Brain Computer Interface (BCI)

Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE: We know that god has created the human beings who have the capacity to think. Even though a person seem to be silent a kind of thought will be wandering in his mind and thats the he performs into action. This thought is nothing but a neural signal (brain signal or electrical signal). Using this signal we are able to control the movement of external devices interfacing with the help of computer such an interface is called as Brain Computer Interface shortly abbreviated as BCI. A Brain Computer Interface is a direct communication pathway between the brain and an external device. BCI acquires the electrical signal from the human brain preprocess that signal and converts it into set of data commands which in turn used to control the external devices such as robotic arm, wheel chair etc without any muscular effort. Recent advances in computer hardware and signal processing have made possible the use of EEG signals or brain waves for communication between humans and computers. The electrical nature of the human nervous system has been recognized for more than a century. It is well known that the variation of the surface potential distribution on the scalp reflects functional activities emerging from the underlying brain. Electrodes conduct voltage potentials as microvolt level signals and carry them into amplifiers that magnify the signals approximately ten thousand times. The use of this technology depends strongly on the electrodes positioning and the electrodes contact. In brain computer interface, signals emitted from the brain are directly recorded, interpreted and acted upon wheelchair or external peripherals in order to move it in specific direction. Hence work is done without the use of any muscles. This technology has the ability to solve blocked people suffering with the disorders but it also brings the promise of simplifying every individual's lives. The aim of such research is that the person should be able to perform functions that he wished to do without using his body muscles.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI)

Chapter-2

THE HUMAN BRAIN

2.1 BRAIN:
Brain is the vital organ of human body. The brain is undoubtly the most complex organ found among the carbon-based life forms. The average human brain weights around 1400 grams. The most relevant part of brain concerning BCIs is the cerebral cortex also called motor cortex which controls and plans the movements of the body. The cerebral cortex can be divided into two hemispheres. The hemispheres are connected with each other via corpus callosum. Each hemisphere can be divided into four lobes. They are called frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes as shown in fig 2.1.

Fig 2.1: Lobes of the brain. Frontal Lobe- This lobe is associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving.

Parietal Lobe- This lobe is associated with movement, orientation, recognition and perception of stimuli. Occipital Lobe- This lobe is associated with visual processing.

Temporal Lobe- This lobe is associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI)

2.2 CONTROL OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (The Brain):

The human brain is the main force behind our movements. Many different regions of the brain are involved in movement control but for the purpose of learning about brain computer interfaces we will primary focus on the motor cortex. The motor cortex is made up of two different regions:

The pre-motor area (PMA) The supplementary motor area (SMA)

Fig 2.2: Areas of motor cortex. Functions of pre-motor area:

It is primarily responsible for integrating sensory information that helps to guide movements It is also responsible for controlling the proximal muscles. Functions of supplementary motor area: It helps in coordinating movements of both hands and in planning complex movements. When creating a movement, the supplementary area is involved in the planning of it. Information regarding current body position is received as input by the frontal lobe, which then transfers the commands it generates to area 6 of the brain. This region is responsible for deciding which set of muscles to contract.

of the body.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Finally, area 6 transfers this information to area 4, which is responsible for activating specific groups of muscles. The pre-motor cortex is therefore involved in the actual activation of the muscles. Hence the person converts thought into an action.

2.3 STRUCTURE OF NEURON:

Humans have about 100 billion neurons in their brain alone! The neuron is the basic element of the nervous system. The neuron or the nerve cell is the information transmitting and information processing element of the nervous system. The neuron responds to external and internal stimuli of the body. It transmits nerve impulses from all the parts of the body to nerve centres very quickly and brings back the responses. Neurons come in many different shapes, sizes and varieties according to the specialized jobs they perform. The fastest nerve impulses in humans travel at 8 meters per second. Neurons in general have the following structures: Cell body or soma Dendrites Axon Axon terminals.

Fig 2.3: Structure of Neuron.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) 2.3.1 Cell Body or Soma: The enlarged head of the neuron is called "cell body" or soma. The cell body is enclosed by the cell membrane and contains the nucleus of the cell. Cell body is the head side of the neuron. It uses oxygen and nutrients to generate energy to carry out the work of the cell. Its shape varies considerably in different kinds of neurons.

2.3.2 Dendrites: Dendron is the Greek word for tree and the dendrites of a neuron look like tree branches. Dendrites are extended from the cell body. There are several extensions from the cell body of the neuron. Dendrites receive the neural impulses from the receptors or from several adjoining neurons. 2.3.3 Axon: The longer single branched extension from the cell body is called the axon. Each neuron has one axon that extends trunk like from the cell body. The point in the axon nearest the cell body is called the axon hillock. Axons are very thin and long. Myelin sheath is made up of a series of specialized cells of fat and protein. It is not of equal thickness around the axon. Its function is to insulate the message while travelling along the axon it also serves to increase the velocity with which the electrical impulses travel through the axons. Neurilemma is another covering found in axons of neurons exclusively outside the brain and the spinal cord. It is a very thin covering, which takes part in regeneration. Therefore, if a neuron outside the brain and the spinal cord is damaged, it can be regenerated. But the neurons of the brain and spinal cord cannot be regenerated, as they do not have neurilemma in their axons. They are highly specialized cells and if damaged, they are damaged forever.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) 2.3.4 Axon terminals: Axons end in smaller branching structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons. These are swollen bulb-like structures located at the end of the axon through which stimulations pass to near by glands, muscles, and other neurons. There are some bag-like structures called as synaptic vesicles at the tips of axon terminals. These have the capability of transmitting information to another neuron. Thus, the axon terminal end of the neuron is the delivering side of the neuron. Dendrites receive and axon terminals deliver. Neurons transmit information in only one direction from the dendrites through the cell body to the axon to the terminal buttons. This is known as the law of forward induction.

