Applied Energy 16 (1984) 283-306

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam, S. D. Probert, P. W. O'Callaghan, M. Hussein* and B. N o r t o n

School of Mechanical Engineering, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, Bedford MK43 0AL (Great Britain)

SUMMARY Conventional designs of strat([ied salt-gradient ponds .lbr harnessing solar energy usually require that highly expensiw, excavation and~or constructional work be undertaken, thereby inhibiting the wide.vwead adoption of this type of solar energy collector. So a new concept the eollered solar pond ( CSP ), which is a thermally isolated zone o[a shallow lake has been considered. Via a generalised simpl(fTed steadt'-state mathematical model o[the thermal behaviour qf such a CSP lor a lake in Egypt at latitude 30 oN, the depth of the CSP has been optimised in order to achieve the maximum rate of energy capture.

NOMENCLATURE D E H Angle of declination of the sun (radians) Declination of the sun at the summer solstice, i.e. at 21 June, - 2 3 27', see Fig. 2 (radians) Insolation, just above the water's surface (W/m 2) Yearly average insolation, just above the water's surface
( W / m 2)

t9

Amplitude of the sinusoidally varying component of the insolation, just above the water's surface (W/m 2)

* Present address: Military Technical College, Cairo (Egyptt. 283

Applied Energy 0306-2619/84/$03.00 ~" Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd,

England, 1984. Printed in Great Britain

284
H(t) H(x) i kg, k,,~
LC

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

LN
L NA

L,
n

q(t)

lh

T(t) Ta(t)

L
TN(X, t)
w x

(Xg, ~w

Insolation at time t, just above the water's surface (W/m 2) Insolation reaching the depth x in the solar pond (W/m 2) Angle of incidence of solar radiation (radians) Thermal conductivities, respectively of the ground and the saline water (W/m C) Vertical thickness of the lower convecting zone, see Fig. 5 (m) Depth of the non-convecting zone plus that of the upper convecting zone, see Fig. 5 (m) Vertical thickness of the non-convecting zone, see Fig. 5 (m) Upper convecting zone depth, see Fig. 5 (m) Number of the considered wave-band of the solar spectrum (in this investigation n = 1, 2, 3 or 4) Refractive index of water (-- 1-33) Rate of heat extracted plus side wall losses per unit area of pond's surface, i.e. the heat load (W/m 2) Average value of the heat load per unit area of pond's surface (W/m 2) Amplitude of the sinusoidally varying component of the heat load per unit area of pond's surface (W/m 2) Angle of refraction of the direct solar radiation (radians) Period, measured from the summer solstice, i.e. t = zero at 21 June (s) Time of day (noon = zero) (h) Average value of pond temperature, i.e. of LCZ (C) Amplitude of the sinusoidally varying component of the pond temperature, i.e. of LCZ (C) Pond temperature (of LCZ) at time, t (C) Ambient air temperature at time, t (C) Average value of ambient air temperature (C) Amplitude of the sinusoidally varying component of the ambient air temperature (C) Temperature at depth x of the NCZ at time t (C) Annual frequency = 2rt/365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 (radian/s) Depth, being positive when measured downwards--see Fig. 5 (m) Diffusivities, respectively of the ground and the saline water (c~ = k/p) (m2/s) Phase lag of pond temperature variation behind the insolation variation (radians)

Predicted Performances

of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

285

Phase lag of ambient air temperature behind the insolation variation (radians) Phase lag of heat load relative to the insolation (radians) Fraction of solar insolation spectrum having an absorption coefficient pL, Geographical latitude (radians) Absorption coefficient for the nth wave-band of the solar insolation spectrum (m ~ ) Transmissivity Heat capacity per unit volume of water (MJ/m3 C) Skin depths of ground and water, respectively, for seasonal variations, at which the temperature oscillations of frequency 11 are damped Abbreviations CSP LCZ NCZ ucz Coffered solar pond Lower convecting zone Non-convecting zone Upper convecting zone to l/e of their surface values ((z = fl;) (m)

INTRODUCTION Non-convecting solar ponds are solar-energy collectors with built-in seasonal heat-storage capabilities. A solar pond is constructed by establishing an insulating non-convective water layer having a salt gradient above a convective heat-storage region. Insolation is absorbed by the salt solution and converted to heat. The salinity increases with depth in the pond, and so preferentially the solar radiation will heat the high salinity water near the bottom, and, because of its high relative density (due to its salt content), this hot water will not rise into the lower salinity layers. Thus heat is stored near the bottom yet inhibited from being transferred by convection.

