Utility Scale Grid Energy Storage: Distributing Renewable Energy and Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Thien Do
The University of Adelaide SA, Australia
thien.do@student.adelaide.edu.au

AbstractEnergy storage plays a pivotal role in distributing renewable energy into the power grid, and yet it is often overlooked. Renewable energy is intermittent and unpredictable due to their reliance on natural events. Due to these factors, renewable energy is not suitable to be connected directly into the grid. Energy storage is the link connecting renewable sources to the power-grid. This paper discusses effective methods of storing electrical energy, and techniques involved with implementing storage units into the grid including load shifting, peak shaving, frequency regulation, spinning reserve, and uninterruptable power supply applications. These techniques increase the use of renewable sources in the grid and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper also examines the types of utility scale grid energy storage systems currently available, identifying the advantages and disadvantages of each. It will then summarise and compare all the storage types, discussing the suitability of each for various circumstances.

Figure 1: Graph illustrating the method of load shifting. The horizontal line represents constant power production while the curve represents power demand.

I. INTRODUCTION The energy demand from consumers fluctuates at various points within any given day. To accommodate for these changes, power plants are required to continuously alter their energy production levels throughout the day, which results in decreased operational efficiency. Grid energy storage helps to solve this problem by allowing power plants to produce energy at a constant level. To implement this technology effectively, techniques of load shifting and peak shaving are employed. Load shifting involves the storage of energy during offpeak demand periods, and the release of this stored energy during peak periods. Basically, some energy from the plant is saved during low demand periods, and then used later when a greater demand is required. This effectively levels out the electricity demand during the day so that power plants do not have to alter their output load frequently. As a result, baseload power plants are able operate at a constant level corresponding to a maximum efficiency. Greenhouse gas emissions are significantly minimised this way by allowing fossil fuel-powered plants to operate constantly at maximum efficiency. This process is illustrated in figure 1.

Peak shaving is very similar to load shifting. The main difference is that it requires second source of energy, which has traditionally been a fossil-fueled generator. This second source is used to provide the extra energy required during peak hours, while the base load plant continues to produce power at a constant level. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to employ more use of renewable energy, grid operators have coupled a renewable energy source together with a storage unit for peak shaving services, instead of using a fossil-fueled generator which emits greenhouse gases. During off-peak periods, renewable sources can be used to recharge the storage unit; then during peak periods, the storage unit will discharge power back into the grid. Grid energy storage works very effectively with renewable sources as it solves the problem of intermittency. Photovoltaic cells (PV) and wind turbines are inherently flawed in that they are intermittent; the amount of electrical energy they produce is highly dependent upon uncontrollable variables such as the weather. Intermittency in the grid can damage load-equipment due to fluctuations in voltage and power. Energy storage systems can eliminate this intermittency and enable reliable renewable energy to be discharged into the grid. PV and wind turbine systems are also flawed in that they cannot control when energy is released into the grid, ie. sunlight or wind may not be available when it is required, or conversely, large amounts sunlight or wind may be present when their energy is not required. This is obviously not effective. Grid storage coupled with the renewable source can

control when energy is released into the grid, effectively eliminating this flaw. The ability to control the time of energy release into the grid also has strong financial advantages. Energy is expensive during peak periods, and is cheap during off-peak periods. Low-cost energy can be used to recharge the storage unit during off-peak periods, and then during peak periods, the energy can be sold at higher prices. Frequency regulation is another important service provided by some energy storage systems, and is one that is required by all grid operators. Frequency regulation is a service which provides stability in the grid by balancing supply and demand: when there is excess electricity in the grid, the frequency regulating system will absorb energy from the grid; when there is an energy deficit, the system will deliver energy back into the grid. Traditionally, grid operators have used generators powered by fossil fuels to provide frequency regulation- which use fuel inefficiently and produce a large amount of greenhouse gas emissions. By incorporating a storage unit into the system instead, the level of greenhouse gases emitted may be significantly reduced. With the increased injection of intermittent renewable energy in the grid, frequency regulation has become increasingly important. There are various technologies suitable for energy storage including: batteries, compressed air energy storage (CAES), pumped hydro, flywheels, super-capacitors, hydrogen storage and superconductive magnets. Utility scale systems generally require energy storage technologies with capacities greater than 1MW [1]. From the figure 2, we can see that some batteries, CAES, pumped hydro, high power fly wheels, and supercapacitors have energy capacities in this required range. Note from the graph that the available discharge time of high power fly wheels and supercapacitors is in the measure of seconds. These systems are more suitable to provide frequency regulation services or backup power in uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications rather than load shifting and peak shaving.

