities in nontraditional settings, such as the technical instruction of a microenterprise. Classrooms offer a stable environment. Students arrive at the same time every day. The materials needed for the class are relatively static. Instructors and students already have a good idea of what will happen in class that day. The environment of a microenterprise is much less stable. Work is often interrupted by customers, calls from vendors, and unanticipated emergencies. Tasks are begun, and deserted in favor of higher priority operations. It is an environment characterized by chaos. Therefore, a technical training method is needed that lends itself to the chaotic nature of the microenterprise. 3.3: Agile Training Agile Training is a method that is proposed for technical training in unconventional educational settings, such as the microenterprise. The table below illustrates the adaptation of Agile principles for use outside the classroom (Table 3). As with Agile Education, Agile principles were mapped directly from the Agile Manifesto (Beck et al., 2001). Adaptation of the additional underlying principles can be found in Appendix C.

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Table 3: Agile Training Principles Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in Training Settings Individuals and interactions over predetermined methods Demonstrated learning of useful IT skills/concepts over tutorials User collaboration over user-trainer relationship Responding to user over following a plan

Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan

3.3.1: Mission The mission of Agile Training is twofold: to teach skills/concepts that are useful to each microenterprise, and to teach as many skills/concepts as possible within each session. The determination of what is useful to each microenterprise takes place first during the interview, and continues throughout the process. The trainers seek to determine what the pain points are for each individual. When the pain points become apparent, the trainers then assess what skills need to be trained next, according to the individuals experience. At times, the skill that the individual desires to learn has a set of prerequisite skills that must precede it. The trainers teach the entire set of skills, and proceed to the next pain point.

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The benefit of focusing on skills that are immediately useful is that there is no time delay between learning and seeing the benefits of learning. The individuals go into the next lesson with a bit of positive momentum. Agile Training also seeks to teach as many skills as possible within each session. Why all this emphasis on quantity? Is there any reason why teaching a large number of skills might be better than teaching a few skills thoroughly? Banduras principle of enactive mastery helps to answer this question. Enactive mastery is the repeated successful performance of behaviors that incite anxiety and worry (Bandura, 1997; Kim, 2005). "... enhancing personal efficacy can help people to develop the resilient sense of efficacy needed to override difficulties that inevitably arise from time to time. In the enactive mastery mode, a resilient sense of efficacy is built through structured demonstration trials in the exercise of control over progressively more challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997)." Enactive mastery is also the leading source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, selfefficacy is a persons belief in their own competence (Bandura, 1997). Repeated successful task accomplishment gives each individual more confidence in ones own ability. Subsequently, the more tasks the individual can accomplish within the session, the more confidence can be gained from the experience.

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3.3.2: Model

The model of how Agile Training works is represented with a bicycle. The model was created in order to analogize the Agile Training process and provide a roadmap for users and future trainers. The process begins with the application of user force to the pedals. The force transfers to the cycle of instruction. As the cycle of instruction turns, more skills/concepts are taught. The back wheel is the cycle of assessment, allowing the trainers to determine which skills need to be covered next, or covered again. The back wheel drives the cycle forward. The user then steers toward the next learning goal. If the goal is steep, the trainers teach the users how to adjust the gears, in order to get over the hill. The mental model is the landscape of the users technological perspective. As the cycle moves forward, the landscape changes, and adjustments are made accordingly.

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This model is user centric. The user is in control of the speed and direction of the process. Agile Trainers know the path, and can help the user to adjust the gears when the road seems impassable. This is done through the use of interactive methods. 3.3.3: Strategic Toolkit Agile Training uses interactive methods, which take the form of a strategic toolkit. Each tool is related to a concept of the Agile Training method, the principles underlying the Agile Manifesto, or Agile methodology derivatives. Each tool in the strategic toolkit has been used numerous times within each of the twenty cases studied in this thesis. It is important to note that the toolkit is the outcome of an action research process. The study began with the intention of discovering repeated patterns of activity within the microenterprises. These patterns concerned perceptions of and actions toward technology. As patterns of behavior within the microenterprises were discovered, a set of corresponding tools began to emerge. A description of these tools is placed here to create awareness of the challenges and resolutions of the Agile Training process. In the Technical Walkthrough section, a case study illustrates the use of these tools. 3.3.3.1: Pair Training The first tool in the strategic toolkit is the composition of the training team. Technically, one trainer could accomplish all of the tasks needed for a session. However, the use of two trainers both inside and outside the sessions has been vital for evolving the Agile Training method. Pair training relates to pair programming, an agile software development technique in which two programmers work together at one workstation. In this programming

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technique, one programmer types in code, and the other programmer evaluates the code as it is typed in. In this way, one person is able to focus on driving the process forward, while the other observes the process and makes suggestions (Williams & Kessler, 2003). The two programmers switch roles frequently. Pair programming has also been reported to produce solutions to problems more quickly than in traditional programming (Williams & Kessler, 2003). The driver might actually be working out a design or implementing a part of the problem, realizing that he or she may ultimately come to a dead end in the problem resolution. The navigator, while watching the driver's partial design or implementation, begins thinking about the next step. When the driver hits the dead end, the navigator is often prepared to take over and lead the way. Often, the cycle continues until the problem is solved (Williams & Kessler, 2003)." Agile Training operates in much the same manner. One trainer teaches the next skills/concepts to be learned, and one trainer observes and notates the session, paying special attention to the statements and body language of the users. On occasion, the observing trainer will make suggestions in order to aid the educating trainer. The trainers also switch roles between sessions. For example, the educating trainer becomes the observer trainer for the next session. This reduces the possibility that the training impact is the direct result of a single person causing the impact. After each session has ended, both trainers engage in a period of critical reflection about the session. Critical reflection seeks to discover what methods were effective for learning inside the session, and what methods were ineffective. Was there anything that could have been done to increase the number of skills/concepts learned or shift user perception toward positive mental models? Decisions about process changes are postulated and tried

