ETHICS -knowledge itself and influenced by the environment you are in.

-the philosophical and practical science that deals with the study of the morality of human acts or human conduct Ethics therefore is a: a. Science- systematized body of knowledge b. Philosophy takes a look at the ultimate cause; truth by human reason. There is an analysis of considering the good or bad of an action; ultimate. Morality the quality of human acts where the acts could either be good or right, evil or wrong. -spiritual aspects, the system of the rules for the superego or rigid and not influenced by any external sources (e.g. religion, profession) [What makes good, good? What makes bad, bad?] A good is an act which is in conformity with the dictates of right reason. A bad act in runs without transgression. Relation and Distinction of ethics and Morality Relation - both involves a study about human conduct - Morality provides ethics a perspective of what to study about: rightness or wrongness of human conduct. - Morality provides ethics a quality to determine or differentiate the rightness or wrongness of an act Differences Ethics refer to the knowledge of what to study about that is the right ness or wrongness of human conduct Morality is the application of the knowledge of the rightness or wrongness to the human conduct Ethics indicates theories (knowledge) Morality indicates application Ethics is the word Morality is the flesh Types of Ethics 1. Meta-ethics or Analytical ethics elucidates the meaning of ethical terms. Example: what does really right mean? (it examines the definition) 2. Normative or prescriptive ethics establishes how a man should act; seeks to discover how one ought to act; establish norms. Example: how should a man act? 3. Descriptive or Comparative ethics study of peoples belief about morality. Example: what is the rational meaning behind the mans decision? 4. Applied or Practical Ethics application of ethical theories to everyday situation or experience. Example: Does option A provides good to the greatest number of people? The religionist content that there can be no morality without GOD, whereas the ethician

maintains that morality remains possible even without GOD. Law obligatory, pertains to social aspect Ethics non-obligatory, pertains to GOD and others To acknowledge that individuals can come to different opinions in regard to value issues is not to say that all opinions have the same worth or that a particular answer is better than that of the other. -does not provide absolute answers, provides a moral map or framework or guide on now to arrive at the rightful decisions. There is a fine distinction on or overlap between law and ethics. They may be congruent or conflicting. For example, what is ethical may not be legal and what is legal may not be ethical. Nursing ethics Carries empirical studies concerning ethical and legal issues, conceptual analysis of modes of thought in health care. Analyzes officials and codes of conduct from statutory bodies (PRC), professional organizations, government departments and health authorities. Focuses on political and policy issues as they affect the health care professionals [death penalty] Sodium thiopental Pancuronium muscle relaxant Potassium choride bolus Ethics and Human Act Human acts acts which are done with knowledge and full consent of will - Makes us different from animals Knowledge- know or aware of what you are doing Freedom according to ones free will, no coercion, intimidation, force or undue influence Voluntariness intentional Example: Premarital sex, staying in love Acts of man- acts performed without knowledge and full consent of the will - No 3 elements present Example: digestion inside your stomach, falling in love Vincible ignorance ignorance that can be overcomed by exerting some effort (hemibalismus-flinging movement of the extremities) Invincible ignorance ignorance that can be hardly be removed even if one were to exert effort in overcoming it. Example: born with parents who are atheist and surrounded by atheist thereby invincibly ignorance with Catholicism Erroneous conscience a situation where ones conscience errs or is mistaken 1. Mistaken by law