The capacity of hydrogen storage is not shown on this diagram. This information is not readily available as development of hydrogen storage for grid-connected applications is still in its early stages [3]. Current resources suggest that, until relatively recently, hydrogen storage has mainly focused on hybrid vehicles and off-grid applications. Although hydrogen is yet to be used for grid-connected storage applications, it holds great potential for future energy storage due to its high energy density (39.4kWh/kg three times greater than any other chemical fuel), and abundance (hydrogen is the most abundant element on earth) [4].

II. BATTERIES Rechargeable batteries are one of the best options for the storage of PV energy as PV generation systems often require energy storage of a few MW for a few hours [2]. There are many types of rechargeable batteries used for storing renewable energy; leadacid, nickelcadmium, sodium-sulfur (NaS), lithiumion, metalair, and flow batteries. From figure 2, we can see four types of batteries which are suitable for utility scale systems; namely lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, sodium-sulfur, and flow batteries. Lead acid batteries provide a default option for storage as they are well-developed, low in cost, and are readily available [1]. But these have low energy densities, typically resulting warehouse-size buildings [5]. They also have low life spans (approximately five years) due to their acidic nature which corrode battery components [5]. Over time, nickel-cadmium batteries have replaced lead-acid batteries, but the industry is already moving away from this technology as more advanced batteries are developed [1]. These advanced batteries come in the form of sodium-sulfur and flow batteries as they provide a better alternative to grid storage applications. A. Sodium-Sulfur Batteries 1) Operation Principles The Sodium-sulfur (NaS) battery is a type of molten metal battery. It consists of a molten sulfur positive electrode, a molten sodium negative electrode, and a sodium beta-alumina ceramic electrolyte to separate the electrodes as shown in figure 3.

Figure 2: A graph comparing energy storage technologies in terms of discharge time and system capacity [2].

Figure 3: Diagram illustrating the discharge process of a NaS battery.

During the discharge process, the sodium electrode forces electrons through the external load and into the sulfur electrode. To balance out the charges of this process, positive sodium ions pass through the electrolyte and into the positive electrode. The ions react with the sulfur to produce sodium polysulfide (Na2S4). This process is explained graphically in figure 3. The beta-alumina ceramic electrolyte is important to the NaS battery structure due to its ability to conduct sodium ions well, while preventing electrons to pass through freely [2]. This minimises self-discharge of the battery, thus increasing the efficiency. 2) Advantages All the performance characteristics of the NaS battery are superior to those of the conventional lead acid battery. By using the lead acid battery as the standard battery, we can compare the characteristics of both batteries to get a better understanding of the NaS batterys advantages. The main advantages of the NaS battery are listed below: High efficiency (87-90 percent); compared to 7478 percent for that of the lead acid battery [2] Long life cycle ; triple that of the lead acid battery [2] High energy density; three to five times greater than that of the lead-acid battery [2] Compact (room-size), as opposed to warehouse sizes. [2] Rapid response rate; suitable for UPS systems [2] The compactness is credited to the high energy density. This enables the battery to be installed in densely populated areas where other large storage options are not feasible. Construction of new transmission lines, substations and power plants can also be avoided [5]. A major advantage which is characteristic of most batteries, including the lead acid battery, is rapid response rate. In particular, the NaS battery is able to completely discharge in 1ms [2]. Rapid response rates enable storage devices to be used for UPS systems and backup power applications. UPS systems are used to provide load equipment with continuous power, particularly in the case of a power outage. 3) Disadvantages The greatest disadvantage of the NaS battery is its cost. It costs about $2,500/kW, approximately twenty times that of a lead acid battery [2]. However, prices are expected to ease as the batteries are mass produced [2,5]. The operating temperature of the NaS battery is also disadvantageous. The battery must be kept at approximately 300C during operation for optimum performance; if the electrodes are allowed to solidify, the damage would be irreparable [2].