THE

NEW CONCEPT:

THE COFFERED CSP

SOLAR

PONDmpTHE

In order to establish a solar pond for power production, it should be much larger than existing solar ponds, which are usually employed for

286

H. E. Aslan Abdel Salam

et al.

local heating purposes. However, excavation and preparation of a suitable hole of several square kilometres' extent is usually not feasible economically: excavation and preparation work would be so expensive as to account for more than 40 percent of the total capital cost of the powergenerating station, 2 so it would appear logical to employ a natural lake and convert a shallow portion of it into a solar p o n d - - s e e Fig. 1. This

I 2 3 4 5

10 POWER STATION HOT-BRaEEXTRACTION PIPE BRINERETURN PIPE POLYURETHANE FOAMSIDE WALL OF POND PONDBODY

10 6 WATERSURFACE 7 TRANSITION ZONE 8 POLYURETHANE FOAMWALLOF TRANSITIONZONE 9 MAINBODYOF THE LAKE 10 ANCHORS

Fig. I. Schematicconfiguration of a coffered solar pond and ancillary system.

could be achieved by physically isolating a section of the lake using a wall of thermal insulation material, thereby forming a CSP. Such a strategy would result in a significant reduction in capital outlay and thereby make solar ponds more attractive financially. If sufficient inducements can be so achieved, then a more widespread use of solar-pond technology will ensue. In Egypt, in particular, there exists the opportunity to convert large shallow parts of lakes (e.g. Karon Lake, Marute Lake and lakes near the Suez Canal) into coffered solar ponds.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Solar radiation

Solar insolation experiences both diurnal/nocturnal, as well as summer/winter, variations. As we are concerned with solar ponds (which are used for collection and long-term energy storage), our prime concern is with the annual variations--see Fig. 2.

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

EQUINOX

287
SP~NG EQUINOX

SUNMER SOLSTICE

AUTUMN EQUINOX
SEPT

WINTER SOLSTICE

MARH 21 *23" 27'

21

Z3

DEE 22

MARCH 21

o
27

- 23

w= 21Ttl YEAR-1 = 2TT136525 DAY-l= 2 [T/3 1538 x 107 SEC-1

TIME t ( M O N T H ) ~

Fig. 2.

Annual insolation variations for the northern hemisphere.

The latter variations for any one location can be described by a sinusoidal function of time,1 i.e. :

H(t) = / t + / ~ cos wt

(1)

Solar radiation is absorbed as it passes through the water, only the short wavelength components reaching the bottom of the pond. Using the Rabl and Nielsen 1 calculation method, the amount of

I0

o~

~_06
0/.

I
02

] ~

~L

THIS INFRA-RED I:~3RT~N(ABOUT 22 & % OF THE TOTAL) HAS A NEGL!G~LEEFFECT ON THE WATER TEMPERATURE

02

04

06

07~08= 09

10

12

I/.

16

IB

20

RADIATION WAVE-LENOTH (MICRONS )

Fig. 3.

Insolation energy spectrum.

288

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

insolation reaching a depth x can be obtained, to a good approximation, by summing four exponential terms, i.e.:
4

H(x) = ~H ) ' q, e ~"'

n=l

(2)

For the various wave-bands--see Fig. 3.... the appropriate values of q and are given in Table 1.
TABLE !

T h e A b s o r p t i o n Coefficients Wave-band Wave-band Wave-band Wave-band I II IlI 1V 0"2--* 0"6 m i c r o n s 0.6 ~ 0.75 m i c r o n s 0-75--*0.9 m i c r o n s 0.9--, 1.2 m i c r o n s ql 02 q3 q4 = 0.237 = 0-193 =0-167 =0.179 g~1 /~2 = ~3 = /~4 =
=

0"032 m 0.450 m 3.00 m 35.0 m -

Pond temperature
The time variation of the insolation, just above the pond surface, can be represented by eqn. (1). Consequently, the variation of the ambient air temperature, T,, is given by: 7", = T + ]'cos (wt - 6.)