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in the next session with a microenterprise. Process changes that have a successful outcome are then incorporated into the overall Agile Training method. 3.3.3.2: Parallel Tracks The second tool in the strategic toolkit, Parallel Tracks, refers to changing the instruction midstream in order to respond to verbal or nonverbal signal of non-understanding. For example, when a user begins to give verbal and nonverbal cues (shifting in seat, looking away, avoidance of question) that they do not understand the material, the trainer conceives of a different explanation of the material. The trainers do not ask the users directly if they have an understanding of the task at hand. Experience has shown that all answers to the question Do you understand? tend to be in the affirmative, whether or not the subject actually understands the material. Instead, the trainers use an alternative explanation/parallel track in order to promote understanding. These alternative explanations emerge from stories and analogies that closely relate to the users current understanding or experience. For example, if a user gives verbal/nonverbal cues of not understanding the difference between a domain name and a hosting provider for a website, the trainer will shift to the analogy of a party, where the domain name is the address of the party and the hosting provider is the person (host) who provides party space and storage of supplies. Analogical reasoning has long played an important role in the human learning process. Analogy consists of a learner taking the solution for one problem and mapping the solution to a different problem (Anderson, 2005). Relationships and patterns within known concepts then help the learner to attain new knowledge. Learners build knowledge

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at the edge of what they already know, much like putting together a puzzle from the frame inward. The nature of the material being learned also plays a role in learning. In his article on learning edge momentum, Robins states that certain technical concepts, such as programming languages, are tightly integrated (Robins, 2010). All of the elements of a programming language form a self-referential system, where the understanding of one concept depends on the understanding of many other concepts. In his example, one cannot understand a for loop without understanding statements, expressions or flow of control (Robins, 2010). The success or failure to learn concepts is self-reinforcing, thus creating either positive or negative learning edge momentum (Robins, 2010). Agile Training seeks to create positive learning edge momentum within each session. The use of learning edge momentum within parallel tracks relates to the Agile Training principle of responding to the user over following a plan. The users verbal and nonverbal cues initiate the trainers decision to change to a parallel track. The users previous knowledge and work and/or life experience determines which story or analogy is chosen for the explanation. Each learning success builds on the other, creating a positive learning edge momentum for the user. 3.3.3.3: Refocus on the User Another tool in the strategic toolkit is useful when the project direction is unclear, or when the two trainers are not in agreement about the next action steps in the project. The trainers discuss every session of Agile Training afterwards, examining the session for overall effectiveness and determining the next steps for the project. Generally, the next

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steps are easily determined by the two trainers. However, in case of disagreement, the trainers refocus on the user. In practice, the trainers arrive at the next session, armed with questions that will help the entire group determine the next steps of the project. These questions clarify what it is that the user would like to accomplish. Consider the case of a user who has difficulties deciding which website builder to use in order to update an existing website. By the end of the appointment, the user was undecided about whether to use her existing website builder (which has been problematic in the past) or move to a different builder (which would entail a learning curve). The group decided to consider all the information until the following appointment, where the user would make the final decision. After the meeting, the trainers were in disagreement as to which method would be better for the user. It was decided to clarify with the user both what is problematic about the current website builder, and the users vision of the updated website. After these questions were asked at the next appointment, the user was able to refine her goals and determine that she needed to stay with her current website builder. Refocusing on the user relates to the Agile Training principle of user collaboration over student teacher relationship. Effective relationships between instructors and users are based on trust (Kamal, 2009). Traditional student teacher relationships are bound by conventional norms that are appropriate to the classroom. Outside the classroom environment, these relationships tend to be more relaxed. Relying on the user for direction when the project loses focus has been an effective way to not only steer the project back on course, but strengthen the trust between trainers and users (Kamal, 2009).

23

3.3.3.4: The OODA Loop The next tool in the Agile Training toolkit is the Observation, Orientation, Decision, Action (OODA) loop (Figure 1). The OODA loop was developed by USAF Colonel John Boyd to model the decision making process as it relates to military strategy (Adolph, 2006). According to Boyd, decision making occurs in a continuous cycle of observe (sensing circumstances) orient (analyzing observations, creating hypotheses) decide (choosing a plan of action) act (executing the decision). Those who can process the OODA loop more quickly than the opponent are likely to produce a competitive advantage, and win the battle.

Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall (Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge Management, 2003, 5)

The OODA loop has typically been used to describe combat situations. However, according to Angerman,

24

fundamentally the OODA loop as a conceptual model is inherently neutral. Essentially, OODA loops represent the information system processes of a complex adaptive system. That is, OODA loops can be applied to a complex adaptive learner acquiring personal knowledge in cognitive and affective domains just as appropriately as they can be applied to survival, adaptation, and competition (Angerman, 2009). Therefore, use of the OODA loop in teaching/learning situations can be as viable as its use in combat situations. For the instructors, the use of the OODA loop in Agile Training has produced a teaching advantage. The advantage lies in being able to recognize what is happening to the user in the present moment, and act appropriately. It is fundamental to the Agile Training method to place heavy importance on what is happening to the user in the present moment. Decisions in Agile Training emerge from the observation of the user and the trainers ability to adapt to the situation. What is transpiring in the present moment? Are the users really learning? Is synthesis of ideas taking place? Are the users mental models shifting? Is there a mismatch between statement and action on the part of the user? Does the trainer need to take a parallel track of explanation? Is the skill/concept being taught really the right one to be teaching, or should the trainer reprioritize and present a different skill/concept? What is materializing for the user at any given moment in an Agile Training situation supersedes the importance of all other learning objectives, past observations of user behavior, or overall training plans. The trainer must observe, then orient, decide and act. The loop then repeats for the remainder of the session. The OODA Loop relates to the Agile Training principle of individuals and interactions over predetermined methods. In this case, predetermined methods consist of fixed ways of teaching skills/concepts, and/or

25

shifting mental models. Predetermined methods are a valuable resource to draw upon during a session. However, experience has shown that the role of observing individuals and interactions is central to the adaptive nature of Agile Training. The OODA Loop also relates to the iterative nature of the action research methodology chosen for this study, which will be explored further in the Methodology section. 3.3.3.5 Demonstrationless Training Training without demonstration is the final tool in the Agile Training toolkit. Agile Trainers provide over the shoulder training. The users perform all operations themselves (building websites, using Google Docs, creating a YouTube channel), using the hardware that they work with most often. The reasons for this are threefold. First, it decreases the opportunity for the user to become fearful that they will not be able to complete the operation themselves. Users with strong fear mental models have very little time to tell themselves that they cannot perform the operation. Instead, they are already three steps into an operation that they would have been afraid to attempt only moments before. Second, this tool helps to ensure that users will be able to complete the operations long after the trainers are gone. The second half of the mission of Agile Training is to teach as many skills/concepts as possible within each session, in order for the user to achieve enactive mastery of the material. If users have demonstrated to themselves that they have mastered the material, it follows that they will continue to use the material. Third, and perhaps most important, this tool allows the user to dictate the pace of the instruction. When trainers demonstrate operations, the trainers tend to dictate a faster pace because they are relying on their own IT skills and experience. Thus, the training is

26

likely to outpace the users ability to absorb the instruction. With the user in front of the keyboard, it becomes obvious what the user knows or does not yet know, and the trainer can adjust to the users pace of instruction.