4) Current Installments NaS batteries have been installed in Japan since the 1990s. In 2001, more than 20 batteries were installed in Japan, including two 6 MW batteries. Altogether, there were enough NaS batteries to light the equivalent of about 155,000 homes [5]. In 2006, the American Electric Power (AEP) utility company installed a 1.2 megawatt NaS battery in North Charleston [5]. Another US utility company, PG&E, is planning to install a 4 megawatt NaS battery in Silicon Valley, California, by end of 2010 [6]. B. Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries The other main type of battery suitable for utility scale energy storage comes in the form of flow batteries, also known as regenerative fuel cells. Flow batteries are a type of rechargeable battery where the electrolytes are pumped through an electrochemical cell from external tanks. There are three main types of flow batteries; polysulfide-bromide (PSB), zincbromine (ZnBr) and vanadium-redox battery (VRB). The following section will focus on the VRB. 1) Operation Principles The VRB is a unique battery in that it has just one elctroactive element in its two electrolytes; that is, there is only one type of element which transfers the charges during the chemical reactions. This element is vanadium, which has four different possible oxidation states: V2+, V3+, V4+, V5+. Figure 4 illustrates the structure of a VRB system. There are two half cells, two tanks and two pumps. The half cells consist of the negative and positive electrodes; this is where the chemical redox reactions occur to produce the electric current. The two tanks hold the electrolytes (consisting of vanadium solution in sulfuric acid), which are pumped through the half cells during operation to continuously replenish the chemical fuel. It is necessary to store the electrolytes in large external tanks as the energy density of the electrolytes is very low, thus large volumes of electrolytes are required to make up for the low density and to increase the capacity of the system.

Figure 4: A diagram depicting the structure of a basic VRB system [6].

2) Advantages The VRB is inherently unique compared to other batteries due its structure and chemical make up. Thus, it has unique advantages to other batteries, making it a good battery alternative. Again, it is useful to compare its performance characteristics to lead acid batteries which are the standard battery. The main advantages are listed below: Relatively high efficiency (72-84 percent) [2] High life cycle; two to three times that of the lead acid battery [2] Large capacity; double that of the lead acid battery [2]. Rapid response rate; suitable for UPS applications [7,8,9] Mechanical rechargeability; replenished solution can be pumped in to replace depleted solution in the case that there is no electricity recharge the battery [9] The large capacity of the VRB is due to the large amount electrolyte solution stored in the external tanks; to increase the capacity of the system, simply store more solution in the external tanks. The tanks also allow for mechanical rechargeability. When there is no available electricity to recharge the battery, more solution can be poured in to replace the depleted solution [9]. This essentially gives the battery the ability recharge to rapidly, rather than having to wait for electrical power to slowly recharge it. The VRB also has a low operating cost per kilo-watthour. As the storage capacity increases, the cost decreases as low as US$150 /kWh [9,10], which is even lower than that of the lead acid battery [10]. 3) Disadvantages and Further Developments The main disadvantage the VRB is its low energy density (approximately 25Wh/kg) [8], which is even less than that of lead acid batteries. Low densities mean that a larger area is required for storage. To improve this current density, efforts have been made to increase the concentration of vanadium ions in the electrolyte; increasing the concentration will increase energy density. At present, the concentration of vanadium ions in sulfuric acid is limited to 2M because greater concentrations will render the solution unstable. Studies are now focused on improving the stability of 3-4M supersaturated vanadium solutions in sulfuric acid. In 2001, the University of New South Wales (UNSW) achieved higher concentrations of vanadium in a new Generation 2 vanadium bromide redox cell [8]. 4) Current Installments The VRB was developed at the UNSW in 1985 and is now installed in Australia, Thailand, USA and Japan. In 1997, an 800kWh battery was installed in Japan by the KashimaKita Electric Power station. A second battery rated at 1MWh was installed in Japan by the Sumitomo Electric and Kansai

Electric Power Co., Inc. Both were installed for load shifting sevices. More recently, a 6MWh VRB was installed for the storage of wind energy in Hokkaido, Japan [8].

III . COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE Compresses air energy storage (CAES) stores energy in the form of compressed air beneath the ground in reservoirs such as salt mines and aquifers. When power is required, this air is heated and expanded through gas turbines, which then generate electricity into the grid. These plants have very large capacities compared to other storage options other than hydropumped storage; it is considered to be a form of bulk energy storage. A. Operation principles Figure 5 below displays the main components of a typical CAES system. In periods of low demand, energy from the grid is used to force ambient air into the system where it is compressed to approximately 11 atm by the compressor [11]. The air is then cooled and further compressed in a booster compressor system. This final storage pressure ranges from 12 to 100 atm, depending on the type of storage reservoir and requirements of the CAES system [11]. If high pressures are desired, it is necessary to divide the booster compressor process up in stages and add intercooling. The air is then ready to be stored in the underground reservoir. Due to the compression stages, the air gets heated. Storage temperatures are typically lowered to around 40C to minimise thermal stresses in the reservoir walls [11]. During the power generation cycle, the high-pressured air is expanded by igniting it with gas. This increases the velocity of the air as it passes through and drives a gas turbine, which generates power back into the grid.

Figure 5: A labelled flow diagram displaying the main components of a typical CAES system.

B. Advantages CAES is a form of bulk energy storage; it has a very large capacity, larger than most types of storage. Existing plants have capacities over 100MW, which is much larger than the capacity of batteries, flywheels and supercapacitors. The only other type of bulk energy storage is hydro-pumped storage. Thus, CAES is advantageous for situations requiring large storage capacities. Another major advantage of CAES is its high ramp rate, meaning that the system is capable of increasing its output rapidly in response to a major load change or outage. This characteristic enables CAES plants to act as a spinning reserve. Hirst and Kirby define spinning reserve as: generators online, synchronized to the grid, that can increase output immediately in response to a major outage and can reach full capacity within 10 minutes [12]. For example, in the case of a power outage, the CAES system is able to come on line quickly and provide emergency backup power until normal systems come back online. The main advantages of CAES are summarised below: Large system capacity; greater than 100MW [2] High ramp rate; suitable for spinning reserve [10] The storage medium is air, which is abundant, free, and readily available The environmental impact is minimal [10]; the storage reservoir is an underground site which was already present (such as an abandoned mine or empty aquifer), thus the plant has no further impact on the environment. C. Disadvantages There are various disadvantages regarding the CAES system, which would explain why very few CAES systems have been built. Firstly, it requires an underground reservoir such as an unused empty salt dome, an aquifer, or an abandoned mine. If its service is required in a region where no suitable underground site is available, another storage alternative may have to be employed. Secondly, the system is not self-contained; instead it depends on a pipeline to supply natural gas for the combustion chamber. Finally, it has a relatively low efficiency (70-78 percent), which is the lowest efficiency of all the storage types discussed in this paper. D. Further Developments To counter the above disadvantages, a number of developments have been under way. A possible solution to the first and second problems is to combine the CAES with a thermal plant; this is called a thermal and compressed-air storage (TACAS) system [13]. Here, the compressed air is forced into conventional gas tanks or pressure vessels for storage instead of an underground

reservoir. When the compressed air needs to be expanded, it is passed through a thermal plant which heats it, instead of igniting it with gas. The system does not require an underground storage reservoir and is self-contained. TACAS systems have a life expectancy of 20 years [13]. Further developments have also been made to achieve greater efficiencies in CAES. During the cooling process, a significant amount of energy is discarded and as a result, a lot of energy is wasted [14]. Efforts have been made to develop adiabatic systems where the ambient heat is stored and used later to preheat the air before it enters the gas turbine. The heat can be stored in pebble beds in direct contact with the air as it passes through. The difficulty with this is that the pebbles may break into dust particles due to the thermal stresses and damage rotating machinery. Another option is to use heat exchangers with concentrated brine as the cooling liquid. Brine is proposed in this idea as it is a low-boiling liquid, is cheap, and readily available. Adiabatic plants are currently under development and can potentially achieve greater efficiencies and zero direct CO2-emissions [14,15]. D. Current Installments There are currently only two CAES plants built in the world. The first plant is rated at 290 MW and was built in Huntorf, Germany, in 1918 [15]. The second was built with a capacity of 110 MW in Alabama, USA in 1991.

