INTRODUCTION Now we are in the twenty first century, the era of Information technology [1-6].

There is no doubt that information technology has had an exponential growth through the modern telecommunication systems. Particularly, optical fiber communication plays a vital role in the development of high quality and high-speed telecommunication systems. Today, optical fibers are not only used in telecommunication links but also used in the Internet and local area networks (LAN) to achieve high signaling rates. Signals were implemented in 1844. In 1872, Alexander Graham Bell proposed the photophone with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance of 200 m. But within four years, Graham Bell had changed the photophone into telephone using electrical current for transmission of speech signals. In 1878, the first telephone exchange was installed at New Haven. Meanwhile, Hertz discovered radio waves in 1887. Marconi demonstrated radio communication without using wires in 1895. Using modulation techniques, the signals were transmitted over a long distance using radio waves and microwaves as the carrier. In the old optical communication system, the bit rate distance product is only about 1 (bit/s)-km due to enormous transmission loss (105to 107dB/km). The information carrying capacity of telegraphy is about hundred times lesser than telephony. Even though the high-speed coaxial systems were evaluated during 1975, they had smaller repeater spacing. Microwaves are used in modern communication systems with the increased bit rate distance product. However, a coherent optical carrier like laser will have more information carrying capacity. A new era in optical communication started after the invention of laser in 1960 by Maiman. The light waves from the laser, a coherent source of light waves having high intensity, high monochromaticity and high directionality with less divergence, are used as carrier waves capable of carrying large amount of information compared with radio waves and Microwaves. In 1966,Charles k.kao at standard telecommunications laboratories,England fabricated a low loss glass fiber ,giving a loss of 1000db/km or so.such a fibre could transmit light for short distance only. But kao suggested that purer glass materials would permit the use of
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 1

fibre for longer transmission lengths.In 1970,corning glass usa developed a low loss fibregiving a loss of 20db/km.This was the major break out through to make optical communication a practical reality.By 1972 losses were reduced to 4db/km.Today the best fibres have a loss of <0.2db/km FIBRE OPTICS: Optical fibre is a new medium in which information[voice,data or video] is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre in the form of light following the transmission sequences given below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Information is encoded into electrical signals. Electrical signals are converted into light signals. Light travels down the fibre. A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals. Electrical signals are decoded into information.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS: 1.Optical fibres are non conductive 1. 2. Grounding and surge suppression is not required Cables can be all dielectric

2.Electromagnetic immunity 1. 2. 3. Immune to electromagnetic interference(EMI) No radiated energy. Un authorised tapping difficult.

3. Large band width

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 2

1. 2. 3.

Future upgradability maximum utilization of cable right of way. One time cable installation cost. 4.Low loss(5db/km to <0.25db/km typical)

1.

Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibres specified bandwidth.

2. 1. 2.

Long ,unrepeated links(>70km is operation). Inexpensive light sources available. Repeater spacing increases along with the operating speeds because low loss fibres are used at high rates.

5.Small,light weight cables. 1. 2. Easy installation and handling. Efficient use of space. 6. Available in long lengths 1. Less splice points.

7.Security 1. Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it doesnt radiate energy that can be received by a near by antenna. 2. Highly secure transmission medium.

8.Security being a dielectric 1. It cannot cause fires.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 3

2. 3. 4.

Doesnt attract lighting. It doesnt carry electricity. Can be run through hazardous areas.

9.Universal medium. 1. 2. Serve all communication needs. Non-obsolescence.

APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE OPTICS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Common carrier nation wide networks. Telephone inter-office trunk lines. Customer premise communication networks., Undersea cables. High EMI areas(Power lines, Rails, Roads ). Factory communication /Automation.

Control systems 7. 8. 9. 10. Expensive environments High lightning areas. Military applications. Classified(secure) communications.

BASIC FIBRE CONSTRUCTION: An optical fiber consists of three components: 1) core

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 4

2) cladding 3) coating Sizes are measured in micrometers [m] A micrometer, the unit typically used to express the geometric dimension of fibers is one millionth of a meter or a 10-6 meter. Core: The fiber core is made of silica glass.The core is the central region of an optical fiber through which light travels and the information is carried. The standard telecommunications core sizes in use today are 8.3 m (single-mode), 50m (multimode), and 62.5 m (multimode). Single-mode and multimode fiber The core has the lowest refractive index and is the primary light medium. Interesting fact: A human hair is approximately 70 m or 0.003 inch (vs. a 8.3 8.3 m singlemode or 50 m multimode fiber! Cladding: The cladding surrounds the core. The cladding is also made of glass but has a lower refractive index than the core. This causes the light in the core to reflect off of the cladding and stay contained in the core. The diameter of the cladding surrounding the core is of 125 m. Interesting fact: The core and cladding are manufactured together as a single piece of silica glass with slightly different compositions, and cannot be separated from one another. The glass doesnot have a hole in the core, but is completely solid throughout. Coating: The coating is the outer protective coating; it mechanically protects the fiber. Typically, the coating is made of plastic and protects the fiber from damage and moisture.The coating is typically an ultraviolet (UV) light-cured acrylate applied during the manufacturing process to provide physical and environmental protection for the fiber. During the installation process, this coating is stripped away from the cladding to allow proper termination to an optical transmission system. Coating standard sizes are 250 m or 900 m. Strength Members:
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 5

The next layer is strength members. They are strands of aramid yarn, or better known as Kevlar. They are added to the fiber optic cable to prevent the breakage of the fiber glass during installation. When fiber is pulled through a duct, the outer cover would stretch and the pulling load would be rested on the fiber. The strength members prevent this as their material is designed to take the strain.