2.4 NEURON TO NEURON COMMUNICATION:

Fig 2.4: Neuron to neuron communication.

Neurons are the functional unit of nervous system. They are at the foundation of everything involving the use of our brain. They are involved in what we think, feel, experience and even what we remember. Formally a neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical signalling. Chemical signalling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form neural networks.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) The signal generated is called neural signal. It transmits nerve impulses from all parts of the body to nerve centres very quickly and brings back the responses within a flash of a second. The fastest nerve impulses in humans can travel at 8 meters per second. Information is relayed from neuron to neuron through various neural networks in the brain via these electric signals, which are generated by difference in electric potentials on a cell's membrane, brought about by the movement of ions into and of the cell. At rest, a neuron is passively leaking potassium (K+), creating a resting membrane potential, or difference in voltage between the interior and exterior of the cell. When a neuron becomes excited, there is an influx of sodium (Na+). Once a certain threshold is reached all sodium channels will open resulting in an exponential increase in the amount of influx of sodium into the cell. This ultimately causes depolarization of the cell. Once threshold level of depolarization is reached, K+ channels are triggered open and there is an e-flux of potassium from the cell, resulting in its re-hyper polarization. This short lived rapid rise and fall of the electric membrane potential is called as an action potential. It is by this means that information is transferred from one location to another.

Fig 2.5: Axon action potential.

2.5. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY:
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method used in measuring the electrical activity of the brain. The brain generates rhythmical potentials which originate in the individual neurons of the brain. These potentials get summated as millions of cell discharge synchronously and appear as a surface waveform, the recording of this signal is known as the electroencephalogram. The EEG signal can be picked up with electrodes either from scalp or directly from the cerebral cortex. As the neurons in our brain communicate with each other by firing electrical impulses, this creates an electric field which travels though the cortex, the dura, the skull and the scalp. The EEG is measured from the surface of the scalp by measuring potential difference between the actual measuring electrode and a reference electrode. 2.5.1 BANDS OF ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY SIGNALS: The frequency varies greatly with different behavioral states. The normal EEG frequency ranges from 0.5 to 50Hz. The basic frequency of the EEG range is classified into five bands for purpose of EEG analysis. They are: Alpha rhythm. Beta rhythm. Theta rhythm. Delta rhythm. MU rhythm. These bands are called brain rhythms and are named with Greek letters. Table 1 shows the list of brain rhythms, frequencies and voltages they lie. Band Alpha Beta Delta Theta Frequency[Hz] Voltage 8- 13 30-50v 13- 22 5-30v 0.5- 4 varies 4- 8 <20v Table1: List of brain rhythms. Maximum Empty mind Active thinking Deep sleep Depression

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) 2.5.1.1 Alpha Rhythm:

Fig 2.6: Alpha rhythm. The alpha rhythm lies between the frequencies 8-13 Hz occurring during wakefulness in the posterior regions of the head generally with higher voltage over occipital areas. Amplitude is variable but mostly below 50V in adults. Best seen with eyes closed and under physical relaxation and relative mental inactivity. The amplitude of this rhythm decreases as person age increases, most probably due to the degeneration of cerebral. It is sinusoidal in nature. 2.5.1.2 Beta rhythm:

Fig 2.7: Beta rhythm. Beta rhythm consists of basically all frequencies above 13 Hz but practically it is limited to 50 Hz by the measurement limits and to 30 Hz by functional findings. Spatially beta rhythm can be found frontal and central regions. Beta rhythm rarely exceeds amplitudes of 30V and as a rule of the thumb when frequency increases the amplitude decreases and vice versa.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) 2.5.1.3 Theta Rhythm:

Fig 2.8: Theta rhythm. The theta band is of frequencies from 4 to 7 Hz. Theta rhythm origins from the thalamus. EEG of a normal adult consists of little frequencies and no organized rhythm. Theta rhythm plays important part during the childhood and in states of drowsiness and sleep. Theta rhythm is associated with marking the maturity of the mechanism linking the cortex, the thalamus and the hypothalamus. Also it is linked with feelings of disappointment and frustration. This rhythm is also present when performing mental tasks like problem solving visualization or grabbing some information. 2.5.1.4 Delta Rhythm:

Fig 2.9: Delta rhythm Delta rhythm is detected when the person is in deep sleep. Rhythm has relatively high amplitude and low frequency 3 Hz or less. Delta rhythm decreases with age and can be a sign of brain abnormality if it is detected in the awaken state.