IV. PUMPED HYDRO STORAGE Traditional hydroelectric dams are one of the oldest forms of power generation, yet it provides by far the greatest amount of renewable energy in the world [16]. Hydropower produces over 16 times the amount of solar and wind power combined [16], and in the US, it accounts for 77 percent of renewable energy capacity. Part of this 77 percent includes a 16 percent contribution by pumped storage alone [17]. A. Operation Principles Pumped hydro storage is a form of hydroelectric powergeneration where energy is stored by pumping water from a

lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. During hours of

energy from PV cells and wind turbines can be used to pump the water to the upper reservoir [17]. C. Disadvantages and Further Developments The disadvantages of pumped hydro stem from land requirements and its environmental impact. Pumped hydro requires two large water reservoirs, including one at an elevated level; many regions do not have the landscape requirements for such a system [10]. Furthermore, even if an area has the required landscape, there is strong opposition to such facilities due to the significant environmental impact brought upon by the size and dynamic behaviour of the system [10]. Underground pumped storage is a solution to these problems. An underground pumped storage system is one where the upper reservoir is on the surface of the ground, while the lower reservoir is located in mined caverns underground [19]. In regions where conventional pumped storage is desired, but where no appropriate sites are present, underground pumped storage may be the solution. Under certain underground conditions with suitable rock formations, the lower reservoir can be placed underground [19]. Underground pumped storage is especially desirable because it has minimal impact on the environment [10]. There are no underground pumped storage plants built yet, as it is still under development. However, the idea of underground hydroelectric power-generation is not a new one; underground hydroelectric plants have been operating in Germany since 1951 [19]. D. Current Installments Many pumped storage systems have been installed worldwide for their grid services and benefits in balancing the intermittency of wind and solar energy. In 2009, more than 127,000 MW of pumped storage capacity was in operation worldwide. This amount is expected to grow rapidly over the next four years, totalling more than 203,000MW by 2014 [20]. Most plants have capacities ranging from approximately 200 MW to 500MW, although the largest plant in the world has a capacity of 2,400 MW located in Guangzhou II, China [18].

Figure 6: Diagram depicting the operation of a typical pumped storage system. Note that the water flows through the same pathway in both generating and pumping modes of operation. This is possible due to the reversible pumpturbine

peak demand, this stored water is allowed to flow though turbines which generate electricity in the same method as conventional hydro stations. When energy production is in excess, water is pumped from the lower to upper reservoir to store this excess energy. Reversible pump-turbine and generator-motor equipment serve as both a pump and a generator, allowing the system to operate more effectively as shown below in figure 6. B. Advantages Pumped storage is the major type of bulk energy storage due to its massive capacity and well developed technology. The main advantages of pumped storage are listed below: Relatively high efficiency for bulk storage (73-85 percent) [2] High ramp rate (can discharge 800MW within seconds); suitable for spinning reserves [16] Largest system capacity compared to any other grid energy storage currently available [17,18]; the largest existing pumped storage plant has a capacity of 2400 MW [18] No fuel is required, only the volume and motion of water [16]. Operates on robust, well developed, and reliable technology; pumped storage is one of the oldest energy storage technologies and is widely accepted. Besides its energy storage and peak shaving capabilities, pumped storage also has significant benefits in managing the energy grid; pumped storage stations can provide network frequency control and spinning reserve. These services are possible due to the systems very high ramp rate [16, 17]. For example, the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State can go from operating at low load to full load (around 800 MW) in matter of seconds [16]. Pumped storage is now used to resolve the intermittency of renewable sources such as solar and wind energy where the