FIBRE GEOMETRY: An optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually silica or boro silicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but slightly lower refractive index. Fibre themselves have exceedingly small diameters.Figure shows the cross section of cores and cladding diameters of commonly used fibres.The diameters of core and cladding is as follows

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 6

Core(sqm) 8 50 62.5 100

Cladding(sqm) 125 125 125 140

Optical fibre cable categories:

The Optical fiber cables are grouped into two distinctly different categories: 1. Single-mode optical fibre 2.Multi mode optical fibre

1.Single-mode optical fibre:

Single-mode fiber is also an optical waveguide. It differs from the Multimode most significantly by the extremely small core size (8-9 m). With the small core, the light signal can only travel in a single path (mode) from one end to the other. Single-mode fiber requires a light source that is very small and accurate, such as that of
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 7

an optical Laser transmitter. Single-mode fiber is only available in a 9/125 m size. The optimum operating windows are 1300 mm and 1550 mm.

Single-mode Applications:
The cost of a Single-mode system is much higher than that of Multimode as lasers and specialized receivers must be utilized.Without the use of optical repeaters, Single-mode systems can reach distances greater than 80 km. Data transmission rates on Singlemode systems are in the gigahertz (GHz) range, thereby making it ideal for longdistance communications.

2.Multi mode fibre:

Due to the construction of Multimode fiber cable, light will take a number of paths (modes) as it travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Step index and graded index are the two most common types of Multimode fiber cable. Multimode optical fiber is available in various sizes, with the most common being 50/125 m, 62.5/125 m and 100/140 m, of which 62.5/125 m is the most frequently used today. (the first number refers to the core size with the second representing the core and the cladding). The optimum transmission window for Multimode fiber is either 850 nm or 1300 nm.

1.

Step-index multi mode fiber:

Step-index Multimode fiber is constructed in such a way that the core

and cladding are clearly defined. The diagram below shows that as light travels along the cable, the rays of light reflect off of the cladding back into the core at various angles, resulting in varying path lengths\(modes).
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 8

2.

Graded-index multi mode fibre:

Graded-index Multimode fiber is constructed differently in that the

index of refraction of the core varies across its diameter. The result is that the propagation delay, due to the different modes, is minimal.This creates a cable with a much higher bandwidth capability.

Multimode Applications:
Multimode systems are generally cheaper than Single-mode systems,as LED transmitters and less sophisticated receivers are used. Without the use of optical repeaters, an LED light source .Multimode fiber system has a maximum (reach limit) of 5 kilometers. This (reach limit), combined with the low cost, makes Multimode
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 9

systems ideal for use in short-distance voice and data applications with transmission speed requirements of 500 mbps or less.

Optical fibre type,cross sectional view,index profile,beam path,in-pulse,out-pulse is as shown in the figure above

CABLE CONSTRUCTION:
Cabling is a outer protective structure surrounding one or more fibres.Cabling protect fibres environmentally and mechanically from being damaged or degraded in performance.SIECORfibre .optic cable have following parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. Optical fibre Buffer tube Strength members Jacket The cable buffer tubes is one of two types: 1. Loose buffer

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 10

2.

Tight buffer

Loose buffer cable:

The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several times that of the fibre .one or more fibres lie within the buffer tube.As the cable expands and shrinks with the temperature changes,it doesnt affects the fibre as much, the fibre in the tube is slightly longer than the tube itself. SIECOR cable is a loose buffer cable.This type of cable is ideal for outside plant trunking applications. Depending on the actual construction,loose-tube cables can be used in conduits, strung overhead, or buried directly in the ground.Loose buffer cable is as shown as cross section below:

Fig:Siecor mini bundle loose tube optical fibre cable

Tight buffer cable: A tight-buffered cable design is better when cable flexibility and ease of termination are a priority. Most inside cables are of the tight-buffered design because of the relatively short distances between devices and distribution racks.Military tactical ground support cables also use a tight-buffered design because of the high degree of flexibility required. A tight-buffered fiber can be cabled with other fibers, and then reinforced with Kevlar, and jacketed to form a tightpack (distribution) cable.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 11

Another option is to individually reinforce each fiber with Kevlar, then jacket it. Several single fiber units can then be cabled together to obtain a breakout-style cable where each fiber can be broken out of the bundle and connectorized as an individual cable.Tight buffer cable is as shown in the figure.