4.0 Process
4.1: Methodology Action research involves utilizing an iterative method of planning, taking action, observing, evaluating (including self-evaluation) and critical reflection prior to planning the next iteration (O'Brien, 2001; McNiff, 2002). The action research method is often used in both information science research and service learning courses (Kamal, 2009). This method is also similar to the Agile method itself, as it is developed through iterations, and focuses on flexibility over a fixed plan. The setting for the application of Agile Training is a technical project undertaken for and with a microenterprise by a team - a pair of individuals who may be consultants or students in a service-learning class (Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). Twenty microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations) from the Council Bluffs/Omaha metro area were chosen for the project. All microenterprises had ten or fewer employees. The following table provides descriptive statistics of the participating microenterprises (Table 4).

27

Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic

Business Type Small Business/ Nonprofit? SB Male/ Female Owner? Male Number of Employees Project Type Location

Fitness Gym

10

Marketing, Social Media Website, Marketing Website, Marketing Website, Marketing

Council Bluffs

Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop

SB NP SB

Female Female Female

2 1 10

Council Bluffs Omaha Council Bluffs

SB

Female

Marketing, Social Media Marketing, Social Media Website, Marketing Administrative, Organizational Administrative, Organizational Administrative, Organizational Marketing, Social Media Website, Marketing Administrative

Council Bluffs

Insurance Representation Elder Care Firearms Training Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation

SB

Female

Council Bluffs

NP SB

Female Female

3 1

Council Bluffs Omaha

SB

Female

Council Bluffs

SB

Female

Council Bluffs

NP

Female

Council Bluffs

Environmental Network Marketing Clothing Store

NP SB

Female Female

1 1

Council Bluffs Council Bluffs

SB

Female

Marketing, Social Media Marketing, Social Media Marketing, Social Media

Omaha

Travel Agency

SB

Female

Council Bluffs

Lawn Care

SB

Male

10

Council Bluffs

28
Graphic Design Restaurant Arts Organization Insurance Representation SB SB NP Male Female Female 1 8 3 Website, Marketing Administrative Administrative Omaha Council Bluffs Council Bluffs

SB

Male

Website, Marketing

Council Bluffs

SB 15, NP 5

F 16, M4

70 Employees

Marketing 14, Administrative 6

CB 16, Omaha 4

In the process of Agile Training, each microenterprise identifies at least one technical project that needs attention within their organization. The training team acts both as consultants (using technical expertise to guide the project) and educators (using pedagogical expertise to teach technical skills). The duration of a project depends on a number of factors, but each project takes on average six to eight consulting sessions to complete. The interview, final testing, and impact sessions are additional, for a total of nine to eleven sessions. A session is a single visit to a microenterprise, typically lasting one to two hours. Each session with a microenterprise is counted as an iteration of the Agile Training method. Each session incorporates the cycle of observation, orientation, decision, action, and critical reflection. Insight gained from each session is then used in subsequent sessions. The initial session is an interview, which is conducted to determine the mental models of the users concerning their attitudes/perspectives of technology. (See Appendix A for a copy of the interview questions.) Interview questions also determine hardware/software availability, and nature of technological needs. Given the overview of the current

29

technical situation, the trainers and users then identify and prioritize technical projects which can be done within time/availability constraints. This approach mirrors the Agile development method, which collects user stories and prioritizes them in order of project importance. It also brings to the table everyone who is concerned with the project (stakeholders). The method of breaking large technical projects into smaller, more manageable pieces may also serve as a bit of instruction for the microenterprise owners. In the future, they will be more empowered if this skill is something that they can repeat for themselves. A survey is then administered to the users to collect additional data about users mental models, specifically around the four constructs of fear, frustration, confidence and empowerment. Each microenterprise is given a rating according to measured level of each construct. This rating is on a scale from 0-40, and the higher the number, the higher the users score is for that particular construct. For example, a user with a combined score of 33 on the empowerment construct would be said to have a high sense of empowerment. The survey is administered by email to the users directly after the first interview is conducted. Two months after each project has ended, an impact interview is held. At this point, the survey is administered a second time. The results of the first and second surveys are then compared. This is done in order to gauge any change in the users mental models over time, such as in the following illustration:

30

40 35 31 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 18 28 28 25 21 Follow Up Survey Initial Survey 34 32

Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time

The illustration shows evidence of the users mental model changes over time (Figure 2). In this instance, the user is experiencing less fear, approximately the same amount of frustration, more confidence, and much more empowerment than in the initial stages of the project. The four constructs are measured informally within each session throughout the training period. During the course of each session with a microenterprise, special attention is paid to the statements and body language of the users, in order to note changes in perceptions of technology. Any general shift toward either positive or negative constructs is recorded. Training for each session alters according to the perceived levels of positive and negative constructs. For example, if the user is making numerous frustration based statements, the instruction pauses while the trainers attempt to determine the reason behind the statements. This is done by asking questions of the user. If the reason cannot be

31

determined, the trainers resume the session. The trainers then determine post session if/how the course of the project should change. The remaining sessions focus on the smaller project goals/technical lessons that were previously agreed upon. Before each session, the trainers decide on technical lessons for the session. The users work hands-on with the hardware/software whenever possible. As the session proceeds, the trainers use interactive methods to teach each lesson. These interactive methods take the form of the strategic toolkit discussed above. It is important to note that the frequent iterations of Agile Training enhanced the discovery of the tools contained in the strategic toolkit (pair training, parallel tracks, refocus on the user, the OODA loop). Prior to this study, the principal trainer (RJ) had worked directly with four microenterprises over two years (with additional indirect exposure to ten microenterprises through the IT for Development course). Work with each microenterprise lasted an entire semester, with only one project undertaken at a time. In contrast, the study of Agile Training proposed work with twenty microenterprises in the course of nine months, with projects to be worked concurrently. As a result, the process of working with the microenterprises was shortened from an average of fourteen weeks to an average of seven weeks. Concurrent projects also allowed the trainers to treat each session with a microenterprise as a teaching tool for all future sessions with all of the microenterprises in the study. A lesson learned from one session with a microenterprise could result in a process change which may affect future sessions with all twenty microenterprises.