2.5.1.5 MU-Rhythm:
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Fig 2.10: MU-Rhythm The MU -Rhythm, sometimes called Rolandic rhythm has frequency and amplitude related to posterior rhythm, but its topography and physiological meaning is quite different. The MU stands for motor and it is strongly related to movement functions of the motor cortex. This rhythm is detected over the pre-central and post-central region. This rhythm is very asymmetric, the negative side being very sharp and spiky and the positive being rounded. Most commonly detected at frequencies between 9-11 Hz and values of 8 Hz or below may indicate brain abnormality.

Chapter-3
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI)

BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE (BCI)

3.1 DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLE OF BCI:
A brain computer interface is a direct communication pathway between the brain and an external device. BCIs are often aimed at assisting, augmenting or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. Main principle behind this Brain computer interface is the bioelectrical activity of nerves and muscles. It is now well established that human body is composed of living tissues is considered as a power station generating multiple electrical signals with two internal sources namely muscles and nerves. The neurons work together in complex logic and produce thought and signals that control our bodies. When the neuron fires or activates there is a voltage change across the cell (~100mv) which can be read through a variety of devices. When we want to make a voluntary action the command generates from the frontal lobe and signals are generated on the surface of the brain. These electric signals are different in magnitude and frequency. By monitoring and analyzing these signals we can understand the working of brain. When we imagine ourselves doing something small signals generate from different areas of the brain. These signals are not large enough to travel down the spine and cause actual movement. These small signals are however measurable. A neuron depolarizes to generate an impulse this action causes small changes in the electric field around the neuron. These changes are measured as 0 (no impulse) or 1 (impulse generated) by the electrodes.

3.2

TYPES OF BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE:

Types of brain computer interface are:Invasive BCI. Partially invasive BCI. Non invasive BCI.

3.2.1 Invasive BCI:

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality to paralyzed people. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during neurosurgery. As they rest in the grey matter invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but are prone to scar tissue buildup causing the signal to become weaker or even lost as the body reacts to a foreign object in the brain. Direct brain implants have been used to treat non-congenital (acquired) blindness. BCIs focusing on motor neuroprosthetics aim to either restore movement in paralyzed individuals or provide devices to assist them such as interfaces with computers or robot arms. 3.2.2 Partially invasive BCI: Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the brain rather than amidst the grey matter. They produce better resolution signals than noninvasive BCIs where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms signals and have a lower risk of forming scar tissue in the brain than fully-invasive BCIs. Light Reactive Imaging BCI devices are still in the realm of theory. These would involve implanting a laser inside the skull. ECoG is a very promising intermediate BCI modality because it has higher spatial resolution, better signal-to-noise ratio, wider frequency range and lesser training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG and at the same time has lower technical difficulty, lower clinical risk and probably superior long-term stability than intra-cortical single-neuron recording. This feature profile and recent evidence of the high level of control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people with motor disabilities. 3.2.3 Non invasive BCI: There are experiments in humans using non-invasive neuro imaging technologies as interfaces. Signals recorded in this way have been used to power muscle implants and restore partial movement in an experimental volunteer. Although they are easy to wear, noninvasive implants produce poor signal resolution because the skull dampens signals, dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is the most studied potential non-invasive interface mainly due to its fine temporal resolution, ease of use, portability and low set-up cost. But as well as the technology's susceptibility to noise another substantial barrier to using EEG as a
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) brain computer interface is the extensive training required before users can work the technology.

3.3 BASIC BLOCKS OF BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE:

The BCI consists of several components:

The implant device or chronic multi-electrode array. The signal recording and processing section. An external device that uses to produce and control motion. Feedback.

SIGNAL ACQUISITION

BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE SIGNAL PREPROCESSING

SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION

FEEDBACK

ALGORITHM

Fig 3.1: Block diagram of Brain Computer Interface

3.3.1 IMPLANT DEVICE: The EEG is recorded with the help of electrodes which are placed on the scalp as shown in fig 3.2. Electrodes are small plates which conduct electricity. They provide the electrical contact between the skin and the EEG recording apparatus by transforming the
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) ionic current on the skin to the electrical current in the wires. To improve the stability of the signal, the outer layer of the skin called stratum corneum should be at least partly removed under the electrode. Electrolyte gel is applied between the electrode and the skin in order to provide good electrical contact. Usually small metal-plate electrodes are used in the EEG recording. Neural implants can be used to regulate electric signals in the brain and restore it to equilibrium. The implants must be monitored closely because there is a potential for almost anything when introducing foreign signals into the brain.