Tight pack (distribution) cable. Another option is to individually reinforce each fiber with Kevlar, then jacket it. Several single fiber units can then be cabled together to obtain a breakout-style cable where each fiber can be broken out of the bundle and connectorized as an individual cable. LIGHT PROPOGATION IN OPTICAL FIBRE: The simplest way to view light in fibre optics is by ray theory.The light is treated as a simple way,shown by a line. Light consists of a electric field and magnetic field that oscillates to a very high rates, on the order of 1014HZ.Theses field travels in wave like fashion at very high speeds.The speed of light is actually the velocity of the electromagnetic energy in a vaccum such as space.The speed of light changes when it travels from one material to another,resulting in light changing its direction of travel.The deflection of light is called refraction.Further more,different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds in the same material.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 12

The index of refraction denoted by n,is a dimensionless number expressing the ratio of the velocity of light c in free space to its velocity v in a specific material: n=(c/v) The refractive indices of some selected materials are shown in the table below.The index of glass can be changed by controlling its composition. Refractive indices of various materials Material Vaccum Air Water Fused quartz Glass Diamond Silicon Gallium arsenide index 1.0 1.003(1) 1.33 1.46 1.5 2.0 3.4 3.6 Light velocity(km/s) 300,000 300,000 225,000 205,000 200,000 150,000 88,000 83,000

Even when light passes from one index to another,a small portion is reflected back into the first material.This reflection is known as Fresnels reflection.For light passing from air to glass,reflection loss is about 0.17db. Theory and principles of fibre optics: Speed of light is actually the velocity of electro magnetic energy in vaccum such as space.Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass.Light travelling from one material to another changes speed,which results in light changing its direction of travel.This deflection of light is called refraction n=c/v.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 13

The amount that a ray of light is refracted depends on the refractive indices of the two materials.As shown in the figure ,lioght passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one is bent towards the normal.But light going from a higher index to a lower one refracting away from the normal,as shown in figures, As the angle of incidence increase the angle of refraction approaches 900 to the normal.The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 900 is the critical angle.If the angle of incidence increases more than the critical angle,the light is totally reflected back into the first material so that it doesnt enter the second material.The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total internal reflection. By snells law,n1 sin1 =n2 sin2 The critical angle of incidence c,where 2=900 is Qc=arc sin(n2/n1) At the angle greater than c,the light is reflected.Because reflected light means that n1=n2 are equal (since they are in the same material),q1 and q2 are also equal.The angle of incidence and reflection are equal.These simple prionciples of reflection and refraction from the basis of light propogation through an optical fibre.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 14

The optical fibre has two concentric layers called core and the cladding.The inner core is the light carrying part.The surrounding cladding provides the difference in refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core.The index of the cladding is less than the 1% lower than that of the core.Typical values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and cladding index of 1.46.Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fibre characteristics. Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding.This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propogation of light within the fibre. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fibre.Light injected into the fibre and striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle,reflects back into the core,since the angle of incidence and refraction are equal , the reflected light again be reflected.The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fibre. Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding,where it is loss over the distance.The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier and light in the cladding becomes attenuated rapidly.Propogation of light through fibre is governed by the indicies of the core and cladding by snells law. Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propogation through an optrical fibre.This analysis consider only meridional rays-those that pass through the fibre axis each time,they are reflected.Other rays called skew rays travel down the fibre without passing through the axis. The path of a skew is typically helical wrapping around and around the central axis.Fortunately skew axis are ignored in most fibre optics analysis. The specific characteristics of light propogation through a fibre depends on many factors,including 1. 2. The size of fibre The composition of fibre

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 15

3. 4.

The light injected into the fibre .

.The total internal reflection in an optical fibre as shown in the figure below

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 16

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 17

Total internal reflection in an optical fibre

OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Wave length Frequency Window Attenuation Dispersion Band width Wavelength: Light that can be seen by the unaided human eye is said to be in the visible spectrum. In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the color of light.To put this into perspective, take a look at Figure . Notice that the colors of the rainbow red, orange, yellow, green, blue, (indigo, not shown) and violet fall within the visible spectrum. Optical fiber transmission uses longer wavelengths which are invisible to the unaided eye. (Longer wavelengths have higher readings; for example, red light has a longer wavelength than blue light.) Typical optical transmission wavelengths are 850 nanometers (nm), 1300 nm and 1550 nm. Frequency: The frequency of a system is the speed of modulation of the digital or analog output of the light source; in other words, the number of pulses per second emitted from the light source (see Figure 6). Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz), where 1 hertz is equal to 1 pulse or cycle per second. A more practical
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 18

measurement for optical communications is megahertz (MHz) or millions of pulses per second. Frequency measurement is as shown in the figure below:

Window:
There are operational ranges of wavelengths at which the fiber best operates. Each range is known as an operating window. Each window is centered on the typical operational wavelength .These wavelengths were chosen because they best match the transmission properties of available light sources with the transmission qualities of optical fiber.