2. Mistaken by the application 3. Mistaken of fact *acts can be done in good faith or bad faith Value problems big ethics -everyday judgmental calls Common approaches and solutions -philosophical or religious beliefs -weighing potential outcomes -current practice or past experience Ethical dilemma a situation when one must choose between two equally unfavourable alternatives Better decision comes from: 1. Values clarification - examining what we believe is good, bad, beautiful, worthy, meaningful or our personal values 2. Building a framework to examine our decisions. Framework for ethical decision-making 1. Identify the characteristics of the problem 2. Gather the facts of the case 3. Examine the options with initial credibility 4. Weigh and evaluate potential options 5. Make your decision and act on it 6. Assess and evaluate the results BIOETHICS -ethics of life -ethics of medical care -study of ethical controversies brought about by advances in biology and medicine (e.g.mech vent) -study of morality of human conduct concerning human life in all its aspects from the moment of its completion to its natural end. Evolution of Bioethics -morality growing out of human relationships (started at home, school, social system) -medical ethics and the Hippocratic oath Hippocrates father of medicine Hippocratic oath doctors should do no harm to patients and must do anything to life -Research ethics and Nuremberg code Dr. Josef Mengele angel of death Nuremberg Code- informed consent needed, participants have the right to end participation at any point in the study. Battery if a nurse does bed bath and a patient does not want to be touched Assault when patients are told to take medications to avoid any restraints if refuses. Ethical principles 1. Autonomy the right of individuals to take actions for themselves -to respect autonomy is to respect others -auto self, nomos rules and principles -people engaged in autonomous and selfdetermining actions must have the belief and capability of self-governance, and a stable and internalized set of principles

-individual autonomy does not prevail when it interferes with the rights, health or well- being of another -responsibility must be assumed -Examples: advance directives, promoting independence (allowing patients self- care if able), respecting decision of refusal to treatment Autonomy not prioritized: Example, emergency situations, patient being quarantined due to swine flu despite wish to go home 2. Beneficence and nonmaleficence -the duty to help others by doing what is best for them without inflicting evil or harm -a beneficent nurse manager acts with empathy for the patients and staff without resentment or malice -conflict: sometimes treatment decisions are viewed as harmful from the patients perspective [surgery] -beneficence: 3 elements present (acts of kindness, mercy and charity) example: CPR -nonmaleficence: first do no harm [do not inject wrong medications to patients] 3. Distributive justice -giving a person that which he or she deserved -implies the benefits and burdens ought to be distributed equally and fairly, regardless of race, gender, religion, or socioeconomic status so that no one person bears a disproportionate share of benefits or burdens. Comparative- according to his needs [kidney given to patient with ESRO than to patient with ARDS] Non-comparative- according to standards, principle, policies [first come first serve basis] a. Allocation How much will be devoted to a particular effort? b. Rationing Who will get the resources and who will not? Other related principles Rights- privileges, concessions, claims freedom Fidelity- the obligation to be faithful to responsibilities or commitments to oneself and others (e.g. monogamous relationship) Veracity- telling the truth or not intentionally deceiving or misleading others [e.g. informing superiors for any errors committed] Standard of best interest vs. paternalism CODE of ETHICS -informs the nurse and the public of the values and standards of conduct -provides the professional expectations in ethical matters -provides decision making framework for solving technical problems

FILIPINO PATIENTS BILL OF RIGHTS (see SUCN HAND-OUT) HUMAN RIGHTS -not absolute and not claimed all the time I. Civil and Political rights Right to life, liberty and security of person Right to freedom from slavery and servitude Right to freedom from torture and cruel inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment Right to recognition as a person before the law Right to equal protection of law Right to an effective remedy for violation of human rights Right to freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention or exile Right to fair trial and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal Right to presumption of innocence until guilt has been proven Right to debarment from conviction for an act which was not a penal offense at the time it was committed [Bill of attainder] art III of 1987 const Right to freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence [needs search warrant prior one can go inside houses] Right to freedom of movement and residence, including with right to leave any country and to return to ones country [liberty to change abode] Right to asylum Right to a nationality Right to contract a marriage and find a family Right to own property Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion Right to freedom of opinion and expression Right to participation in the government of ones country Right to equal access to public service in ones country II. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Right to social security Right to work and free choice of employment Right to equal pay for equal work Right to just and favourable renumeration ensuring the existence worthy of human dignity Right to form and join trade unions [as long as recognized by employers] Right to rest and leisure Right to standard living adequate for health and well-being (food, clothing, housing, medical care) Right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other circumstances beyond ones control Right to Protection of motherhood and childhood Right to education with parents having prior right to choose their childrens type of education Right to participation in the cultural life of ones community Right to protection of the moral and material interest resulting from ones authorship of scientific, literary/ artistic productions