Fig 3.2: An array of microelectrodes. There are a few major problems that must be addressed when developing neural implants. These must be made out of biocompatible material or insulated with biocompatible material that the body wont reject and isolate. They must be able to move inside the skull with the brain without causing any damage to the brain. The implant must be chemically inert so that it doesnt interact with the hostile environment inside the human body. All these factors must be addressed in the case of neural implants; otherwise it will stop sending useful information after a short period of time.
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There are simple single wire electrodes with a number of different coatings to complex three-dimensional arrays of electrodes which are encased in insulating biomaterials. Implant rejection and isolation is a problem that is being addressed by developing biocompatible materials to coat or incase the implant. One option among the biocompatible materials is Teflon coating that protects the implant from the body. Another option is a cell resistant synthetic polymer like polyvinyl alcohol. To keep the implant from moving in the brain it is necessary to have a flexible electrode that will move with the brain inside the skull. This can make it difficult to implant the electrode. Dipping the micro device in polyethylene glycol which causes the device to become less flexible can solve this problem. Once in contact with the tissue this coating quickly dissolves. This allows easy implantation of a very flexible implant. A microscopic glass cone contains a neurotrophic factor that induces neurites to grow into the cone, where they contact one of several gold recording wires. Neurites that are induced to grow into the glass cone make highly stable contacts with recording wires. Signal conditioning and telemetric electronics are fully implanted under the skin of the scalp. An implanted transmitter (TX) sends signals to an external receiver (RX) which is connected to a computer as shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig 3.3: Block diagram of the neurotrophic electrodes for implantation.

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3.3.2 SIGNAL PROCESSING SECTION: Electrodes interface directly to the non-inverting Opamp inputs on each channel. At this section amplification, initial filtering of EEG signal and possible artifact removal, A/D conversion takes place. The voltage gain improves the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by reducing the relevance of electrical noise incurred in later stages. Processed signals are timedivision multiplexed and are sampled. Usually EEG signals are of analog form and hence have to be digitalized and this is done in signal acquisition section. 3.3.2.1 Amplification: Since the EEG signal generated from the brain are in terms of V and hence has to be amplified. The amplification is done using non-inverting operational amplifier.

Fig 3.4: Opamp. 3.3.2.2 Artifacts rejection based in band pass FIR filters: There are four main sources of artifacts emission:

EEG equipment. Electrical interference external to the subject and recording system. The leads and the electrodes. User: Normal electrical activity from the heart, eye blinking, eyes movement and muscles. To remove these artifacts band pass FIR filter is used.

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Fig 3.5: Artifacts rejection system.

Pass the raw EEG samples obtained from analog-to-digital converter through a digital band pass filter (BPF) to remove slow baseline drift. Determine the blink threshold (Vt) for specific subject in brief training session. Compare the absolute sample value with Vt. If the value is exceeded then remove N samples from the vicinity of zero crossing (N/2 on Shift the following N samples to fill up the gap created by blink removal. These gaps will

either side of threshold crossing).

otherwise grossly distort the spectrum location provided interesting results in eye blink artifact rejection. This method presents the advantage of working even under baseline drift artifacts conditions and also is easy enough to be implemented on a low-cost digital signal processor on a realtime system. Nevertheless it fails if the blink rate is unnaturally high and the training session for each individual is quite long 30 sec (6 eye blinks on an average for a normal subject). 3.3.2.3 Spike detection: Real time spike detection is an important requirement for developing Brain Computer Interfaces. Incorporating spike detection will allow the BCI to transmit only the action potential waveforms and their respective arrival times instead of the sparse, raw signal in its entirety. This compression reduces the transmitted data rate per channel, thus increasing the number of channels that may be monitored simultaneously.

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Spike detection can further reduce the data rate if spike counts are transmitted instead of spike waveforms. Spike detection will also be a necessary first step for any future hardware implementation of an autonomous spike sorter. An implanted ASIC conditions signal from extra cellular neural electrodes, digitizes them, and then detects AP spikes. The spike waveforms are transmitted across the skin to a BCI processor, which sorts the spikes and then generates the command signals for the prosthesis. 3.3.2.4 Signal Analysis: Feature extraction and classification of EEG are dealt in this section. In this stage, certain features are extracted from the preprocessed and digitized EEG signal. In the simplest form a certain frequency range is selected and the amplitude relative to some reference level measured. Typically the features are frequency content of the EEG signal) can be calculated using, for example, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT function). No matter what features are used, the goal is to form distinct set of features for each mental task. If the feature sets representing mental tasks overlap each other too much, it is very difficult to classify mental tasks, no matter how good a classifier is used. On the other hand, if the feature sets are distinct enough, any classifier can classify them. The features extracted in the previous stage are the input for the classifier. The classifier can be anything from a simple linear model to a complex nonlinear neural network that can be trained to recognize different mental tasks. Nowadays real time processing is used widely. Real time applications provide an action or an answer to an external event in a timely and predictable manner. So by using this type of system we can get output nearly at the same time it receives input. Telemetry is handled by a wearable computer. The host station accepts the data via either a wireless access point or its own dedicated radio card. 3.3.2.5 Signal classification: The traditional analysis tools we use for the analysis of stationary signals, such as the Fourier transform, are no longer adequate for the analysis of most non stationary signals. Instead, Time Frequency Representations are more suitable. They combine time and frequency domain to yield a revealing picture of how a signal's frequency content changes with time.
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As different signals have diverse desirable properties that are needed in various applications, different Time Frequency. Representations are necessary for the analysis of different types of signals. Time Frequency representation may be divided into two groups by the nature of their transforms:

Linear methods: Short Time Fourier Transform. Quadratic methods: Wigner Ville distribution.

i) Short-Time Fourier analysis: One of the mathematical methods with greater application in signal processing is the Fourier Transform (FT) as shown in Eq 3.1, which breaks down a signal into constituent sinusoids of different frequencies:

Another way to think of Fourier analysis is as a mathematical technique for transforming our view of the signal from time-based to frequency-based as shown in fig 3.6

Fig 3.6: The Fourier Transform. For many signals, Fourier analysis is extremely useful because the signal frequency content is of great importance but it has a serious drawback. In transforming to the frequency domain, time information is lost. When looking at a Fourier transform of a signal, it is impossible to tell when a particular event took place, because the analysis coefficients X(f) denote the distribution of the signal in the frequency domain for the entire record that is with no time resolution.
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If the signal properties do not change much over time that is if it is what is called a stationary signal this drawback isn't very important. However, most interesting signals, like the EEG signals, contain numerous non-stationary or transitory characteristics: drift, trends, abrupt changes, and beginnings and ends of events. These characteristics are often the most important part of the signal, and Fourier analysis is not suited to detect them. In an effort to correct this deficiency, Dennis Gabor (1946) adapted the Fourier transform to analyze only a small section of the signal at a time. This intuitive solution consists of multiplying the signal x() with a temporal window function h. The resulting transform called the Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) is as shown in Eq 3.2

This maps the signal into a 2-D time frequency domain as shown in Fig 3.7

Fig 3.7: The Short Time Fourier Transform. It is important to consider the bounds on temporal resolution t and frequency resolution f of the STFT. The time resolution of the STFT is proportional to the effective duration of the window h, as we can see considering for x a Dirac impulse. Similarly, the frequency resolution of the STFT is proportional to the effective bandwidth of the window h. Consequently, for the STFT we have a trade off between time and frequency resolution: a good time resolution requires a short window, and a good frequency resolution requires a long window.

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This limitation is a consequence of the time bandwidth uncertainty principle or the Heisenberg inequality as in eq 3.3.

Therefore, the problem consists of the selection of an optimal analysis window for each application. 3.3.3 EXTERNAL DEVICE: The classifiers output is the input for the device control. The device control simply transforms the classification to a particular action. The action can be an up or down movement of a cursor on the feedback screen or a selection of a letter in a writing application. However, if the classification was nothing or reject, no action is performed, although the user may be informed about the rejection. It is the device that subject produce and control motion. Examples are robotic arm, thought controlled wheel chair etc. 3.3.4 FEEDBACK: Real-time feedback can dramatically improve the performance of a braincomputer interface. Feedback is needed for learning and for control. Real-time feedback can dramatically improve the performance of a braincomputer interface. In the brain, feedback normally allows for two corrective mechanisms. One is the online control and correction of errors during the execution of a movement. The other is learning: the gradual adaptation of motor commands, which takes place after the execution of one or more movements. In the BCIs based on the operant conditioning approach, feedback training is essential for the user to acquire the control of his or her EEG response. The BCIs based on the pattern recognition approach and using mental tasks do not definitely require feedback training. However, feedback can speed up the learning process and improve performance. Cursor control has been the most popular type of feedback in BCIs. Feedback can have many different effects, some of them beneficial and some harmful. Feedback used in BCIs has similarities with biofeedback, especially EEG biofeedback. 3.4. EARLY RESEARCHES:
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Work by groups led by Schmidt, Fetz and Baker in the 1970s established that monkeys could quickly learn to voluntarily control the firing rate of individual neurons in the primary motor cortex after closed-loop operant conditioning. In the 1980s, Apostolos Georgopoulos at Johns Hopkins University found a mathematical relationship between the electrical responses of single motor-cortex neurons in rhesus macaque monkeys and the direction that monkeys moved their arms. He also found that dispersed groups of neurons in different areas of the brain collectively controlled motor commands but was only able to record the firings of neurons in one area at a time because of technical limitations imposed by his equipment. There has been rapid development in BCIs since the mid-1990s. Several groups have been able to capture complex brain motor centre signals using recordings from neural ensembles (groups of neurons) and used these to control external devices, including research groups led by Richard Andersen, John Donoghue, Phillip Kennedy, Miguel Nicolelis, and Andrew Schwartz. 3.4.1 Animal BCI research: Several laboratories have managed to record signals from monkey and rat cerebral cortexes in order to operate BCIs to carry out movement. Monkeys have navigated computer cursors on screen and commanded robotic arms to perform simple tasks simply by thinking about the task and without any motor output. Other research on cats has decoded visual signals.