ATTENUATION: Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance,a fibre with a lower attenuation,will allow more power to reach a receiver than a fibre with higher attenuation. Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.

INTRINSIC ATTENUATION:

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 19

Intrinsic attenuation occurs due to something inside or inherent to the fiber. It is caused by impurities in the glass during the manufacturing process. As precise as manufacturing is, there is no way to eliminate all impurities, though technological advances have caused attenuation to decrease dramatically since 1970. When a light signal hits an impurity in the fiber,one of two things will occur: it will scatter or it will be absorbed. ENUATION

Extinsic attenuation:
The second category of attenuation is extrinsic attenuation. Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms: macrobending or microbending. Both cause a reduction of optical power. Macrobending: If a bend is imposed on an optical fiber, strain is placed on the

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 20

fiber along the region that is bent. The bending strain will affect the refractive index and the critical angle of the light rayin that specific area. As a result,light traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs.A macrobend is a large-scale bend that is visible; for example, a fiber wrapped around a persons finger. This loss is generally reversible once bends are corrected.To prevent macrobends, all optical fiber (and optical fiber cable) has a minimum bend radius specification that should not be exceeded. This is a restriction on how much bend a fiber can withstand before experiencing problems in optical performance or mechanical reliability. Micro bending: Microbending is very localized, and the bend may not be clearly visible upon inspection. With bare fiber, microbending may be reversible; in the cabling process, it may not. Microbending attenuation affects all optical wavelengths. .

Dispersion:
Dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a fiber. As the pulses spread, or broaden, they tend to overlap and are no longer distinguishable by the receiver as 0s and 1s. Light pulses launched close together (high data rates) that spread too much (high dispersion) result in errors and loss of information.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 21

Chromatic dispersion: Chromatic dispersion occurs as a result of the range of wavelengths in the light source. Light from lasers and LEDs consists of a range of wavelengths. Each of these wavelengths travels at a slightly different speed. Over distance, the varying wavelength speeds cause the light pulse to spread in time. This is of most importance in single-mode applications.The index of refraction of a material is dependent on the wavelength, so each frequency component actually travels at a slightly different speed. As the distance increases, the pulse becomes broader as a result. Material dispersion is a significant source of dispersion in single-mode fiber only.

Modal dispersion:
Modal dispersion affects multimode fibers only and is a result of the modes of light traveling down the fiber arriving at the receiver at different times, causing a spreading effect. Graded index profiles, only used in multimode fibers, are used to mitigate the effects of modal dispersion.

Wave guide dispersion:

Waveguide dispersion is a direct result of light traveling in both the core and cladding material of Single-mode fiber. Waveguide dispersion is inversely proportional to wavelength, meaning that as the wavelength decreases, dispersion increases.

Bandwidth:
In simplest terms, bandwidth is the amount of information a fiber can carry so that every pulse is distinguished by the receiver at the end.As discussed in the previous
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 22

section, dispersion causes light pulses to spread. The spreading of these light pulses causes them to merge together. At a certain distance and frequency, the pulses become unreadable by the receiver. The multiple pathways of a multimode fiber cause this overlap to be much greater than for single-mode fiber. These different paths have different lengths, which cause each mode of light to arrive at a different time.System bandwidth is measured in megahertz (MHz) at one km. In general, when a systems bandwidth is 20 MHzkm, it means that 20 million pulses of light per second will travel down 1 km (1000 m) of fiber, and each pulse will be distinguishable by the receiver .

Numerical aperture:
Numerical aperture is the light gathering ability of a fibre. Light injected into the fibre angles greater than the critical angle will be propogated.The material related to refractive indices of the core and the cladding NA=n12-n22 In Numerical aperture and the acceptance coneElectrical signals are converted to light signals before they enter an optical fiber. To ensure that the signals reflect and travel correctly through the core, the light must enter the core through an imaginary acceptance cone. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the core and the cladding.

BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM :

A basic communication consisting of a transmitter,a receiver and an information channel as shown in the figure.The transmitter generates messages and converts into a form suitable for transmission over the information channel.The
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 23

information travels from the transmitter to the receiver over the information channel.There are basically two types of information channels:unguided or guided channels.Atmosphere is an unguided type of channel over which waves are propogate.Guided channels are those which guide the electromagnetic waves through them.Two wire lines,coaxial cable and wave guide are the examples of guided information channels.Guided channels have the advantages of privacy,no weather dependence,and the ability to convey messages within,under and around physical structures.

Basic communication system

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 24

Basic fibre optic link

Information transmission sequence:

Transmitters: They convert the electrical signal to optical signal which is transmitted through the fibre.The basic elements that may be found in transmitters are as follows: 1. 2. 3. Elecronic interfaces. Electronic processing circuts. Drive circuitry.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 25

4. 5. 6. 7.