Ethical Theories 1. Teleological Theories (consequence oriented) -rightness or wrongness is based on outcomes from the Greek teleos which means end or purpose A. Utilitarianism -Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) James Stuart- father of John Stuart -an ethical theory that promotes making decisions based on what will provide the greatest good for the greatest number of people -principle allows the end to justify the means

Believes: -the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by the goodness or badness of their consequences -no action is intrinsically right or wrong [no action is intrinsically right or wrong] Ex: stealing of Robinhood -the motive, intention or the past action of the doer is irrelevant. Bentham 1. nature has placed mankind under governance of two sovereign master: pain and pleasure 2. all pleasures are equal 3. as individuals, we are evoking more on pleasure than pain 4. Hedonistic calculus- method of measuring the amount of pain and pleasure that particular action is having Mill 1. high and low quality pleasure high quality pleasure example: intelligence, beauty Low quality indulgence, insensitivity 2. impossible to calculate pleasure and pain Benthams 7 categories and attendant questions (Hedonistic calculus) 1. Intensity how intense was the pleasure? [pleasure you feel with talking to friend and having a carnal knowledge with boyfriend] 2. Duration how long it will last? subjective 3. Certainty how certain you are that the pleasure will occur? 4. Proximity how soon will the pleasure be experienced? 5. Fecundity how many more pleasures will happen as a result of this one? 6. Purity how free from pain is the pleasure? 7. Extent how many will experience the pleasure? -principle of utility (formulated by Mill)actions are good insofar as they tend to promote happiness

Example: to test effectivity of drug in a person to promote good effects to the general population. Experiments useful does not respect the right of an individual -Utility= or usefulness of an action is determined by the extent to which it promotes happiness rather than its reverse pain -Happiness- a set of higher order pleasures such as intellectual, aesthetic, and social enjoyments rather than mere sensual pressure. -principle of the greatest happiness- an action is good (right) insofar as it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people; bad (wrong) insofar as it produces more harm than benefit for the greatest number of individuals -Does not promote individualism or subjectivism or just the happiness of oneself or a particular group -to the utilitarian, the good rerides in the promotion of happiness with the greatest net increase of pleasure over pain -Intrinsic goods (William Frankena) giving you pleasure =life, consciousness, and activity =mutual, affection, love, friendship, and cooperation =just distribution of goods and evils =power and experiences of achievement =self-expression =freedom -act utilitarianism particular action is morally good only if it produces more overall good than any alternative action -rule utilitarianism an action is morally right if it does not violate the set of rules of behaviour whose general acceptance in the community would have the best consequences (absolutism); give decision at earliest time possible. Criticism of utilitarianism 1. The calculation of all possible consequences of our actions or worse yet our inactions, appears impossible [you cannot predict your score the night prior the exam while you are studying] 2. Utilitarianism may be used to sanction unfairness and the violation of rights 3. Utilitarianism is not sensitive to the agent relativity of duty [does not give any relevance to duty or obligation] 4. Utilitarianism does not seem to give enough respect to person. 5. Under utilitarianism, it is justifiable to prevent others from doing what we believe to be harmful acts to themselves 6. Utilitarianism done does not provide a basis for our moral attitudes and presuppositions