(3)

where 6, is the phase lag--see Fig. 4. Equations (1) and (3) both have a constant term and sinusoidal one, so the temperature at any depth x in the pond will also be represented by an expression involving a constant and a sinusoidal term, the latter having the same frequency, w. Assuming the lower convecting zone (from which heat is extracted for power generation) is fully convecting, then its temperature is: T = 7"+ ]'cos ( w t - 6) (4)

where 6 is the phase lag of the pond temperature--see Fig. 4. The pond temperature is taken to be that of the lower convecting zone. It is required now to determine T, ]'and 6. The solution procedure adopted in references 1 and 4 will be followed, but with assumptions pertinent to the design adopted for this calculation.

Predicted PerJbrmances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

289

SOLAR INSOLATION H(tl

AMBIENT AIR TEHPERATURE

TQIt)

POND TEMPERATURE T(t)

TIHE, ( HONTHS)

Fig. 4.

Periodic variations of the insolation, ambient air temperature, and pond temperature showing the air and pond temperature phase lags.

Assumptions
The effect of side-wall losses will be added to the heat extracted component see Fig. 5. In the CSP, the rate of heat loss through the side walls is calculated for a specified AT and an assumed U-value of the polyurethane. An upper convecting zone, of depth L,, exists. Heat is conducted through the ground from the LCZ at the rate per unit area of:

~T~ix, t)
From practical experience, it can be concluded that, to achieve the optimal performance of the CSP, the quantity of heat extracted from it should vary sinusoidally, on an annual basis, with a phase lag 6q relative

290

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

H(t)=HH COSwt

oI,I-To"I__ TN,,o;I=
To. (t)=%~aCOS(wt-6a)
HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATIONBOUNDARY CONBffl0NS HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION : I aTNCX,t) I aH(x,t) axz --o('~ at "k-w~ (LN't)=T(t) THEI:~AL PROPERTIES PARAMETERS AND / FOR NCZ : TN(X,t), kw, C~w,O" w . . . . . H~L.N,t) . . T(t)=T.? COSiwt-8)
t

////

Lu

WATER

*~ A e_jj H(X,U:'TH(t)~I~ n n I LCZ "1 8X / : L N "NA -N

lIE.AT-BALANCEEQUATION : IU = c] ,'~ cos (wt-6q I

I

~~
--

~"--~':H'LN,~'-~1~T~/'~'I -~w ~
X: LN* Lc x:

-q'~
LN ~,/ k,JOTg(x'D ] ~ Ox ]X:LN c +L

THERMALPROPERTIES PARAMETERS AND CONTROLVOLLI'IE~.J FOR LCZ : T(t),kw~Xw,aw CONSIDERED ~ [ T E f A PROPERTIES H R4 L AND P R M T R A A EE S
F RTHEG O N O RUD

Tg, kg OCg,Og

Fig. 5.

Summary of the mathematical model equation and governing parameters for the CSP.

to the insolation. This mode of heat extraction is adopted for the present analysis. t = 0 at the summer solstice (21 June). Both the UCZ and the LCZ are fully convecting zones, so the temperature in each will be a function of time. The heat diffusion equation for the NCZ is:

?~2TN(x. t) 6x 2

1 t~TN(x, t) o~., ?t

1 ?H(x, t) kw ~x

(5)

The heat balance equation (per unit area) for the LCZ is:

Therate iheamout I'eamuntf fl f

increase of = radiation penetrating]- heat conducted heat stored through the top of ] to the ground in LCZ the LCZ ] The amount of Rate of extracted heat conducted ] - I h e a t + side wall out from the I ]losses (i.e. the LCZ to the NCZ t I thermal load)

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

291

i.e."
p wLc

dT(t) dt - H(LN, t ) -

gl

[aT.(x, t)
i?~

x=L~,+L~--

kw (?TN(x, t)
(")X x = LN--

q(t)

(6)
Prediction o f T : the time-independent component:

Equating the time-dependent terms in eqn. (5) to zero gives: d2TN

dx 2 --

1 dH kw dx

(7)

Equating the time-dependent terms in eqn. (6) to zero, assuming constant insolation, air temperature invariant, as well as no heat flow from or to the ground, gives:
[t(x = LN) = kw d T N
x =L~, Jl-

(8)

By integrating eqn. (7), using eqn. (2), and substituting into eqn. (8) we obtain"
4

T = 7" + k~-wZ/4 2
n=l

r/~. (e_ ~.L. _ e-'-<") - (LNkw-L.).q=

(9)

where ft, is the effective absorption coefficient for a particular geographical location (see Appendixes A and B).
Prediction of the time-dependent component o f t and phase lag 6."