Light source-LED./Laser. Optical interface. Output sensing and stabilization. Temperature sensing and control. Receivers: It receives the optical signals from the fibre and convert the same to its electrical equivalent.The basic elements of an optical receiver are given as follows:

1.

Detector[PIN photodiode/APD(Avalanche photo diode) Detector used in fibre optical communications are semi conductor photodiodes or photodetectors which converts the received optical signal Into electrical form.

2. 3.

Amplifier Decision circuits d.Multiplexers The transmission of multiple optical signals (channels) over the same fiber is a simple way to increase the transmission capacity of the fiber against the fiber dispersion, fiber nonlinearity and speed of electronic components which limit the bit rate. So multiplexing techniques are followed. Multiplexing means many signals at a given time . Suppose for each channel the bit rate is 100 Gb/s and by accommodating 100 channels through multiplexing technique the total bit rate through a single fiber can be increased to

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 26

10 Tb/s (1 Tera = 1012): Thus the information carrying capacity of a fiber is increased by the multiplexing technique. There are three types of multiplexing techniques: (i) TDM time division multiplexing (ii) FDM frequency division multiplexing (iii) WDM wavelength division multiplexing TDM and FDM techniques are operated in the electrical domain and are widely used in the conventional radio wave communication. WDM technique is very useful in the optical domain and by WDM, the bit rate can be increased beyond 10 Tb/s in the optical fiber communication.Figure below shows the basic principle of WDM technique. Here different wavelengths carrying separate signals are multiplexed by the multiplexer and then they are transmitted through a single fiber. At the receiver end, the separate signals at different wavelengths are demultiplexed by the demultiplexer and are given to separate receivers. From the receiver side also the signals can be transmitted in the same manner through the same fiber. Thus instead of handling a single channel with single wavelength and limited bit rate (10 Gb/s), the bit rate is raised to about 10 Tb/s, hence the information capacity of the fiber is increased byWDM technique. In principle any optical wavelength demultiplexer can be also used as a multiplexer. Thus for simplicity the word multiplexer is often used as a general term to refer to both multiplexers and demultiplexers, except when it is necessary to distinguish the two devices or functions. There are two types of wavelength division multiplexers: 1. Angularly dispensive devices such as prisms or gratings. 2. Interference filter based devices such as multilayer thin film interference filters or single mode integrated optical devices.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 27

(i) Grating as a multiplexer: A plane diffraction grating can be taken as a wavelength division multiplexer. Taking q as the angle of diffracted beam, the dispersive power of the grating is given by D/d = 2 tan/ The combination of different wavelengths (multiplexing) or separation of different wavelengths (demultiplexing) is directly proportional to the dispersive power of grating i.e. directly proportional to tan q and inversely proportional to . The different signals carried by different wavelengths 1;2;3; : : : are collimated by a convex lens and then are incident on a reflection grating. The reflected light is a composite light or multiplexed light. The same grating multiplexer can also act as demultiplexer if we change the direction of the light beam.

(ii) Interference filter as a multiplexer: There are reflection

interference filter type and absorption interference filter type multiplexers. Among these, absorption filter type is not used widely due to their higher absorption of signals. In the reflection type filter, there is a flat glass substrate upon which multiple layers of different dielectric films are deposited for wavelength sensitivity. These filters can be used in series to separate additional wavelength channels.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 28

Connectors:
The connectors are rematable interconnect devices which provide flexibility required in a fibre optical transmission system.The basic function required of connectors is to allow transfer of optical power from one fibre component to another with minimum loss and possibility of disconnection and remating the number of times with minimum insertion loss.

Connector requirement: 1.The attenuation in optical fibre connectors should be less than 1db. 2.The connector must provide consistent performance on each remating. 3.The connector must provide protection to the fibre so that it doesnt break
while being handled.

4.The connectorisation technique should be simple.

5.The connector size should not be very much bigger than the fibre size and it should not be very small. 6.Connector must be cost effective. Connector composition: Connector fundamentally consists of two parts,a plug and an adapter.For fibre to fibre connections,the fibres are terminated in individual plugs and mated in the adapter

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 29

Sed in

For fibre to device connection,the device may be housed in the fibre in the of the adapter part and the fibre in the plug part.The fixing of the fibre in the plug may be directly achieved or by using sleeves commonly known using precision as ferrules.The proper centering in these ferrules could be achieved by using precision drilled holes,jewels or rods depending on the arrangement. The adapter provides the alignment mechanism. The performance of the connectors depends on the accuracy of the alignment of the optical elements to be connectorised.the basic elements in the connectors are fibre fixing mechanism and the alignment mechanism.The alignment accuracies are of very high to avoid losses and are consequently quite costly Optical fibre connector technique: Optical fibre connectors are made by the following techniques; 1.Geometric techniques a.3-Rod connector b.3-Sphere connectors c.V-groove connectors
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 30