Utilitarian responses to criticisms 1. Utilitarians could deny that the critics scenarios would play out as claimed 2. Utilitarians might argue that the supposedly counterintuitive result should issue in revision of our intuitions rather than a change in or rejection of the theory 3. Utilitarians might move to rule utilitarianism B. Situation ethics (advocated by Joseph Fletcher) -states that the moral norm depends upon a given situation, but whatever this situation may be, one must act in the name of Christian love 3 types of love: not referring to the feelings, no sentimental but discerning 1. Eros sexual love 2. Philia binds parents to child 3. Agape ones care, concerns and kindness towards others, best exemplified by Christian love Legalism all rules must be followed, no exceptions, more important than humans Antinomianism reject all the laws Situationism- respect for all the laws Agent: right to make the choice depending upon the situation presented His propositions: [based on agape love since the other love is biased and partial in which it is expecting something in return] -only one thing is intrinsically good, namely love, nothing else [love is good in itself] -the ultimate norm of Christian decisions is love, nothing else [love replaces the law; all rules should be based on love] -love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed [starving child means there is no love in this situation] -love wills the neighbors good whether we like him or not [love not equivalent to liking. Liking is more on the characteristics while love is more or transcends the characteristics, the inner core.] -only the end justifies the means -decisions ought to be made situationally, not prescriptively [when presented with a problem, base your decisions on that problem; not based on the past decisions Joseph Fletchers guidelines for making ethical choices 1. -compassion for people as human beings 2. -consideration of consequences 3. -proportionate good

4. -priority of actual needs over ideal or potential needs 5. -desire to enlarge choice and reduce chance 6. -courageous acceptance of the need to make decisions and the equally courageous acceptance of the consequences of our decisions Difficulties with Situation ethics 1. -contextualism may encourage ethical relativism [it is subjective; the meaning of love may be different from person to person] 2. -nonprescriptive ethics may be abused [ you can do anything without punishment if you do it for the reason of love] 3. -prudence of a situationist does not always guarantee objective and impartial judgement [due to differences in the meaning of love] *it promotes violation of human rights C. Ethical relativism -an act is ethically right if it is approved by a number of people in the society -example: abortion in US is ethically right due to legality of it in that place; abortion in Philippines is ethically wrong -claims that there is no universal or absolute moral principle -standards of right or wrong are always relative to a particular culture or society -moral opinion of ones individual is as good as any other, for there is no objective basis for saying that particular action right or wrong apart from a specific social group Examples of culturally accepted practices with surrounding ethical issues 1. Allowing old people to die of starvation and exposure to cold; allowing wife to sleep with guest overnighteskimo culture Amorous relationships Married Male female Relationship with Gay lesbians

2. -sense of oughtness or moral obligation transcends any socio-cultural consideration or upbringing 3. -self-contradictory and inconsistent [tells us that there are many perceptions of things but it is trying to tell us that their proposition is correct] D. Pragmatism or Progressivism/ Experimentation/ Instrumentalism/ reconstruction (Charles Pierce 1839-1914 and William James 1842-1910) -more on the meaning of truth, knowledge and ideas -believes that the true and valid form of knowledge is one which is practical, workable, beneficial and useful Practical can be practical and produce practical results Workable put to work; and it works Beneficial benefits Useful used to attain good results -the truth of an idea is determined by its consequences; if an idea is devoid of results it is meaningless -truth is a part of experiences that can provide workable guides to practical behaviors -has something to do with proving the effectivity of experiments Idea situated to knowledge Pragmatism idea is true by experimenting -called experimentalism since it promotes the process of verifying and validating the truth -John Dewey (1859-1952) believes that ideas are also instruments of action and tools for solving problems (instrumentalism) -ideas are also instruments in reconstructing experiences (reconstructionism) -ideas are true if and when they help an individual progress, grow and develop intellectually as well as morally through his own experience and self-activity - progressivism -Criticisms = very materialistic has cash value; an idea is true if it will bring profit to company [idea is true if it has the element of truth and truth here is with cash value] = very individualistic [this drug is effective if it cures my disease and not the others] = very subjective

2. A man is obligated to marry his brothers widowIsraelite or Muslim culture 3. Killing of twins; offering virgins in volcano worship; female castrationAfrican culture 4. Trial marriageAmerican culture [live in partners] Criticisms of Ethical Relativism 1. -ethical actions are universally acknowledged to be so