The calculation of the time-dependent component involves solving the time varying temperature distributions in the NCZ (i.e. eqn. (5)) as a function of T and 6, substituting into eqn. (6) and solving the resulting equation for the two unknowns, 7" and 6. Eventually we obtain: T= ~ (k~ G+ + ~.~)(cos 6 + R sin 6) w'
+

(10)

tan 6 =

Rfl

,,1,

292

H. E. Aslan Abdel Salam e t a l .

where:
4

c~= r B 2
n=l

% e-~"L" - 4cos 6q + 2k~,,7.,To(F+ cos 6. - F_ sin 6.) + C

3 =

2kw
O"w

7".(F+ sin 6. + F cos 6.) + S - 4 sin

6q

ko pwL~w+ (kw G_ ) +-7o~

R =

(7O

vrw/

sinh 2Z + sin 2Z G+ - c o s h 2 Z - c o s 2Z (sin Z)(cosh Z) + (sinh Z)(cos Z) F = cosh 2Z - cos 2Z

L N Z m

L u

O"w
4-

n=l

+Z1 ~ - F _ - F + +
4

- G_ +G+

)}1

n=l

+Z1 ~ - F + - F _ and"
Z 1 ~

G -~G+

~n~,~,

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS

293

The p o n d will be constructed in Egypt according to the following specification: L a t i t u d e 30N, sea level Average soil 5 A m b i e n t air t e m p e r a t u r e : T. = 26 C T . = 15C 3. = 15 days - 0.258 radians Insolation: ( a d a p t e d f r o m reference 6) / t = 0.5385 k W / m 2 /4 = 0.1322 k W / m 2 Transmissivity: r = 0.975 (see A p p e n d i x A) Effective a b s o r p t i o n coefficient: ~, = 1.152/~,, (see A p p e n d i x B) where n = 1, 2, 3 or 4. The a p p r o p r i a t e values o f / i , are given in Table 2. T h e r m a l properties :5 For water:

k,,, = 0"603 W / m C o-,,, = 1.20 m p., = 4-187 M J / m 3 C For the ground (average soil).
ko = 0.96 W / m C ao = 2.15 m

Frequency: w2~z year - 1'72

x 10 . 3

r a d i a n / d a y = 1,99 x 10 7 radian/s

294

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

TABLE 2 The Effective Absorption Coefficients

Wave-band I Wave-band II Wave-band III Wave-band IV

0.2 ~0.6 microns 0.6--* 0.75 microns 0.75 --*0.9 microns 0.9--* 1.2 microns

r/1 = 0.237 q2 = 0.193 q3 = 0-167 74 = 0-179

/Jl = 0.0369 m- l /i2 = 0.5184 m /23 = 3.460m - 1 #4 = 40.32 m

PERFORMANCE

PREDICTIONS

A computer program has been composed in order to study the coffered pond's thermal behaviour: in particular its annual temperature variation will be predicted. The thermal design of such a pond for Egypt, at a latitude of 30N, will be optimised in this investigation. A family o f curves, Figs 6 to 10, shows that the value of L. affects the pond's temperature considerably. Figure 6 indicates that the average value of the pond temperature, ]', decreases with increases in L,, a drop in temperature of 90C to 55C occurring as L, increases from zero to 20 cm. Also, the phase lag shortens: this means that the pond heats up more rapidly as L , increases. The amplitude of the sinusoidally varying c o m p o n e n t of the pond temperature, ]', is almost unaffected by this L, increase. Figure 7 shows the effect of L,, on the sinusoidal variation of

56 55 54

T('C) 100 90
80

52

51 50 ~9 ~8 L,7 /*6

70 60 50 aO 30

5 Fig. 6.

10 Lu(Cm)

15

20

Effectsof increasing L, on ]', 7"and 6. The curves were predicted for L N = 85 cm,
L c = lOOcm, ~ = 190W/m 2, ~ = 2 0 W / m 2 and 6q = 2 9 days.