V. HIGH POWER FLYWHEELS The types of storage systems discussed above have are mainly used for peak shaving and load shifting services. With regards to high power flywheels, the focus is based on frequency control and UPS applications due to their rapid response rates, high life cycles and high efficiencies. They are not suitable for peak shaving and load shifting due to their low discharge durations. Frequency regulation generally accounts for 1 to 2 percent of the power generated daily [21]. Employing a fossil fuelled generator to provide this service would emit

greenhouse gases, by installing a high power flywheel instead, up to 90 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced [21]. A. Operation Principles A flywheel is a device which stores electrical energy as kinetic energy in a spinning wheel. The mechanical section of the system is comprised of a motor to spin the flywheel, a flywheel which stores the kinetic energy, and a generator which extracts energy from the spinning flywheel. Figure 7 illustrates how these components are connected. The amount of energy stored is proportional to the flywheels mass and the square of its rotational speed. Hence, the most efficient way to store energy in a flywheel is to increase its speed. The maximum speed of the flywheel is limited by the stress on the flywheel due to the inertial loads, thus limiting the energy capacity of the flywheel.

No capacity degradation; flywheel lifetime is almost independent of discharge/charge cycle depth [24] Can operate equally well at a low or high level of charge [24] Frequency regulation devices must be able to constantly and rapidly absorb and release energy into the grid. All the advantages described above help flywheels regulate frequency. Their rapid response and short recharge times allow flywheels to rapidly absorb and release energy into the grid, while their high life cycles allow them to continuously absorb and release energy into the grid. Also, the flywheels lack of capacity degradation and ability to operate well at low or high levels of charge allow it to continuously operate at high performance without fear of damage due to overuse. This is important, as frequency regulation is a service which requires constant operation throughout the day, every day.

Figure 7: An illustration depicting the main components of a traditional flywheel system[26].

High power flywheels are an advanced form of the traditional flywheel, such as the one depicted in figure 7. The advanced flywheel is placed in a vacuum sealed container and is suspended by a magnetic bearing to minimise frictional losses from the air and bearings. These conditions are ideal for maximum rotating speeds. Recent technology advances in carbon fibre composite materials have allowed these flywheels to withstand the increased speeds by strengthening the material of the flywheel itself. All of these developments together have resulted in todays high power flywheels, which have much higher capacities. B. Advantages The characteristics of high power flywheels are especially well suited frequency regulation services. Their main advantages are listed below: High efficiency (87-94 percent efficient) [2]; higher than that of batteries Rapid response rate; in the order of milliseconds [21] Short recharge time; can fully charge within 15 minutes [22] High life cycle (70,000 cycles); 35,000 times more cycles than the lead acid battery [2] High life expectancy (typically 20 years) [23]

C. Disadvantages and Current Installments Currently there are no utility scale installments of flywheels in the grid; they have typically been installed in smaller scales in local systems for UPS applications and backup power. However, this will soon change when the first utility scale, 20 MW flywheel plant, is installed in New York, US. This plant has a much larger capacity than previous flywheel systems as it is made up of a matrix of 200 flywheels. This comes at a massive cost of US$70-million, however future costs of such plants are estimated to be less than US$50million. Construction has already begun and is expected to be completed by the end of the first quarter of 2011. Two more 20 MW flywheel-based plants are expected to be installed in the US in the near future [21,25].

VI. SUPERCAPACITORS Supercapacitors, also known as Ultracapacitors, store energy in the form of static electricity, just as ordinary capacitors do. However, supercapacitors are able to store much greater amounts of energy due nano-technology developments which have allowed increased surface areas on the electrodes. Supercapacitors are power devices; they can supply short bursts of power short durations, typically in the range of seconds [2]. They are suitable for grid management applications such as frequency regulation and UPS systems, but are also used in storage applications for renewable energy such as solar, wind, and hydro storage [26,27]. With regards to grid management applications, they are very similar to high power flywheels. C. Operation Principles

A supercapacitor is a double layer capacitor. Figure 8 below displays a diagram of a supercapacitor; there are two oppositely charged plates (the current collectors), two porous electrodes (consisting of the electrolyte), and a separator. To build up static charge, the positive plate attracts negative ions from the electrolyte to the plate, while the negative plate attracts positive ions. As charged ions move to the plate edges,