2.Precision techniques a.Ferrule connectors b.BI-conical connectors c.Core centered connectors d.Core-aligned connectors e.precision moulded connectors 3.Optical techniques a.Optically focusing connectors b.Optically collimating connectors c.Fibre taper connectors Types of connectors: Following types of connectors are available in the market. a.Amphenol fibre optic connectors: Based on plug precision concept. b.The radial connectors: Based on core aligned concept. c.OCN connectors: Based on precision ferrule concept. d.The Fc,D3,D4 connectors:

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 31

The connectors are primarly precision connector,which are being used in japan.These connectors have notches and pin arrangement to maintain angular alignment for a repeatable insertion loss performance. The Fc type of connectors have been proved by the NITC japan and it is similar in construction to D4 connector.D3 connector is slightly bigger in dimensions..These connectors consists primarly of precision plugs and coupler body.The fibres are fixed in the plug and the plug ends polished.The fixing of plug to the coupler through screw on the top or BNC arrangement is also available. e.Precision moulded connectors: These connectors are exactly similar construction to FC,D3etc(metal type of connectors),but made of plastic and are light weight ,easy to handle and interchangeable. f.Philips connector: These are core centered connectors used by Ms/Philips,Holland. g.Bare fibre adaptors: These are primarly optical connectors in which the fibre can be fixed in measurements purpose and are removed after the measurements is over.The connector uses mechanical force for holding the fibre in the connector.The fibre can be released of the mechanical pressure.

COUPLERS: Fiber optic couplers are multi port devices used for interconnectionof more than two fibres for connection,like bidirectional transmission or interconnection of several optical transmitters and receivers in bus structure.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 32

Types of couplers Structurally couplers are listed under two categories: 1. 2. End fibre couplers Evanescent field couplers.

End fibres couplers require the fibres to be aligned in a butt configuration. The Evanscent field coupler,however,transfer light from one fiber to others laterally through others laterally through cladding. Functionally couplers may be divided again into two categories: 1. 2. Wave length independent couplers Wavelength dependent couplers First type of couplers are applicable to all wavelengths of all transmission simultaneously,where as the second type of couplers
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 33

have wavelengths sensitive ports.Wavelengths independent couplers may be used eith various systems,where as wavelength Dependent couplers are used for wavelength division multiplex applications

fibers couplers and their functions:

(i) Three and four port couplers: Figures 5a and 5b show the uses of a three port coupler as splitter and combiner of the signals. Light from the input fiber is coupled to the output fibers as shown in figure 5a or the light from the branch fibers are combined to form a single input to the output fiber. For splitting, a single input fiber core is situated between the cores of two output fibers. This is called the lateral offset method. In this method, the input power can be distributed in a well defined proportion by appropriate control of the amount of lateral offset between the fibers. Figure 6 shows the directional coupler which is a four port coupler. In this coupler, the fibers are generally twisted together and then spot fused under tension such that the fused section is elongated to form a biconical taper structure. It can act as a three port coupler (or) T coupler if one of the input ends (or) one of the output ends is closed. As shown in figure, each port is meant for different functions.

a)Three port coupler as a splitter

b)Three ports coupler as a combiner

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 34

Four port coupler Inputs C - to pass the main signal into the main fiber. A - to combine the extra signal or data into the main fiber. Outputs D - to transmit the combined signal (or) remaining portion of the main signal through the main fiber. B - to collect the split signal. This type of coupler is based on the transfer of energy by surface interaction between the fibers. The amount of power taken from the main fiber or given to the main fiber depends on the length of the fused section of the fiber and the distance between the cores of the fused fibers.This can also act as a wavelength division multiplexer provided that one of the output ends is closed. When D is closed and the signal at and the signal at 2 are passed through A and C of the coupler respectively, the multiplexed signal 1 +2 will come out through B of the coupler. Similarly if the multiplexed signal having wavelengthl 1+2 is passed through B, then the signal with 1 appears at A and the signal with 2 appears at C. Thus the demultiplexing action can also be achieved. This can also act as a fiber laser amplifier. (ii) A star couplers or multi port coupler: A star coupler is used to distribute an optical signal from a single input fiber to multiple output fibers. Here many fibers are bundled, twisted, heated and pulled at the twisted area to get fiber fused biconical taper star coupler.
DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 35

a)Straight sleeve

b)Tapered sleeve

Connectors using butt-joint alignment designs.