Fig 3.8: Rats implanted with BCIs

3.4.2 Prominent research successes:

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Phillip Kennedy and colleagues built the first intracortical Brain Computer Interface by implanting neurotrophic cone electrodes into monkeys. In 1999, researchers led by Garrett Stanley at Harvard University decoded neuronal firings to reproduce images seen by cats. The team used an array of electrodes embedded in the thalamus of sharp eyed cats. Researchers targeted 177 brain cells in the thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus area, which decodes signals from the retina. The cats were shown eight short movies, and their neuron firings were recorded. Using mathematical filters, the researchers decoded the signals to generate movies of what the cats saw and were able to reconstruct recognizable scenes and moving objects. Miguel Nicolelis has been a prominent proponent of using multiple electrodes spread over a greater area of the brain to obtain neuronal signals to drive a BCI. After conducting initial studies in rats during the 1990s, Nicolelis and his colleagues developed BCIs that decoded brain activity in monkeys and used the devices to reproduce monkey movements in robotic arms. Monkeys have advanced reaching and grasping abilities and good hand manipulation skills, making them ideal test subjects for this kind of work. By 2000, the group succeeded in building a BCI that reproduced monkey movements while the monkey operating a joystick or reaching for food. The BCI operated in real time and could also control a separate robot remotely over IP. But the monkeys could not see the arm moving and did not receive any feedback so called open loop BCI.

Fig 3.9: Diagram of the BCI developed by Miguel Nicolelis on Rhesus monkeys.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Later experiments by Nicolelis using rhesus monkeys succeeded in closing the feedback loop and reproduced monkey reaching and grasping movements in a robot arm. The monkeys were trained to reach and grasp objects on a computer screen by manipulating a joystick while corresponding movements by a robot arm were hidden. The monkeys were later shown the robot directly and learned to control it by viewing its movements. The BCI used velocity predictions to control reaching movements and simultaneously predicted hand gripping force. Other labs that develop BCIs and algorithms that decode neuron signals include John Donoghue from Brown University, Andrew Schwartz from the University of Pittsburgh and Richard Andersen from Caltech. These researchers were able to produce working BCIs even though they recorded signals from far fewer neurons than Nicolelis. Donoghue's group reported training rhesus monkeys to use a BCI to track visual targets on a computer screen with or without assistance of a joystick. Schwartz's group created a BCI for three-dimensional tracking in virtual reality and also reproduced BCI control in a robotic arm. Andersen's group used recordings of pre-movement activity from the posterior parietal cortex in their BCI, including signals created when experimental animals anticipated receiving a reward. In addition to predicting kinematic and kinetic parameters of limb movements, BCIs that predict electromyography or electrical activity of muscles are also being developed.

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Chapter-4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION USING BCI

4.1 WIRED BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE:
Wired Brain Computer Interface System can be divided into 3 basic modules:

Brain Signal Acquisition System. Brain computer Interface for converting Signals into Commands. Device to be controlled.

Fig 4.1: Existing Wired communications between Modules of BCI. In wired BCI the communication between each module takes place with the help of the wires for data transfer. All BCI systems are having wired communication. But this wired communication BCI has many disadvantages:

The distortion is more if there is movement of the wires between modules. The distance is fixed depending upon the length of the wire for each module. Poor special resolution. Immobile. Slow. To overcome these disadvantages wireless brain computer interface is introduced.

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4.2 WIRELESS BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE:

The main goal is to provide wireless network in between modules of brain computer interface. The proposed model is shown in Fig 4.2 which contains wireless media to communicate between modules.

Fig 4.2: Wireless brain computer interface. The objective of this work is to develop prototype of wireless network between modules of brain computer interface. As per earlier discussion the suggested work is to develop wireless network to connect various modules involve in this system in other words wireless communication between modules of BCI. This involves wireless EEG signal transmission. This work is only concern about signal transmission. Instead of using laborintensive, on-site EEG data acquisition and weird BCI system, low-power EEG Sensor and network for BCI can help to improve mobility of BCI System. The wireless sensor network BCI system will have following nodes:

Signal Transmitter-Node1. Signal Receiver-Node2. Device control system-Node3.

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4.3 DESIGN OF PROTOTYPE MODEL:

4.3.1

Node1- Signal Transmitter: Node 1 consists of 3 parts:EEG conditioning unit. Micro-controller. Transmitter.

MICROCONTROLLER

EEG Conditioning Unit

A/D Converter

Flash memory Trans mitter

Mux

Microprocessor core

Fig 4.3: Signal Transmitter Node. It is the initial part of this node which mainly focuses to transmit digitalized EEG data. The design of EEG Sensor Node contains Micro-controller which includes A/D converter which will convert analog signal into digital form. Then flash memory is a type of ROM used to store data and software. A micro-processor core which helps in controlling the data transfer. The data is then transferred wirelessly through wireless transmitter interfaced with micro-controller. These all requirements are fulfilled by Micro-controller ATMEGA16 interfaced with RF transmitter. The advantages of the microcontrollers higher level of integration are:

Less cost. More reliable. Better performance. Faster.

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Flow chart of node 1:

Fig 4.4: Flowchart of node 1.

4.3.2 Node2- Signal Receiver:

Fig 4.5: Signal receiver node.

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) The Fig 4.5 gives overview of wireless receiver node which will receive signal and provide brain computer interface running on host computer system. The brain computer interface program is beyond scope of this project. This node only focuses on reception of signal and communication of micro-controller. The Transmitter and Receiver contains micro-controller and RF module for signal transmission. The receiver node includes receiver and micro-controller which contains communication interface for communicate with external world and flash memory to store controlling commands. The micro-processor cores will synchronies the reception of wireless signal and transfer of data to host PC through RS232 communication interface. Hence this data can be accessed at PC via Com port. This node is implemented using 89v51 microcontroller which is simple 8051 micro-controller. Flow chart for node 2

Fig 4.6: Flow chart of signal receiver node.