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

295

100

80

/Lul =0 Lu2 = 5[m Lu3 = loom L 4 =15cm ~ = 20cm

Lu

I ,
J N JUL U E

1
AG U SP ET OT C N V O DE E JAN FEB

2i
MAR APR MAY

21
J N U E

Fig. 7. Effects o f increasing L , on the p o n d temperature T(see eqn. (4)). The curves were predicted for L N = 85 cm, L c = 100 cm, ~ = 190 W / m 2, ~ = 20 W / m 2 and 6q = 29 days.

100[
9O L~I = 0

t T(C)

BO

Lu2 = SEre

70

,
&O#o 50

,
60

,
0 BO 90 100 L N (cm) 110 120 130 I/.0 150

Fig. 8.

Effects of increasing L N on T for different values of L,. T h e curves were predicted for L c = 100 cm, ~ = 190 W/m 2, ~ = 20 W / m 2 and 6q = 29 days.

296

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

30 ~
2~ I ~

/Lul ~ //Lu2 ///Lu3

=0 : 5cm : I0m
15cm

28

~(oc)

27 26 25 2~ 23 22 21 2O 19 18 17Z,.0 i 50 i 60 i 70

L~5 = 20cm

i 80

L 90

i 100 LN (Cm)

i 110

[ 120

J 130

i ll+O

Fig. 9. Effects of increasing L N on T for different values of L,. The curves were predicted
for L c = 100cm, 5 = 1 9 0 W / m 2, ~ = 2 0 W / m 2 a n d

6q = 2 9

days.

5s
~5

5O

60
~o

i
--.Lo3o!0:~
~----Lu2=5
[rn i L i i

///7__/__~

25 / ' - - 7 / - - 7 / - - ~ / ~ /

-5

~o

5'o

7'o

8'o

9'o

1oo
LN(Cm)

~o

12o

13o

i~o

15o

Fig. 10. Effects of increasing L N on 6 for different values of L.. The curves were predicted for L c = 100 cm, ~ = 190 W / m 2, ~ = 20 W / m 2 a n d 6q = 29 days.

Predicted PerJormances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

297

temperature. Figures 8, 9 and 10 show the behaviours of the pond temperature parameters (7", T~ 6) as a result of increasing the nonconvecting zone depth simultaneously with L, varying. Figure 11 shows the effect of the non-convecting zone depth, L N, on T, and 6: i# rises as L N increases until an optimal value (in this case 85 cm) is reached, and then decreases. As for T, generally it decreases slightly with an increase of LN. The phase lag 6 lengthens rapidly as L N increases until reaching 85 cm.

55

T(C) BO

45 (DAYS) 6 ~0

?0 60 50

35 30 25 20 15 10

3O ZO _

10 0/+0
. 50 . . . . 60. . . . . 70 . . . .

80

90

I 100

I 110

120

130

[ 1~.0

10

L N (crn)

Fig.

1 !.

Effects of increasing L N on T, 7"and 5. The curves were predicted for L u = 5 cm, L = lOOcm, ~ = 190 W/m 2, ~ = 2 0 W/m 2 and 6q = 2 9 days.

Figure 12 shows that an increase of the lower convecting zone vertical thickness for constant values of L,, L N and load q does not affect whereas such an increase leads to T falling and 6 increasing. One must compromise between the required decrease of T and the increase of L c from an economic point of view. For example, it can be seen from Fig. 12 that T-"-23.5C at L c = 100cm and T-"-12.2C at L c = 3 8 0 c m : this implies that the depth must be increased by 280 cm to decrease 7" by 11.3C. A family of curves (see Figs 13 to 19) shows the predicted thermal behaviour of the pond under various loads. Figures 13, 14 and 16 show the effects of changes in the average value of heat load ~: no dependence upon T or 6 is found, but T decreases linearly with ~. (This latter is obvious from the governing equation (eqn (9)).) So the thermal loading

298

H. E. Aslan Abdel Salam et al.

T{C) 60

(~ (D!YS] 70
5O

~T

6O

b,O

50

3O

~,0

20

30

10

20

20 ' 40 '

g0d0

I~ 12'0 %0. 160 .180 . 200 220 2 ~ 260 2 ~ 300 ' 0 ~' ('3~ ) 360 380 z, 3 ' . . . . . . . ' ' L c (cm) -

'

t,20 4.~,0 '

Fig. 12.

Effects o f increasing L c o n T, T a n d 6. T h e curves were d r a w n for L , = 20 c m , L N = 85 cm, ~ = 190 W / m 2, ~ = 20 W / m 2 a n d 6q = 29 days.