Expanded beam connector

OPTICAL FIBRE SPLICING: SPLICES:

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 36

Splices are permanent connection between two fibres.The splicing involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced. Splicing methods: Single-fibre mechanical splicing: Single fibre capillary Align two fibres to a common centerline,thereby aligning the cores. Clean,cleaved fibres are butted together and index matched. Permanently secured with epoxy or adhesive. Examples:siecor,see splice GTE Elastometric splice

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 37

Splicing methods: The following three types widely used 1.Adhesive bonding 2.Mechanical splicing 3.Fusion splicing 1.Adhesive bonding: This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing.After fibre end preparation ,it is axially aligned in a precision v-groove.Cylindrical rods or another kind of refrence surfaces are used for alignment .During the alignment of fibre end ,a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between and around the fibre ends.A two component epoxy or an uv curable adhesive is used as bonding agent.The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices.But fusion splicing technique is more reliable,so at present this technique is very rarely used. 2.Mechanical splicing: This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various measurements. The mechanical splices consists of 4 basic components: 1. 2. 3. 4. An alignment surface for mating fibre ends A retainer An index matching material A protective housing A very good mechanical splice for matching mechanical fibres can have an optical performance as good as fusion spliced or glue spliced.But incase of single mode fibre, this type of splice cannot have stability loss.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 38

Mechanical splicing involves using mechanical fixtures to align and connect optical fibers. Mechanical splicing methods may involve either passive or active core alignment. Active core alignment produces a lower loss splice than passive alignment. However, passive core alignment methods can produce mechanical splices with acceptable loss measurements even with single mode fibers. In the strictest sense, a mechanical splice is a permanent connection made between two optical fibers. Mechanical splices hold the two optical fibers in alignment for an indefinite period of time without movement. The amount of splice loss is stable over time and unaffected by changes in environmental or mechanical conditions. If high splice loss results from assembling some mechanical splices, the splice can be reopened and the fibers realigned. Realignment includes wiping the fiber or ferrule end with a soft wipe, reinserting the fiber or ferrule in a new arrangement, and adding new refractive index material. Once producing an acceptable mechanical splice, splice realignment should be unnecessary because most mechanical splices are environmentally and mechanically stable within their intended application. The types of mechanical splices that exist for mechanical splicing include glass, plastic, metal, and ceramic tubes; and V-groove and rotary devices. Materials that assist mechanical splices in splicing fibers include transparent adhesives and index matching gels. Transparent adhesives are epoxy resins that seal mechanical splices and provide index matching between the connected fibers.

Glass or Ceramic Alignment Tube Splices:

Mechanical splicing may involve the use of a glass or ceramic alignment tube, or capillary. The inner diameter of this glass or ceramic tube is only slightly larger than the outer diameter of the fiber. A transparent adhesive, injected into the tube, bonds the two fibers together. The adhesive also provides index matching between the optical fibers. Figure 4-9 illustrates fiber alignment DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 39

using a glass or ceramic tube. This splicing technique relies on the inner diameter of the alignment tube. If the inner diameter is too large, splice loss will increase because of fiber misalignment. If the inner diameter is too small, it is impossible to insert the fiber into the tube. Figure- A glass or ceramic alignment tube for mechanical splicing.

V-Grooved Splices:
Mechanical splices may also use either a grooved substrate or positioning rods to form suitable Vgrooves for mechanical splicing. The basic V-grooved device relies on an open grooved substrate to perform fiber alignment. When inserting the fibers into the grooved substrate, the V-groove aligns the cladding surface of each fiber end. A transparent adhesive makes the splice permanent by securing the fiber ends to the grooved substrate. Figure illustrates this type of open V-grooved splice. V-grooved splices may involve sandwiching the butted ends of two prepared fibers between a Vgrooved substrate and a flat glass plate. Additional V-grooved devices use two or three positioning rods to form a suitable V-groove for splicing. The V-grooved device that uses two positioning rods is the spring V-grooved splice. This splice uses a groove formed by two rods positioned in a bracket to align the fiber ends. The diameter of the positioning rods permits the outer surface of each fiber end to extend above the groove formed by the rods. A flat spring presses the fiber ends into the groove maintaining fiber alignment. Transparent adhesive completes the assembly process by DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 40

bonding the fiber ends and providing index matching. Figure 4-11 is an illustration of the spring Vgrooved splice. A variation of this splice uses a third positioning rod instead of a flat spring. The rods are held in place by a heat-shrinkable band, or tube. Figure - Spring V-grooved mechanical splice

Rotary Splices: In a rotary splice, the fibers are mounted into a glass ferrule and secured with adhesives. The splice begins as one long glass ferrule that is broken in half during the assembly process. A fiber is inserted into each half of the tube and epoxied in place using an ultraviolet cure epoxy. The endface of the tubes are then polished and placed together using the alignment sleeve. Figure 412 is an illustration of a rotary splice. The fiber ends retain their original orientation and have added mechanical stability since each fiber is mounted into a glass ferrule and alignment sleeve. The rotary splice may use index matching gel within the alignment sleeve to produce low-loss splices. Figure - Rotary mechanical splice.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 41

In shipboard applications, the Navy recommends using the rotary splice. The rotary splice is a lowloss mechanical splice that provides stable environmental and mechanical performance in the Navy environment. Stable performance means that splice loss does not vary significantly with changes in temperature or other environmental or mechanical conditions. Completing a rotary splice also requires only a small amount of training, or expertise. This shorter training time is another reason why the Navy recommends using the rotary splice over other mechanical or fusion splicing techniques.