4.3.3 NODE-3: Device control system:

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Fig 4.7: Device controller system. The above figure shows device control system. A user wants to control device like robotic arm or wheelchair which contains actuators like wheels or dc motors to perform movements. For controlling purpose this actuators must be interfaced with micro-controller to convert BCI commands in movements of wheels. Here the simple robot is used as device control System. A robot contains two wheels which are interfaced with dc motors. Flowchart for node 3:

Start

Receive data at pin RX

Store it temporarily

Command Robot/s wheels as per received data

Fig 4.8: Flowchart of node 3.

4.4 OVER ALL SYSTEM

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Fig 4.9: Over all system view. 4.4.1 Movement of Robot As soon as commands are received at node3 Device control system that is simple robot, starts its movement in circular way. But these commands are followed by on one dc motor and other remains switch off which enables robot to move circular motion. The command is given through wireless network adopted in this movement of robot in circular path assures that data is receiving at this end hence the objective of this project to develop prototype wireless frame work has been achieved.

Fig4.10: Movement of a robot.

Chapter-5
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Depending on how the technology is used there are good and bad effects. 5.1 Advantages

In this era where drastic diseases are getting common it is a boon if we can develop Also it provides better living, more features, more advancement in technologies etc. Linking people via chip implants to super intelligent machines seems to a natural Linking up in this way would allow for computer intelligence to be hooked more

wireless brain computer interface to its full potential.

progression creating in effect, super humans. directly into the brain, allowing immediate access to the internet, enabling phenomenal math capabilities and computer memory.

By wireless brain computer interface humans get gradual co-evolution with Wireless brain computer interface is fast, reliable, helpful for disables, handicap It is portable, less cost compared to wired, highly efficient, good mobility. No muscular mechanism in this wireless system.

computers.

persons.

5.2 Disadvantages

The brain is incredibly complex. Sometimes EEGs can't pick up complete signal of neuron. Some BCIs still require a wired connection to the equipment, and those that is wireless

require the subject to carry a computer that can weigh around 10 pounds.

Chapter 6
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BCI APPLICATIONS
After we go through the various techniques of BCI the first question that comes to our mind is, what does BCI do to us and what are its applications. So BCI in todays time turns useful to us in many ways. Whether it is any medical field or a field leading to enhancement of human environment. Some of the BCI applications are:

Medical applications. Military applications. Gaming applications. Human subject monitoring. Other applications.

6.1 Medical applications:

The BCI technologies in medical applications of today can be broken into three major areas:i) Auditory and visual prosthesis - Cochlear implants. - Brainstem implants. - Synthetic vision. - Artificial silicon retina. ii) Functional-neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) FNS systems are in experimental use in cases where spinal cord damage or a stroke has severed the link between brain and the peripheral nervous system. They can use brain to control their own limbs by this system iii) Prosthetic limb control - Thought controlled motorized wheel chair. - Thought controlled prosthetic arm for amputee. - Various neuroprosthetic devices.

6.2 MILITARY APPLICATIONS:

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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) The United States military has begun to explore possible applications of BCIs to enhance troop performance as well as a possible development by adversaries. BCI in military applications is used:

Disposal of a bomb. To control and command military applications. Enhancements of soldiers perception and control of vehicles or heavy machinery with BCIs are also within the realm of possibilities. A recent DARPA proposal for a "Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System" includes a requirement for operator-trained high-resolution BCI binoculars that can quickly respond to a subconsciously detected target or a threat. Such biological vision devices can have detection ranges of up to 10 km against dismounts and vehicles, and can expand soldiers field of view to 120. Thus, future generations of auditory and visual neuroprostheses may allow soldiers to perform better during combat situations through automated detection and interpretation capabilities The concept of telepresence, in which a soldier is physically present at a base or concealed location, but has the ability to sense and interact in a removed, real-world location through a mobile BCI device, is also being actively investigated and has even been projected to be available in limited applications by 2015. These expectations are substantiated by recent advances in the operation of robots using EEG signals, such that control of cargo-loading machines, demolition robots, or unmanned aerial vehicles, as enabled by BCIs, is more than a progressive goal; it is also a realistic expectation. In its earliest stages, this type of BCI could be used in manned vehicles, vessels, and aircraft to make their operation more efficient by reducing the need for manual input of key functions as required by today's navigation and weapons deployment protocols. 6.3 GAMING APPLICATIONS: Some of the applications of this technology may seem frivolous, such as the ability to control a video game by thought. If you think a remote control is convenient, imagine changing channels with your mind. Currently there is a development from traditional videogames using keyboard, mouse or joystick, to games that use all kinds of sensors and algorithms that know about speech characteristics, about facial expressions, gestures,