T"c'o|

100 "

SO"

O-

150

zoo

)so

(Wire2 )

Fig. 13.

Effects o f i n c r e a s i n g ~ o n T, 7" a n d 6. T h e curves were p r e d i c t e d for L , = 5 cm, L N = 85 cm, L c = 100 c m , ~ = 20 W / m 2 a n d 6q = 29 days.

(~'s) i TVC)
60

Fm ALL VALUES OF
ql =150 W/m 2

50
~0 30 20 10

15

""--

~2 = 160 W/m2

- -

= - - ~ 3

170

W/m

0-

1C

~ --.<
q

= 180 W/m2

190 W/m2

~ FOR ALL VALUESOF,

= 200 WIm2

__

qT= 210 WIm2

30

50

100

150 160 kN(Cm)

Fig. 14.

Effects of increasing ~ on T, T and 6 as L N increases. T h e curves were predicted for L, = 5 cm, L~ = 100 cm, ~ = 20 W/m 2 and 6~ = 29 days.

T('C)

150 140
130 '

120 110

50

20 5/* 2~ JUNE JUL , 15 i ~

"HAXIHUP1 T E i ~ T U R E ' 92 L 23 I i SEPT OCT I

TI 183 I 22 I DEC'

~5= 2

W/m 2 237
L

H TEPI:'ERATURE"TIHE 273 365 21 JUNE j TIME(DAYS)

~ JAN

NOV

lZ+ ~ 21 , ~ FEB PiAR

__

API:~

HAY

Fig. 15.

Effects of increasing ~ on the pond t e m p e r a t u r e T. T h e c u r v e s w e r e predicted for L , = 5 c m , L N = 85 c m , L c = 100 c m , ~ = 20 W / m 2 a n d 5q = 29 d a y s .

BO

6C

(DAYS)

4C
2C

8 C

C
-2C

I 7c
T('C) 6C 5C z.C 3C 2C 1C C 2

-&( -6C -8(

60

~0

100

"~ (Wlm 2 )

Fig. 16.

Effects of increasing ~ on ]', 1" and 6. The curves were predicted for L, L N = 85 cm, L c = 100 cm, ~ = 190 W / m 2 and 6q = 29 days.
6

5 cm,

(D~S) BO 70 60 50 ~0

~i = O W/m2

Wlm2

2 O -10
~20

//
8,
7, /

40 Wlm 2

1 ,l!c, /
60 Wlm 2 -30

60

50

20

T7
T

~.~20W/m ~ ~

: 40 W/m 2 60 W/m 2

10

~4

30

50

' 1~ LN(Cm)

' 150
--

Fig. 17.

Effects of increasing ~ on T, T and 6 as L N increases. The curves were predicted for L, = 5 cm, L c = lO0 cm, ~ = 190 W / m 2 and 6q = 29 days.

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

301

90

65=-33 _
DAYS 5O

~'00
I i JUNE i JLIL AUG i

92
' SEPT i OCT i

IBo
i NOV

183190

220 23'7 261.

t L FEB

273
i MAR APR i MAY i

3~,5
I JUNE L

TIME (DAYS)

i
DEC' JAN

Fig. 18. Effectsof increasing~ on the pond temperature T. The curveswerepredictedfor L = 5 cm, LN= 85cm, Lc= 100cm, ~= 190W/m2 and 6q =29 days. must be planned in such a manner as to extract heat from the pond without having the water boiling (or, for colder climates, freezing it). Figure 14 shows the effect upon ~"of ~ and L N increasing simultaneously. The range 180 W/m 2 < q < 190 W/m 2 gives the optimal value of Tfor all values of L N, whereas, at higher loads, ~ > 220W/mL the pond would start to freeze theoretically, but with ~ ~ 170 W/m 2, boiling ensues. Figure 15 shows the pond temperature variation over a year as it would be affected by different values of~. For all cases, as 6 and ]'are constants, the maximum pond temperature occurs in August while the lowest is in February. The effect of the other component of load ,~ is shown in Figs 16 to 18. In Fig. 16 it can be seen that, although ~ is independent of 7", it affects T and 6. The increase in amplitude of the sinusoidally varying components of the heat load do not affect T but have a considerable influence on T a n d 6 as is shown in Figs 17 and 18. For instance, in Fig. 18 for ~ = 20 W/m 2, the lowest temperature ensues in February and the highest is in August, which is quite reasonable, but for ~ = 80 W/m 2, the lowest temperature occurs in November, while the highest is encountered in May, so the value of ~ should be carefully arranged to match the power generation system (which is stimulated by the energy from the solar pond) as well as the pond characteristics. Figure 19 shows that increasing 6~ leads to T increasing and 6 decreasing, but ir remains unaffected.