Fusion splicing:
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses.This fusion can be achieved very low splice losses.The fusion can be achieved very low splice losses.The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame. The process of fusion splicing involves using localized heat to melt or fuse the ends of two optical fibers together. The splicing process begins by preparing each fiber end for fusion. Fusion splicing requires that all protective coatings be removed from the ends of each fiber. The fiber is then cleaved using the score-and-break method. The quality of each fiber end is inspected using a microscope. In fusion splicing, splice loss is a direct function of the angles and quality of the two fiber-end faces.

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 42

The basic fusion splicing apparatus consists of two fixtures on which the fibers are mounted and two electrodes. Figure 4-13 shows a basic fusion-splicing apparatus. An inspection microscope assists in the placement of the prepared fiber ends into a fusion-splicing apparatus. The fibers are placed into the apparatus, aligned, and then fused together. Initially, fusion splicing used nichrome wire as the heating element to melt or fuse fibers together. New fusion-splicing techniques have replaced the nichrome wire with carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers, electric arcs, or gas flames to heat the fiber ends, causing them to fuse together. The small size of the fusion splice and the development of automated fusion-splicing machines have made electric arc fusion (arc fusion) one of the most popular splicing techniques in commercial application Figure 4-13. - A basic fusion splicing apparatus.

Arc fusion involves the discharge of electric current across a gap between two electrodes. By placing the fiber ends between the electrodes, the electric discharge melts or fuses the ends of each fiber. Figure 4-13 shows the placement of the fiber ends between tungsten electrodes during arc fusion. Initially, a small gap is present between the fiber ends. A short discharge of electric current is used to prepare the fiber ends for fusion. During this short discharge, known as prefusion, the fiber ends are cleaned and rounded to eliminate any surface defects that remain from fiber cleaving. Surface defects can cause core distortions or bubble formations during fiber fusion. A fusion splice results when the fiber ends are pressed together, actively aligned, and fused using a longer and stronger electric discharge. Automated fusion splicers typically use built-in local optical power launch/detection schemes for aligning the fibers. DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 43

During fusion, the surface tension of molten glass tends to realign the fibers on their outside diameters, changing the initial alignment. When the fusion process is complete, a small core distortion may be present. Small core distortions have negligible effects on light propagating through multimode fibers. However, a small core distortion can significantly affect single mode fiber splice loss. The core distortion, and the splice loss, can be reduced by limiting the arc discharge and decreasing the gap distance between the two electrodes. This limits the region of molten glass. However, limiting the region of molten glass reduces the tensile strength of the splice. Fusion splicing yields typically vary between 25 and 75 percent depending on the strength and loss requirements for the splice and other factors. Other factors affecting splice yields include the condition of the splicing machine, the experience of the splice personnel, and environmental conditions. Since fusion splicing is inherently permanent, an unacceptable fusion splice requires breakage and refabrication of the splice. In general, fusion splicing takes a longer time to complete than mechanical splicing. Also, yields are typically lower making the total time per successful splice much longer for fusion splicing. Both the yield and splice time are determined to a large degree by the expertise of the fusion splice operator. Fusion splice operators must be highly trained to consistently make low-loss reliable fusion splices. For these reasons the fusion splice is not recommended for use in Navy shipboard applications. After fusion splicing the splicing joint should be provide with a proper protector to have following protections: a)Mechanical protection and b)protection from moisture Sometimes the two types of protection are combined.Coating with epoxy resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint.Now-a-days,the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used,which are fixed on the joints by fusion tools.The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses .The introduction of single mode optical fibre for use in long haul network brought it with fibre construction and cable design from those of multi mode fibresThe splicing machines imported by bsnl begins to the core profile alignment system,the main functions of which are: DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 44

1.Auto active alignment of the core 2.Auto arc fusion 3.Video display of the entire process 4.Indication of the estimated splice loss The two fibres ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in accurately machined veegrooves.When the optimum alignment is achieved,the fibres are fused under the micro processor control,the machine then measures the radial and angular off sets of the fibres and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss.The opreration of the machine observes the alignment and fusion processes on a video screens showing horizontal and vertical projection of the fibre and then decides the quality of the splice.The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a final value as it only an estimated loss so after every splicing is over,the splice loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR(Optical time domain reflectometer).The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibers.For cleaning the fibres,Dichlorine methyl or Acetone or Alcohol is used to remove primary coating.With the special fibre cleaver or cutter ,the cleaned the cleaned fibre is cut .The cut has to be so precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 degree on a prepared fibre .If the cut is bad,the splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for splicing.The shape of the cut can be monitored on the video screen,some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed below: 1.broken ends 2.Ripped ends 3.slanting ends 4.Unclean ends. It is also desirable to limit the average splice loss to be less than 0.1dB

DEPT OF EIE,SITAMS Page 45