2. Deontological Theories (duty-oriented)

-this theory emphasizes that an act is good only if it springs from good will. The act is judged to be good if the fundamental principles

MOTIVE refers to the duty to perform; determines morality

- believes that morality is derived from rationality, not from experience, and that obligation is grounded not in the nature or man or in world circumstances but in pure reason -an action could be known to be right when it was in accordance with a rule that satisfied the principle of categorical imperative *it is a should statement, applied to all circumstances; absolute] Deontologists live in a universe of moral rules such as: 1. It is wrong to kill innocent people 2. It is wrong to steal [even if consequences are good, it is bad] 3. It is wrong to tell lies [white lies are ethically wrong acts] 4. It is right to keep promises a. Kants Theory Immanuel Kant (perfect duty and imperfect duty) Kantianism also called as intuitionism or motivist [intuitions refer to intent or motives; intents are taken into considerations; consequences not important] Kants ethics *I. kant 1724-1804] -maintains that one acts morally if and only if one does whatever one is obliged to do from a sense of duty or obligation -a categorical imperative or unconditional command must be applied similarly in all situations without exceptions universalizability -decisions are based on unchanging principles derived from universal values and considered separately from consequences Categorical imperative 1. moral rules should be universalized [it must be applied to all individuals including yourself] 2. moral rules should respect human beings [something to do with autonomy; respecting autonomy of others is acting from a sense of duty] -always act so as to treat humanity, either yourself or others, as an end and never only as a means

2 types of duty -perfect duty one must always observe irrespective of time, place or circumstances -imperfect duty- only observed on some occasions based on choice [beneficence, selfdevelopment] Beneficence mercy, kindness, charity Categorical imperative mandates an action without any conditions whatsoever and without regard to the consequences such action may yield.

Autonomy- self-regulating will; a persons independence, self-reliance, self-contained capacity to make an oral decision by and for himself -respecting autonomy is done with the notion that every person has worth and dignity, precisely because persons are ends in themselves and are capable of making their own moral decisions Criticisms of Kant: 1. -the exceptionless character (categorical principle) of Kants philosophy makes it too rigid for real life. 2. -morality cannot be derived from pure reason 3. -the disregard of the consequences of our actions can lead to disastrous results 4. -even though nonhuman animals feel pain and pleasure, for Kant they do not have any independent moral standing since they are not rational beings. 5. -it is possible to be faced with a conflict between two duties equally supported by an imperative. 6. -problems with mans rationality and nonautonomy

b. Ross Theory W.D. Ross -considers Kants absolute principles to be too rigid -moral rules serve as moral guidelines in such a way that they must be adjusted or modified, if not set aside in some situations, depending upon our situation of what is right and what is good -rightness belongs to acts, independent of motives -moral goodness belongs to motives -attempted to synthesize consequences and duty ethics a. Actual duties real duty in a given situation; it is the action one ought to choose from among any other actions b. Prima facie (at first view, as it appears) duty directs or commands what one ought to perform when other relevant factors are not taken into account *The ultimate guide in particular cases of conflict on rightness or wrongness of an action, when two prima facie duties are in conflict, is determined based on moral intuition intuitionism (subjective) 2 fold principle in resolving conflicts -act in accordance with the more stringent, stronger and more prima facie duty -act in accordance with the prima facie duty which has greater balance of rightness over wrongness compared to other prima facie duties Prima facie duties 1. Duty of fidelity duty to be faithful to ones responsibility 2. Duty of reparation or making amends (asking sorry is not enough, do something to cover up shortcomings) 3. Duty of gratitude- duty of saying thank you 4. Duty of justice- duty of giving everyone his due 5. Duty of beneficence- duty to do good 6. Duty of self-improvement 7. Duty of nonmaleficence- do no harm duty Difficulties with Ross Duties 1. Individuals differ from each others moral perceptions so Ross duty principle varies from person to person as a result of following ones own moral perception of a duty 2. Ross did not give impression as to how to solve conflicting two prima facie duties as to which of the two has the greatest balance of rightness or wrongness or which one is more stringent or stronger c. Social Justice and Equity John Rawls Rawls Theory of Justice and Equity -he has built on Kants and Ross fundamental notion of the ultimate dignity of human beings -use social morality as the basis of social justice