32

Consequently, the process of discovering patterns of behavior and developing tools as a response to those patterns was greatly accelerated. During the prior two years, patterns of behavior had been noted and resolved individually. The time constraints of the Agile Training project permitted the researchers to discover patterns and adjust to user behavior in shorter iterations, allowing for a more precise identification of tools in the strategic toolkit. The speed and number of the iterations provided invaluable feedback for the researchers, and thus became important in its own right. Iteration cycles are central to Agile software development, Agile Training, and the action research method. Iteration cycles deliver feedback and opportunities to alter the process to better fit the situation at hand. Process alterations provide opportunities to enter the iteration cycle using a different approach, which elicits additional feedback. The cycle of approach and feedback is the heart of the Agile Training process. When the iteration cycle speed is increased, the ability to refine the method also increases. The development of an effective pedagogical method for training microenterprises to use IT is the goal of this research. The action research methodology provided an opportunity for the researchers to experiment on their feet with the structure of the proposed process. When this research was proposed, the researchers had an adaptation of a software development method, and a number of ideas concerning the pedagogical process. Many of the elements in this study were unknown at the beginning of the process. Rather, the components of Agile Training were revealed over time. The iterative cycles of action research permitted the researchers to refine previous ideas while exploring new landscapes. Therefore, action research methodology is appropriate for answering the research question.

33

4.2: Impact Impact measurement takes place during each Agile Training session. Near the end of each session, the trainers determine if a skill/concept has been successfully taught by asking the microenterprise owner to teach them the skill/concept as if they were a new employee. As an alternative, the user is given the opportunity to perform the evaluation at the beginning of the next session, rather than immediately, if that makes the user more comfortable. This evaluation accomplishes several goals. It causes the microenterprise owner to assimilate the new information before the session breaks. In having the user try to explain the new information to another person, the approach identifies gaps in the user's learning, which the trainers can then address. These skills/concepts are measured on a pass/try again basis. At the beginning of the next session, the user is offered a second chance at any skills/concepts not passed in the previous session. After each session has ended, the trainers meet at a separate location to evaluate the impact of the session. A list of technical lessons learned is recorded. Critical reflection also takes place. The session is discussed, with particular emphasis on user reactions that seemed out of the ordinary. The users responses to the session are noted, and further alterations to the trajectory of the project are proposed if needed. A plan is outlined for the next session. The effect of each session is measured by skills demonstrably learned on the part of the users. The effect of the session is also determined by shifts in the users mental models. These are determined both directly and indirectly, using user behavior as the principal measure. This behavior is shown in the users verbal statements and body language.

34

The final session is a review of all of the skills and concepts learned during previous sessions. The primary reason for testing the skills a second time is to ascertain if the previously learned skills/concepts have been retained over a period of time. The subjects are allowed to use notes made during previous sessions. This approximates the actual environment in which the skills will be demonstrated. 4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process An Agile training process lasts between nine and eleven session. The first session is a consultation in which the trainers conduct an interview with the users. This interview is intended to ascertain both the technical needs of the users and their perspectives on technology (mental models). During the following six to eight sessions, the trainers and users work together to build skills and learn technical concepts, usually through the accomplishment of technical projects, such as building a website or creating a social media campaign. After the technical project/s are finished, the trainers use one session to test the users on all of the skills/concepts that have been learned during the process. Two months after the testing session, the trainers conduct a final impact interview. This interview is designed to ascertain the effectiveness of the Agile Training process. Below is an example of what the Agile Training process looks like in action. This example is designed to give the reader a feel for the process, and does not represent any single user involved in the project. The first session started with the entrance interview, conducted by RJ. Susan, the flower shop owner, granted permission for the interview to be recorded. Andrew took notes during the interview, focusing on Susans facial expressions, body language, and

35

positive/negative statements concerning technology. During the interview, Susan often punctuated her answers to the questions with nervous laughter. Her body language also indicated nervousness. This is generally normal for the first few minutes of the entrance interview. RJ will usually tell them a story, or relate to something that they are saying, in order to get the nervousness to die down and the user to relax a bit. Susan revealed in the interview that she had owned this flower shop for thirty years, navigating through many business upsets and dry spells. It is clear from her stories that she is an extremely intelligent and capable person. Susan also indicated a willingness and eagerness to learn technological skills that will be important to her business. A behavioral pattern emerged during the interview. Numerous times, she referred to herself as dumb or incompetent with regard to technology. For example, during the interview she stated "youll have to be patient with me, because I'm such an idiot with this stuff". Though Susan presented herself with confidence in many aspects of her business, the technological aspect was riddled with fear about her ability to navigate technology. She also had a somewhat negative perception regarding the pace at which technology changes, stating that just when you get used to doing things a certain way, something always comes along to upset the applecart. During the interview, Susan related a story about a negative experience with IT. A few years ago, she was having printer problems. She called someone out of the phone book for assistance. This person charged her by the hour to look at the printer. When seven hours had passed, he pronounced the printer unfixable and left the scene. Susan paid the bill and purchased another printer. She decided to ask her nephew to install the printer. When he arrived, he examined the unfixable printer first, and found that the printer was

36

indeed fixable, and only required an ink cartridge change. It was clear during the recounting of this story that Susan was still frustrated from this experience. The trainers discussed the interview afterwards. Susan was interested in a social media campaign for the flower shop. In addition, she was considering franchising the shop and needed a way to communicate with employees in different cities, without spending half her life in the car. During the session, Susan and the trainers had decided that the social media campaign was the highest priority. The trainers decided to start Susans social media blitz by working with the Facebook page. Susan had determined that a segment of her target market was on Facebook, and she had built a Facebook page six months previously. However, she had failed to continue to update the page, stating lack of update material as the reason for the abandonment. It was decided to start with the Facebook page because it was an already familiar environment. The trainers decided that when the situation warranted, they would move on to less familiar social networking sites (Twitter, Pinterest, and so on). Susans fear of using technology was also discussed. It was decided to continue to monitor this fear level. When the fear reached a certain intensity (ascertained through fearful statements and body language), it could then be addressed. During the time between the interview and the first teaching session, Susan took a survey designed to further determine her mental models and perspectives on technology. The results of this survey indicated high levels of fear and frustration, as was shown in the interview.