302

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam et al.

6
(RADLa,~ I

T,!C,
701

1.0

0.9

0.B

0.7

06

60

05

50

0&

t.0

03

30

02

20

01

10

0 01 03

05

07

09

6q (RADIANS)
Fig. 19. Effects of increasing 6q on T, T a n d 6. The curves were predicted for L W= 5 cm, L N = 85 cm, L c = 1 0 0 c m , ~ = 190 W / m 2 and ~ = 30 W / m 2.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS (1) An optimisation study has been carried out for a coffered pond in Egypt, at 2 = 30N, with the following specification: Total depth = 2 m, i.e., L. = 15 cm, LNA = 85 cm and L c = 100 cm Load parameters: ~ = 175 W / m 2, ~ = 30 W/m 2, 6q = 0.4 radian = 23 days It has been deduced, under these circumstances, that: T=81.7C, T = 17.4C and 6 = 0 . 8 7 8 radian-=51 days

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond

303

Figure 20 shows the optimized behaviour of the pond and, in particular, the variations with time of the insolation, the air temperature and the phase lags of the air and pond temperatures with respect to the insolation. (2) Convection in the upper zone is an unwelcome physical phenomenon: it is caused by the wind mixing action, evaporation and flushing at the top of the pond. Although this convection cannot be suppressed completely, attempts should be made to try to keep the layer as thin as possible by choosing a suitable site and orientation, as well as inhibiting wind action by using wind breaks, e.g., nets, floating obstacles or trees on the north side (in Egypt) of the pond. (3) In our design, the optimisation procedure aimed at increasing ]rand decreasing T (thereby increasing the heating efficiency). Theoretical
?00INSOLATION( l z) Wm
6OO

(W/m 2)

500

t,00 300
--

~ :23 D Y AS
r- q=205W/m2 I / (MAXIMUM)

I I

N ~ 0 . WI M = + 63 M2( MI U )m / N

F 6q :23 D Y AS

200 I ' 100 /

T=99.1 C

~ H I N N U M ~

1 0r I.,..-'-[~TEMPE? TR 0 A UI

POND

9r
8O

T{C)

70

60 i~iSOAYS~M X U ~ ~ AM M ,
t+0 E AU E RT R

T =t.*1 ~ E

3020 - - ~ !10
0~ {
21
L I I

9',2
23
,I

13 8
22
L t IL L L

273
21
ii L L

365 TIMEIAYS)
21
II

J N ~ S PO T O D C A F BM R P M Y U JUL E " CN V E J N E A A R A ~N ~
Fig. 20. A n n u a l v a r i a t i o n s o f the i n s o l a t i o n , air t e m p e r a t u r e , heat l o a d a n d o p t i m i z e d p o n d t e m p e r a t u r e for the d e s i g n with L , = 15 c m , Ls. A = 85 c m , L c = 100 c m in E g y p t at ~ = 30 N .

304

H. E. Aslan Abdel Salam et al.

maximum and minimum temperatures of 99 C and 64.3 C,t respectively have been attained with t~ = 175 W/m 2, ~ = 30 W/m 2, 6q-"-23 days for a pond having total depth of 2 m, i.e., L u = 15 cm, LNA = 85 cm and L c = 100 cm. In other words, for the stated heat load, and maximum and minimum temperatures, the 2 m depth of pond is the optimum under Egyptian climatic conditions. (4) The optimised pond reached its maximum temperature after the 21st of June (i.e. the summer solstice) by about 51 days, i.e. on 12th August, whereas the minimum temperature occurs around the middle of February (see Fig. 20).