-rational people would choose a strategy to select an alternative whose worst possible result would be better than other alternatives (rational people is same with Kants ethics) -veil of ignorance concept or the original position whereby persons making choices would not have any specific information (sex, race, natural abilities, social status, or economic conditions) regarding those involved this choosing the alternatives for the most disadvantaged person. Theory of Justice a. Every individual is inviolable not even the general welfare of society can override or supersede this inviolability [inviolable means it should not be violated] b. An erroneous theory is tolerable in the absence of a good one and as much as possible, one should choose the better (less erroneous) law when given two (erroneous) laws c. Individual liberty (e.g. right to vote or enjoy life) should be restricted in order to maintain equality of opportunities 2 fold principle of justice -first, equal access to the basic human rights and liberties -second, fair equality of opportunity and equal distribution of socio- economic inequalities Justice in human relation (4 types of duties) fairness is the focus [no prioritization of his duty] 1. Fairness in over dealings with others- observing justice 2. Fidelity- faithful to duty 3. Respect for person- respect for autonomy 4. Beneficence Natural duties 1. Duty of justice 2. Duty of helping others in need or in jeopardy 3. Duty not to harm or injure others 4. Duty to keep promises Difficulties: -his requirements of the veil of ignorance seems to contradict his notion of justice as fairness and the rationality of human beings -despite his objection to utilitarianism, his concept of justice (restricted individual liberties are for the benefit of everyone) likely parallels the utility principle [ principle of the greatest number] d. Natural law or Objectivism / Scholastic ethics / Thomastic ethics St. Thomas Aquinas -there exists a natural moral law which is manifested by the natural light of human reason, demanding the presentation of the natural other and forbidding its violation -the divine law expressed in human nature -in this view, the source of moral law is reason itself

-reasons recognize the basic principle: do good, avoid evil ethics is grounded in our concern for human good Synderesis inherent capacity of an individual to distinguish the good from bad through reason and reflection. Voice of right reason or voice of conscience -regard right reason or voice of reason as the moral norm, insofar as an individual capacity to determine what is right from what is wrong is no less than the manifestation of moral law. -other view it as a voice of conscience referring to the immediate judgment of practical reason applying the general principle of morality to individual concrete actions or decisions Actions are morally right when they are in accord with our nature and end as human beings. Mans threefold natural inclinations -self-preservation -just dealing with others *propagation of our species 3 determinants of moral actions (must all be good) 1. The object (object of the moral act; thing or action) 2. The circumstances (conditions that affect [aggreavate or mitigate] the morality of an act) who? What? Where? By what names? Why? How? 3. The end of the agent (purpose of the doer or agent) affects the goodness or badness of an action or decision Double effect principle -under certain conditions, some evil effect may be permitted to occur so long as it meets the four conditions: 1. the action directly intended must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent 2. The good effect must follow from the action at least as immediately as the evil effect 3. the foreseen evil effect may not be intended or approved but merely permitted to occur 4. there must be proportionate and sufficient reason for allowing the evil effect to occur while performing the action Principle of totality a. An individual has the right to cut-off, mutilate or remove defective parts of his body only as the general well-being of the whole body requires it b. We have a natural obligation not only to preserve ourselves but also to preserve the integrity of our bodies Other moral principles under natural law ethics