37

The next appointment was the first session of Agile Training. RJ took the teaching role. Andrew observed and took notes during the meeting. The Facebook page was the focus of the first session. The first part of the meeting involved a discussion of target market and the platform of social media in general. Susan seemed relatively relaxed during this part of the session. She expressed surprise at the numerous changes in advertising that social media had brought about. At that point, RJ began technological instruction on how to use the Facebook page as a social media tool. Susan used her own laptop for the session, with RJ sitting behind her. As RJ began the tour of the various elements of the Facebook page, Susans demeanor changed. She began to ask rapid fire questions, and then proceeded to click on several elements of the page in an attempt to answer her own question. Several times, RJ noticed that the answers to Susans questions were written directly on the screen, but Susan seemed to overlook this. RJ saw that Susan was becoming more and more frustrated. Andrew also noted Susans statements, which ranged from fear I just cant make that happen to frustration Why wont Facebook let me do that. RJ then made a decision to adjust the method slightly, in order to help Susan calm down a bit. RJ slowed down the process in two ways. First, RJ helped Susan focus on only one operation at a time. Whenever the focus began to scatter, RJ would bring it back to the single operation that she had asked Susan to accomplish. Second, she began to relate the concepts learned at the beginning of the session to what was currently on the screen. One of the concepts at the beginning had been the nature and quality of status updates. RJ asked Susan to find another business page and scan the updates, noting similarities. These similarities were put back into the context of what had been learned in the beginning of the session.

38

These techniques helped to calm Susan. The fear and frustration statements did not stop altogether, but the severity and frequency of the statements diminished. Susans body language also calmed down a bit. The rest of the session continued without incident. At the end of the session, Andrew role-played being the flower shops newest employee in charge of social media. He asked her questions about how to administer the Facebook page for the flower shop. RJ took notes as to whether or not Susan answered the questions correctly. Susan got a bit frustrated, but she was able to remember nine out of the ten skills that had been taught in the session, including how to switch from a personal Facebook profile to business profile, how to engage with other business profile pages, and how to link her Facebook status to update her Twitter feed. After the session, the trainers discussed Susans reactions. The lack of focus during the session (clicking from page to page without reading, not finishing one operation before starting another, etc) could have been related to her fear of technology, or it could have been related to Facebook itself. It was agreed that the trainers would find out during the next session by introducing a different social media tool. It was also agreed that the one task at a time method of slowing Susan down was effective, and could be tried again if the need arose. Finally, the trainers decided that if the lack of focus problem occurred again, then the next session would be time to address the situation, and perhaps find the root cause. The next session covered all aspects of using Pinterest as a social media tool. Pinterest is an image oriented social networking tool used by a large segment of Susans target

39

market (females aged 25-60). RJ started the session with a review of some concepts of social media from the first session. Susan remembered all of the concepts, and was happy to report to us that she had actually ventured out on her own and looked at Pinterest, though she had not yet signed up for an account. RJ and Susan then made an account for Susan on Pinterest. Susans demeanor changed again, replicating what had happened in the previous session (asking rapid fire questions, clicking on every visible button, etc). RJ once again employed the one task at a time approach, which Susan responded to. RJ decided that it was time to further explore the lack of focus situation. RJ began asking some questions, and it was determined that the lack of focus was precipitated by Susans fear of failure. RJ and Susan discussed the fear, and ways that Susan might remedy the situation. Susan indicated that she was willing to try slowing down and addressing the fear when it cropped up. RJ and Susan then turned their attention back to learning the different aspects of Pinterest. The fear of failure/lack of focus problem recurred during the remaining sessions. However, the problem always resurfaced temporarily, and responded favorably to the one task at a time treatment. A different pattern began to emerge in the remaining sessions. Whenever signing up for a new social media site, Susan would need to create a new user account with a user name and password. Her current method of password storage involved writing passwords down on different sheets of paper. This made signing back into social media sites problematic. When Susan failed in her attempt to log back into Pinterest, she quickly became frustrated, making statements such as I dont understand why they wont let me log in.

40

They must not want me on their website. In this situation, the trainers ascertained two problems. First, the passwords needed to be kept in a more organized way for easy retrieval. Second, she jumped to the conclusion that the system was trying to prevent her from being on the site (indicating a frustration based mental model). This conclusion is actually the opposite of the truth. The intent of social media websites is to keep users on their site for as long as possible. Frustration based mental models are dealt with in a different way than fear based mental models. RJ decided to deal with the frustration mental model before addressing the password issue. The decision was made in relation to the fact that when faced with both a process problem (passwords) and a mental model problem (frustration), the trainers always deal with the mental model problem first. Mental model problems are often more serious, as these deeply held assumptions can affect the user for long periods of time, if left unconfronted (Senge, 1990). The frustration issue was dealt with through educating Susan on how social networking sites are designed to work (ie, keeping users on the site for as long as possible). This was opposite of her former conclusion, that the system was blocking her access to the site. There are often several options for recovering username and password information, as well as several ways to back up the information. RJ and Susan tested this theory by attempting to sign in to several sites requiring account information. The examples were successful in helping to shift Susans mental model away from frustration. The password problem was then dealt with through educating Susan on several ways to store username and password information. Susan then chose a method which was the easiest for her to accomplish: emailing all passwords to herself with a codename in the title of the email.

41

Over time, Susans perspective of both technology and herself using technology changed. By the last session, she appeared to be much more relaxed when working with technology. She had also made a couple of statements based on her confidence level, I think Im really getting this and I guess you can teach an old dog new tricks. During the final testing session, Susan retained 35 out of the 36 skills/concepts that she had learned during the Agile Training process. The above process demonstrated Agile Training in action. We saw how Agile Trainers deal with both fear and frustration based mental models. We also saw that when faced with a choice between dealing with a mental model (frustration) and dealing with a process problem (password storage), Agile Trainers deal with the mental model first. There was also evidence of a shift in mental models (from fear to confidence). The example also highlighted a description of how/why projects are prioritized (beginning the project with the Facebook page). Finally, the Observation Orientation Decision Action (OODA) loop was demonstrated in the various decisions that took place in the moment (dealing with Susans fear, educating her on how social networks function).