location and identity of the gamer and even physiological processes that can be used to adapt or control the game.
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) The next step in game development is input obtained from the measurement of brain activity. User-controlled brain activity has been used in games that involve moving a cursor on the screen or guiding the movements of an avatar in a virtual environment by imagining these movements. Relaxation games have been designed and also games that adapt to the affective state of the user. For the design of game and training environments we need the integration of theoretical research on multimodal interaction, intention detection, affective state and visual attention monitoring, and on-line motion control. It also requires the design of several prototypes of games. Here price, ease of fitting, required data rate, etc. put strict constraints on the technology. However, the computer game industry is ready to embrace these applications and can even drive some of the developments. 6.4 HUMAN SUBJECT MONITORING: Brain computer Interface monitors humans overall mental state such any sleep disorders, neurological diseases, attention. 6.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS: Other various applications are Mental Mouse Applications in technology products, e.g., a mobile phone attachment that allows a physically challenged user to dial a phone number without touching it or speaking into it. System lets you speak without saying a word in effective construction of unmanned systems, in space missions, defense areas etc. NASA and DARPA have used this technology effectively. Communication over internet can be modified.

Chapter-7 CONCLUSION
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BCI system can provide an augmentative communication method for patients with severe motor disabilities. Paralyzed patients can ask for basic necessities like water and food or use a computer by moving the cursor on a monitor screen using a BCI system without any voluntary muscle control. Wireless platform for Brain Computer Interface improve efficiency and mobility of such bulkier system as well as it will also provide greater advantage in research of signal acquisition. One can record EEG signals while performing various tasks like walking, running and exercising. Handicap person can also access its devices using wireless communication. The technology to create permanent Brain Computer Interfaces is not even a decade old, and proof-of-concept tests have already demonstrated that with as few as two electrodes a brain can create a somewhat useful filtered signal and with many more electrodes, motion can be replicated with reasonable accuracy. Furthermore, there is evidence that the brain is not only able to produce this output, but is able to adapt to it as well. Although brain machine interfaces are often talked about in relation to disabled people, we can expect they will also be used by the non-disabled as a means to control their environment, especially if the devices are non-invasive and no implants are needed. The prospect of implementation of Brain Computer Interfaces will bring about a revolutionary change in peoples lives and through the very miracle of science, may bring about the realization of the theme in fiction. With the right customized software, these most severely disabled individuals will be able to communicate by typing, control assistive robots, and control devices, such as their light or television. Non-disabled individuals, who might be interested in giving up their keyboards, should look for Brain Computer Interfaces in the marketplace anytime soon. In the past, there have been a few failed attempts to commercialize noninvasive brain recording devices for playing video games, or creating mental music or art.

REFERENCES
[1] B. Rivet1, A. Souloumiac, G. Gibert, V. Attina, and O. Bertrand Sensor selection for p300 brain computer interface author manuscript published in ESANN, Belgium (2009).
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Brain Computer Interface (BCI) [2] Syed M. Saddique and Laraib Hassan Siddiqui EEG Brain Computer Interface, journal of software, vol. 4, no. 6, august 2009. [3] Iturrate, J. Antelis and J. Minguez Synchronous EEG Brain-Actuated Wheelchair with Automated Navigation Tech. Rep., Neil Squire Society, Vancouver, Canada, 2006. [4] Chin-Teng Lin, Fellow IEEE, Li-Wei Ko, Jin-Chern Chiou, Member IEEE, Jeng-Ren Duann, Member IEEE, Ruey-Song Huang, Sheng-Fu Liang, Tzai-Wen Chiu, and Tzyy-Ping Jung, Senior Member IEEE Noninvasive Neural Prostheses Using Mobile and Wireless EEG IEEE | Vol. 96, No. 7, July 2008. [5] Paulo Neves, Michal Stachyra, Joel Rodrigues Application of Wireless Sensor Networks to Healthcare Promotion Manuscript received May, 2008 and revised July, 2008. [6] F Lotte1, M Congedo2, A L_ecuyer1, F Lamarche1 and B Arnaldi A Review of Classification Algorithms for EEG-based Brain-Computer Interfaces PACS numbers: 8435, 8780. [7] P. S. Pandian.K. P. Safeer, Pragati Gupta, D. T. Shakunthala, B. S. Sundersheshu and V. C. Padaki. Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) Wireless Sensor Network for Wearable Physiological Monitoring JOURNAL OF NETWORKS, VOL. 3, NO. 5, MAY 2008. [8] Payam Aghaei Pour, Tauseef Gulrez, Omar AlZoubi, Gaetano Gargiulo and Rafael A. Calvo Brain-Computer Interface: Next Generation Thought Controlled Distributed Video Game Development Platform 978-1-4244-2974-5/082008 IEEE. [9] J. H. Correia1*, B. Wessling2, N. S. Dias1, H. R. Silva1, W. Mokwa2, U. Schnakenberg2 Sputtered tin and iro2 electrodes versus standard ag/agcl electrodes for non-invasive EEG applications Agencia Inovacao, POCI 2010. [10] Noor Ashraaf Noorazman, Nor Hidayati Aziz Portable EEG Signal Acquisition System College Science in India 3:1 February 2009.

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