1. Stewardship declares that life comes from God and humans are mere stewards or caretakers and not the master of his body 2. Inviolability of life states that life is Gods and has been loaned to us, hence It is inviolable or sacred 3. Sexuality and procreation a. Procreation and nurturing of children b. Expressions of loving union and companionship Other natural law ethics, it is morally wrong to: -allow babies with serious birth deformities or defects to die -hasten death of a person as a direct and primary intention -perform acts that terminate the lives of incurable Difficulties: -naturalistic ground on the Aristotelian assumption of an organized universe with goal or purposes contradicts the contemporary evolutional theory - conscience is not a reliable norm of morality because it differs from individual to individual 3. Virtue ethics Aristotle -he follows aretaic ethics (greek arte, excellence or virtue) -an act is morally right done by a virtuous person under the same circumstances -focuses on moral character or virtues of person -virtue ethics focuses on the heart of moral agent making the decision rather than reasoning to a right action -focuses on the sorts of characteristics, traits or virtues that a good person should base -a good virtuous character will naturally lead a person to moral actions -character of person rather than the result of the action Virtue ethics teaches: 1. An action is morally right if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry in the same circumstances 2. A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously 3. A person acts virtuously if he possess and lives the virtues 4. A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs to live well Traditional list of virtues 1. temperance slow to anger, patience 2. courage 3. wisdom- application of knowledge 4. justice Criticisms -virtue ethics generally does not provide specific direction in regard to decision-making -in that virtue ethics relies on traditional practices, it does not quickly respond to change in the practice that require new sorts of moral responses

-the traditional emphasis makes morality depend on past experiences other than reason. The environment provides little respect or personal autonomy or the use of reason in moral judgements -there is no general agreement on what virtues are relativism Responses to Criticisms -while it is true that virtue ethics does not give specific directions, it does not have to, for virtue ethics is concerned with character not action. - virtue ethics takes it a a good thing that it does not change quickly in response to whims of the masses. -while virtue ethics does not emphasize the rationality of the individual decision maker, it does not rely on higher reason; the wisdom of ages 4. Divine Command Ethics -there is a divine being who has set down a finite series of ruled that adherents claim can provide quidance to most, if not all, moral decision *Example: 10 commandments which provides ruled against stealing, adultery and murder Criticisms -command theory assumes belief in either divine beings or exemplary individuals. To the extent that these can be questioned, so can the theory.

-command theory cannot cover all possible causes of moral decisions -command theory generally have no exceptions either implicit or explicit -command theory has what maybe called euthypro problem from the platonic dialogue from which it originated Responses: -while there is no convincing response to the first criticism when sealing with unbelievers, the supposition of a divine being or exemplary being is unproblematic when dealing with unbelievers -the response is simply to argue that the questions of interpretations are not insurmountable. -it is believed that the need for exceptions to truth is a sign of a decadent time and perhaps a greater adherence to the rules will lead to a more morally sound society -a command theory could argue that there are reason behind a religious moral injunction or but that we are unable to completely fathom the justification due to our personal situations

KANT Types of duties: 1. Perfect 2. Imperfect

ROSS 1. prima facie duties

RAWLS 1. Four duties

2. actual duties -intuitionism give relevance to motive intuitionism -motivist *categorical imperative

2. Natural duties

*veil of ignorance or original position

TEOLOGICAL TELEOS consequence -an act is morally right if it produces good results, outcomes or consequences - ends justify the means [example: stealing of medication of a husband for her wife to get well] -motives, intention, past action not considered

DEONTOLOGICAL DEON duty -an act is morally right if it is done from a sense of duty [focal point is the duty or actions] -do not take a look on consequences Example: husband stealing (an act which is ethically wrong) -motives, intention, past action are taken into consideration -even if consequences were good but past-action is not, it is considered ethically wrong. -ends do not justify means -follow universal moral rules -not violating rights of others

VIRTUE ETHICS -not looking into the consequences nor duty or obligations -looking at the moral character of the person -act is morally right if such act will be done by a virtuous person given the same circumstances. -virtuous person (good character)

DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS -dependent on God -act is morally right if it is an act approved by God -to live a moral life we have to do what God wants or wishes -Following 10 commandment so the Bible