5.0: Results
Information technology is pervasive in the daily activities of an entrepreneur. Technology changes produce a variety of effects, rippling over time. Results measurement can be regarded as the acquisition of a new set of tools that the entrepreneur can leverage as he/she sees fit. The more tools the entrepreneur can add to the workbench, the more impact the interaction will have on the individual, the organization, and the community as a whole. This study measures impact in terms of first order (individual), second order (organization), and third order (community) effects.

42

First order effects are defined as effects on the individual. When an interaction is complete, how many new skills has the individual learned? What can he/she do with technology that they could not do before? Has the individual gained any new tools, software or otherwise? What is the level of mastery that the individual has been able to attain on the new tool? Was the individual able to learn any new techniques during the process of the interaction? Have these techniques influenced the individuals daily work? Finally, has the individual learned new options for making progress on problems which had previously seemed insurmountable? Are there any new alternatives/workarounds available? Fifteen organizations achieved significant first order effects as a result of the study (Figure 3). Though twenty microenterprises participated in the project, only fifteen had finished with the process at the time results were measured. The number of individuals involved in the sessions at each organization ranged from one to six. Consequently, first order effects are measured in terms of individual organizations, rather than individual people. Individual skills taught ranged in length and scope from simple data backup to creating social media marketing campaigns. The skills taught fell into two broad categories: Marketing (attracting new business) and Information Management (processing information on current business). In total, six hundred sixty five skills/concepts were taught to fifteen organizations. The average number of skills taught to each microenterprise was 44.4. See Appendix D for a breakdown of specific skills learned within an actual session.

43

Fitness Gym Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop Insurance Representation Network Marketing Travel Agency Lawn Care Elder Care Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation Environmental Clothing Store 0 10 20 18 14 19

25

59

33

40 74 50 68 72 37 42 66 49 30 40 50 60 70 80

Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions Skills/concepts were measured both in the session in which they were taught and on the day of the final session, in order to ascertain whether the skills were being retained over time. On average, the users retained 95% of the skills/concepts they had learned (Figure 4).

44

Fitness Gym Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop Insurance Representation Network Marketing Travel Agency Lawn Care Elder Care Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation Environmental Clothing Store 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
89% 93% 89%

100%

100%

97%

95%

93%

100%

96%

97%

95%

98%

95%

94%

100%

Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time The trainers weighted the skills/concepts according to perceived importance to the organization (Figure 5). As the skills/concepts were tabulated, the trainers gave each skill an importance score. The trainers used the importance to evaluate the usefulness of each skill/concept to the user. Every skill/concept was evaluated against the following criteria,

45

which were measured on a Likert scale: level of difficulty, number of attempts, critical to project, and projected frequency of use. Number of attempts on each skill was a criteria for evaluation because each attempt is significant to the user. Skills that are passed in four or five attempts are typically more significant to user memory than a skill passed in one attempt. Each criterion was given a rating from 1 5. The ratings were then added, and the sum became the importance score. Below is a sample skill taught during a session, along with an example of importance score tabulation. For this particular skill, the importance score was 13/20. Trainers consider skills with an importance score above ten to be substantially useful to the user. Trainers also examine the overall importance scores of the skills learned in a session. For example, if over half of the skills in any session have an importance score above ten, then the session is considered to be useful. The importance score keeps the trainers focusing on useful skills/concepts.

46

Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation The first order effects (skills, concepts, techniques and options) taught as a part of the IT interaction process have the potential to create a ripple effect in the Council Bluffs community. In terms of the sheer number of effects that have already been felt, it is clear that the partner organizations indeed have more tools for their respective toolboxes, making it easier for them to gain traction in an increasingly technological marketplace. Second order effects are effects on the organization as a whole. How many process changes have taken place as a result of the interaction? Have any time savings occurred? How about money savings, in terms of bargaining power? Has the organization gained

47

any new contacts as a result of the interaction? Second order effects were determined by the microenterprises. The trainers collected this data during the final session. Fifteen businesses achieved second order effects as a result of the study. Process changes in the organizations are saving an average of 5-7 hours a week (Figure 6). Money savings (apart from the number of hours saved per week) differed in each organization, with a low of $100 and a high of $10, 000 (Figure 7). Many organizations also reported social media contact growth, up to 440% (Figure 8).

Fitness Gym Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop Insurance Representation Network Marketing Travel Agency Lawn Care Elder Care Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation Environmental Clothing Store 0 5 3 2 2 4 4 2 3 2 2

40

5 5

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week)

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Fitness Gym Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop Insurance Representation Network Marketing Travel Agency Lawn Care Elder Care Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation Environmental Clothing Store 0 $100 $1,500 2000 4000 $300 $3,000 $2,500 $1,000 $2,400 $500 $2,000 $2,450 $1,050

$4,500

$3,500 $4,000

$10,000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings (over one year)

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Fitness Gym Bakery Environmental Trucking Company Coffee Shop Insurance Representation Network Marketing Travel Agency Lawn Care Elder Care Business Consulting Network Marketing Foundation Environmental Clothing Store 0% 25% 50% 0% 0% 0% 0% 200% 50% 150% 0% 20% 50% 150% 50%

440%

50% 100% 150% 200% 250% 300% 350% 400% 450% 500%

Figure 8: Second Order Effects: Contact Base Growth Third order effects are focused on the effect of the interaction on the community as a whole. Third order effects take time to propagate, therefore many of the third order effects on the Council Bluffs community are yet to be determined. However, 90% of the organizations have either shown interest in becoming part of or are already part of a small business networking community. These networking communities provide accountability and serve as a sounding board for microenterprise owner/managers. Both accountability