C O N C L U S I ONS A mathematical model describing the thermal behaviour of a financially attractive, new system for harnessing solar energy, namely a large coffered solar-pond (within a lake) has been developed. With this reasonable performance model for each prescribed set of circumstances, the optimal dimensions of a CSP corresponding to the maximum rate of useful heat supply to a consumer can be predicted. It can be seen from the model that the thickness of the upper convecting zone should be minimised (e.g. by the presence of trees on the north side--for E g y p t - - o f the lake). Also in practice, constructional considerations (such as the problems of anchorage of the thermally isolating coffer walls within the lake, and minimising the difference in levels for the water within and without the CSP) will affect the choice of the optimal design for a particular location.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the Egyptian military authorities and the School of Mechanical Engineering at Cranfield Institute of Technology for financial support of this project. The Committee of Vice-chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United Kingdom also provided an ORS scholarship for H. E. Asian Abdel Salam. A copy of the computer program is available from the authors. t This minimum temperature was considered to represent the lowestusable temperature for power production systems.

Predicted Performances of a Proposed Coffered Solar Pond REFERENCES

305

1. A. Rabl and C. E. Nielsen, Solar ponds for space heating, Solar Energy, 17 (1975), pp. 1 12. 2. H. Tabor, Solar ponds, Solar Energy, 2"/(3) (1981), pp. 181 94. 3. H. Weinberger, The physics of the solar pond, Solar Energy, 8(2) (1964), pp. 45 56. 4. D. Crevier and A. Moshref, The floating solar pond. Paper presented at ISESAS Conference, Philadelphia, USA, 26-30 May, 1981. 5. H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of heat in solids, (2nd edn), Oxford University Press, England, 1959. 6. M. Saad-Eldin Harb, Characteristic Jeature oJ radiation .field in Egypt. Ministry of Electricity and Energy, Egyptian Solar Energy Commission Report, Cairo, 8th February, 1978. 7. F. Zangrando and H. C. Bryant, Heat extraction from a salt gradient solar pond, Alternative Energy Sources, 6 (1978), pp. 2935--67. (Published by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, DC, USA.) 8. H. C. Bryant and I. Colbeck, A solar pond for London'?, Solar Energy. 19 (1977), pp. 321 2. 9. S, K. Rao and N. D. Kaushika, Analytical model of a solar pond with heat exchanger, Solar Energy, 23(1)(1983), pp. 23 31. A P P E N D I X A: T H E TRANSMISS1V1TY, The angle of incidence, i, of direct sunlight (see Fig. 21) varies with the time of day and year 3 according to: cos i = cos 2 cos D cos 27t ,~4 + sin 2 sin D where: sin D = sin Ecos(27r t ~) 365.25
/

i ,h)

(12)

(13)

but t in eqn. (13) is measured in days. We have, from Snell's law: sin i = N sin r and, from the Fresnel equation: 1 1 ~ t a n Z ( i - r) sin2(i- r)l = 1 -- ~ Ltan2(i-q5 r) + sinZ(i + r) A (I 5) (14)

Treating the daily and seasonal variations in reflective losses exactly

306

H. E. Asian Abdel Salam

REFLECTIVE LOSSES AIR
-_ --_-

et al.

. INCDENT RADIATION ~-,,

-

i
--r-

--T ~

------

---

"2_

T-RANSHITTEDRADIATION

--

--

Fig. 21. Solar radiation behaviour at pond's surface. would be numerically tedious. To keep the calculation reasonably simple, we have used an effective angle of incidence which is regarded as independent o f time. 1 For that, the position of the sun is chosen to be at 2 pm and at the equinox. So we have: the latitude is 30 , i.e. 2 = 30 at2p.m., at the equinox, i.e.t h=2 i.e. D = 0

Therefore, by substituting in eqn. (12), it can be seen that i = 0 . 7 2 3 radians. F r o m eqn. (14), for N = ! . 3 3 , then r--0.521 radians. Substituting these values of i and r into eqn. (15) gives an average value for the transmissivity, r, of 0.975. A P P E N D I X B: T H E E F F E C T I V E A B S O R P T I O N C O E F F I C I E N T ,

~n
The path length for the solar radiation that penetrates to a depth x in the pond is x/cos r (see Fig. 21). For practical calculations, the simplest way to incorporate the l/cos r correction is to divide the absorption coefficient,/%, in eqn. (2) by cos r, and that gives the effective absorption coefficient. 1 Therefore: ft. =/t~/cos r and so, from the value of r deduced in Appendix A: f t , = 1.152M, The appropriate values are presented in Table 2.