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and sounding board factors were mentioned by many of the projects users as conditions for their success in the project. It is hoped that the users will attempt to find additional avenues for accountability and sounding boards in their respective communities. 5.1: Evolution of the Agile Training Method Agile Training is an iterative method, designed to evolve over time. The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method of training microenterprises to use information technology. Every session with a microenterprise is an opportunity to do just that; to reflect, become aware of patterns, and propose changes that will improve the training process. The following is a chronological record of the major process changes thus far. 5.1.1: Testing (10.12.2011) It seemed to RJ that the users were doing extremely well on the tests at the end of each lesson. The reason postulated for this was that perhaps the period between the instruction and the testing was too short. It was proposed that in addition to testing the users at the end of each lesson, that the last session should include an overall test of every skill/concept that had been taught. RJ and Andrew could then determine if the skills were being retained over a period of time. 5.1.2: Distractions (11.11.2011) One Agile Training session was held in a stressful environment. RJ and Andrew were meeting with a business owner in her home. Unfortunately, the children were a near constant distraction. Keeping the business owners attention was difficult, and the session ended with no skills learned for that day. It was decided that our process requires a certain level of attention. If that is not possible in the current location, a second location

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is requested. If a less distracting location is not possible, then the project must be postponed or cancelled. 5.1.3: Determining Effects (01.27.2012) Originally, effects on the organization were determined after each session by the trainers. The questions concern the amount of time and money saved by the interaction, how many contacts the organization now has, what were the process changes, etc. These questions were not asked of the users; rather they were determined by the trainers after the end of each session. During the final testing day of one of the microenterprises, RJ decided to ask the user directly. The answers provided excellent information, and it was decided that hereafter, the trainers would ask users on the final day of the interaction. Educated guesses cannot compete with direct answers from the people who know them best. 5.1.4: Teaching the Agile Training Model (02.17.2012) RJ and Andrew began considering the effects of teaching the Agile Training model to users during the final session. The discussion was precipitated by the final testing day for one of the microenterprises. It was stated in the car afterward that the user might have benefited from being taught how to use the Agile Training model for themselves, so that they might use the method in the future. Since several microenterprises had already finished their sessions, it was decided that RJ should develop a tool and distribute it to the microenterprises electronically. The tool will be distributed upon completion. 5.1.5: Feedback (02.27.2012) This process change concerned eliciting feedback from the users concerning their experience of the process. RJ had been asking for feedback at the final session. However,

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the essence of agility is being able to receive feedback and make appropriate changes throughout the process, not just at the end of the process. It was decided to ask the users feedback questions informally, every 2-3 sessions. Potential questions include: How has your experience been thus far? Is there anything youd like to learn about that we have not yet covered? How do you think the process could improve? This feedback is gathered in order to tune the process for each user. In several cases, the user has provided feedback that has changed the course of the sessions. For example, one user mentioned that she would like to learn more about different methods of email organization. Though this was not in the original discussion, she had become interested in the topic through the course of the sessions. The sessions were adjusted to allow room for the new topic. 5.1.6: Dealing With the Frustration Mental Model (03.08.2012) RJ began to notice a pattern for the users experiencing the frustration mental model. Many of them were overclickers, racing past the answers to their own questions. Frustration is about the person not being able to operate within the system, which is a perceived external force. Education about how the system is designed to work has been our primary response to frustration. Perhaps if the element of helping people to see what might be contributing to the problem were added to the process, it might be even more effective. At this time, no decision has been made to integrate the proposed process; a discussion with Andrew is needed. 5.2 Discussion The results of the study were determined by effects on the individual, the organization, and the community. According to the data, it would appear the Agile Training method has been successful in teaching skills/concepts to microenterprises and the skills/concepts

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have been retained over time. In addition to technology skills/concepts, process changes were made in organizations that saved time and money, and increased business contacts. Community effects have also been observed, with the caveat that these can be more accurately measured in the future. Over time, the mental models of many users also shifted from negative (fear, frustration) to positive (confidence, empowerment). This shift in perception will likely leave the microenterprise owners more prepared for successful technological encounters. Results were also determined by the development of the Agile Training method. As is evidenced above, this method has evolved through much iteration in order to arrive in its present state. Although the training method has proved successful, the iterative nature of Agile Training suggests that the method has not reached its final form. Rather, it will continue to evolve with more research opportunities. The process of developing the Agile Training method was tremendously instructive. The iterative nature of the process allowed the author to experiment, ask questions, and consistently question the boundaries of the known technical training landscape. This consistent state of inquiry was both invigorating (discovering new ideas/connections) and exhausting (uncovering inaccurate ideas/connections). The process of developing a new method clearly requires significant amounts of energy and persistence. However, the value of developing an adaptive, effective pedagogical method is well worth the effort. 5.3: Limitations, Contribution to Knowledge All subjects were chosen out of the same geographical region (the Council Bluffs/Omaha metropolitan area). The microenterprises were all within driving distance; therefore the

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trainers were able to meet face to face with the users. One limitation of the study was that it could have been conducted at a distance with a select number of microenterprises, using tools such as Skype or join.me for videoconferencing. Given that a portion of the data collected during the sessions was nonverbal, it would have been interesting to see how distance training impacted the study results. Also, the cultural homogeneity of the study may have influenced the results. All participants in the study were Caucasian, middle class business owners/nonprofit managers. The extent to which a multicultural participant pool might have affected the results is unknown. An additional limitation in this project is the sessions were always conducted by the same two individuals. It would be impossible to tell how much of the individuals personal styles affected the results of the study. This limitation could be a subject of future research. A key assumption in this research project is that the users desire to learn technology skills/tools/techniques. It is assumed that since the users will need to agree to work with the trainers, the desire to learn technology is present by default. However, there are different degrees of desire to learn. Developing an instrument to measure desire to learn technology would have provided a more detailed picture of the results of the study. The research project blended aspects of IT, organizational development, education, and psychology. This study contributes to the scholarship in the fields of information technology pedagogy in that it offers a new set of tools that technology trainers can adapt for various learning situations. Specifically, the set of tools includes the Agile Training Principles (Table 3), the adaptation of the twelve underlying Agile Manifesto principles

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(Appendix C), and the tools in the Strategic Toolkit (Pair Training, Parallel Tracks, Refocus on the User, the OODA Loop, and Demonstrationless Training). These tools are intended to extend the pedagogical toolkit of technology educators, and in so doing, increase their effectiveness in difficult pedagogical situations. This study contributes to information technology literature in that it adds to the growing body of knowledge on the extension of Agile methods into unrelated fields, such as project management and education.

6.0 Conclusion
Technological tools are essential for success in todays business environment. Plandriven training has been moderately successful, yet it yields variable results. Methods must be devised to make technological training more effective in unconventional educational environments, such as the microenterprise. The Agile Training method seeks to provide such learning through techniques that emphasize highly dynamic and flexible interactions between trainers and microenterprise users; frequent iterations involving planning, instruction, practice, evaluation, and critical reflection; and close attention to mental models. It appears that the development of the Agile Training method as a pedagogical tool produces successful results. A direct comparison with the plan-driven pedagogical method was beyond the scope of this study. However, those results would provide a fuller picture of where Agile Training fits in the overall landscape of pedagogical methods. In order to be more fully understood, this subject requires additional study.

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Appendices
Appendix A: Initial Interview Questions1 1. What does your business do? 2. What made you want to get into business for yourself? 3. In terms of your business, what is it that you enjoy doing most? 4. What does "success" mean for you and your business? How do you know whether you are being successful or not? 5. What software programs/services are you currently working with? What does the program do? What business goal does it help accomplish? How well does it accomplish that goal? 6. What hardware do you currently operate? What does the hardware do? What business goal does it help accomplish? How well does it accomplish that goal? 7. Tell me a story about a great experience you had with IT. What happened? Why was this a great experience? What did you do? What were your expectations of how things should have gone? Why? What did you learn as a result of this experience? 8. Tell me a story about a terrible experience you had with IT. What happened? Why was this a terrible experience? What did you do? What were your expectations of how things should have gone? Why? What did you learn as a result of this experience? 9. Which type of experience is more typical? 10. What inspires you about technology? What drives you crazy about technology? 11. Describe your best learning experience (doesn't have to be formal school setting). 12. If you were to shape this business according to your wildest dreams through the use of technology, what would that look like?
1

The instrument containing these questions was approved by the Institutional Review Board - #IRB31710-EX.

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13. How can technology help you to help your business? Appendix B: Mental Model Survey These questions are on a scale. There are no wrong answers. Choose the perspective that applies to you the most. If you find that the question does not apply to you, choose "Neutral".

1. I am able to keep up with the advances happening in the information technology field. 2.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I hesitate to use technology for fear of making mistakes that I cannot correct. 3. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Learning to use technology is like learning any new skill the more you practice, the better you become.

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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4. I have difficulty in understanding the technical aspects of computers. 5.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree The challenge of learning about information technology is exciting. 6. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I worry about the possibility of destroying a large amount of data by hitting the wrong key. 7. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I am confident that I can learn whatever information technology skills I might need. 8. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree For the most part, technology systems are designed to be

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree user friendly.

Agree

Strongly Agree

9. I am sure that with time and practice I will be as comfortable working with technology as I am in working with any other tool in my business. 10.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree When information security is a concern, I tend to avoid using technology, if at all possible. 11. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree There are times that no matter how hard I try, I just can't seem to find what I need on the Internet. 12. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I can usually find a way to accomplish any technology task I

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree set out to do, no matter how difficult it might be. 13. Searching for new technologies to improve the way I do business is exciting. 14. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Working with IT professionals makes me anxious. 15. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I become frustrated with the computer system when I fail to accomplish a technical task. 16. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I am overjoyed whenever I complete a problematic technical task. 17. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Looking for new technologies to improve my business is overwhelming.

Agree

Strongly Agree

18. Finding a solution/work around to a difficult technical problem makes me excited. 19.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree When I fail to complete a technical task, I become disappointed with myself. 20. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Unexpected technical difficulties are a good opportunity to develop skills. 21. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Based on my past experiences, I believe that I can almost always

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree find a solution to my technological difficulties. 22. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree My technical skills are limited to what others teach me. 23. I avoid experimenting with new ways of doing things. 24. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I believe that if I make a mistake, that I will find a way to remedy it. 25. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree When I encounter a technical difficulty, I have trouble finding a way to solve/work around the problem. 26. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree After completing a particularly Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree stressful technical task, I lack any sense of accomplishment. 27. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Success in completing technical tasks inspires me to take on more difficult tasks. 28. Dealing with unexpected technical difficulties is usually a cause for aggravation. 29. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I am uncomfortable approaching technical problems without assistance. 30. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree I approach technical problems with the predetermined belief that I am capable of finding Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

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Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

2

Agree

Strongly Agree

a solution. Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

31.

When I run into technical trouble, it is better for me to seek help than to try to work it out by myself.

32. Sometimes when working on a solution to a technical problem, I get so focused that I lose track of time.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

The instrument containing these questions was approved by the Institutional Review Board - #IRB31710-EX.

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Appendix C: Twelve underlying Agile Manifesto principles. Agile Manifesto Principles Customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of useful software Welcome changing requirements, even late in development Working software is delivered frequently (weeks rather than months) Working software is the principal measure of progress Sustainable development, able to maintain a constant pace Close, daily co-operation between business people and developers Face-to-face conversation is the best form of communication (co-location) Projects are built around motivated individuals, who should be trusted Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design Simplicity Agile Training Principles User empowerment by enactive mastery of useful IT skills/concepts Welcome changing learning scope at all times during the training process Useful IT skills/concepts are learned frequently (every session rather than weeks) Demonstrable IT skills/concepts are the principal measure of progress Sustainable learning, able to maintain a constant pace Close cooperation between user and trainer Face-to-face conversation is the best form of communication (co-location) Projects are built around motivated learners, who should be trusted Continuous attention to the learning environment using the OODA Loop Simplicity Self-organizing training teams, comprised of two trainers who switch roles (trainer, note-taker) whenever needed Continuous adaptation to changing circumstances using the OODA Loop

Self-organizing teams

Regular adaptation to changing circumstances

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Appendix D: Breakdown of specific skills learned within an actual session. Importance score (out of a possible 20) 12 9 8

Skill Adobe Lightroom: Adding a watermark on photos for use on website Dropbox: basic concepts and account setup Java Updates: basic concepts and update acceptance Hardware Update: acquired, downloaded and installed drivers from the Internet Metadata: basic concept, using Google Adwords to identify them Google Adwords: identifying a good hit range Google Adwords: the definition of local monthly searches Doodlekit (website design software): adding a photo library by bulk uploading Website SEO: adding same metadata to both photo and description Paint: basic concepts of file formats, conversion of files from PNG to JPEG for use on website File selection: use shift to select an entire file list File selection: use control key to select specific files from a list

10 8 8 13 11

7 6 6

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