By comparing the advantages of supercapacitors against high power flywheels, we see that the former has a greater efficiency range, and a higher number of life cycles, but the life expectancy is lower. However, these differences are not very significant, and their response rates are also very similar. Thus, the supercapacitor is well suited to the same services as those performed by the high power flywheel, ie. frequency regulation and UPS applications. C. Disadvantages and Current Installments There are currently two main challenges facing supercapacitor manufacturers; cost, and the fact that the technology is relatively new. Due to these factors, utility providers have been reluctant to employ this new technology and so there have been no utility scale installations to date [13,27]. However, it is evident that there is increased awareness of this technology among companies, and that costs are decreasing [27]. Despite the lack of utility scale instalments so far, supercapacitors have found employment in other applications related to the grid including UPS applications and storage of solar, wind, and hydro energy [13,28,31]. Their rapid response rates, high life cycles, and high efficiencies make them suitable for frequency regulation on the grid, but this service requires a large scale of units to be produced which has been unfeasible due high costs. VII. SUMMARY AND COMPARISON OF STORAGE TYPES The table below summarises the characteristics of the various types of energy storage systems discussed in this paper. As each have their own advantages and disadvantages, thus some are more suited to different applications than others; there is no single storage system which suits all applications. Buy studying the different advantages of each storage type, we can determine the suitability of each for different types of applications. With regards to load shifting and peak shaving applications, those storage systems with large system capacities and long discharge times in the range of hours are suitable. Batteries, CAES and pumped storage are such systems used for such applications. Batteries are most suitable in densely populated areas as they are smaller and do not require large on-site features such as reservoirs at high altitudes or underground mines, but these have lower energy capacities than CAES and pumped storage. CAES and pumped hydro are more suitable in situations in which bulk storage is required, but where the necessary sites available. Regarding to the distribution of renewable energy, suitable storage capacities for PV and small scale wind energy storage lie the range of a few mega-watts [2]. Batteries have the capacities within this range. It also happens that PV and small scale wind farms are typically located in densely populated areas, which is where batteries are well suited. For large scale wind farms, CAES and pumped storage are most

Figure 8: This figure looks at the ultracapacitor at different levels of abstraction; leftmost is the ultracapacitor module, followed by a schematic, and rightmost is a detailed diagram of a single cell [27].

oppositely charged ions will be repelled from the edges and gather to the middle, next to the separator. Ultimately, there forms two layers of capacitance [28]. The electrodes only store energy on their surfaces; therefore to increase the storage capacity, the surface area must be increased. This is the reason for the porous electrodes, as it provides a high surface area in a given volume [29]. Furthermore, the separation of charges in the double layers is about 0.3 to 0.5 nm, as opposed to 10 to 100 nm in electrolytic capacitors, and 1000 nm in polystyrene capacitors [28]. This allows the layers to be structured more compactly together, further increasing the surface area per unit volume. As a result, the capacitance per square centimetre of supercapacitors is approximately 10,000 times larger than those of ordinary dielectric capacitors [28]. B. Advantages The advantages of supercapacitors are very similar to those of high power flywheels; we can see this through the main advantages of supercapacitors listed below: Very high efficiency (> 95 percent efficient) [2,27,29] Rapid response rate; in the order of milliseconds [26] High life cycle (100,000 cycles); 50,000 times more cycles than the lead acid battery [2] High life expectancy of up to 15 years [13]; the life expectancy does not degrade with the number of cycles, rather it depends on the temperature and voltage [30] Very high power densities compared to batteries (double that of a lithium ion battery) [28]; this allows them to rapidly discharge power into the grid

suitable. Large scale wind farms require much larger storage capacities and are typically found in less densely populated areas suitable for CAES and pumped storage. Concerning frequency regulation, a range of characteristics are considered to determine whether a system is suitable. Those with rapid response rates, high power densities, high life cycles and high efficiencies are required. Rapid response rates and high power densities allow units to rapidly absorb and release energy into the grid, which balances out the fluctuations. High life cycles allow units to continuously charge and discharge into the grid throughout the day. Finally, high efficiencies significantly reduce losses and greenhouse gas emissions in the grid. Flywheels and

supercapacitors the most suitable storage units used for frequency regulation services. For UPS and spinning reserve applications, the suitability of a system depends on its response rate and capacity. Those with rapid response rates (typically in the range of milliseconds) are suitable for UPS applications, while those with slower response rates and larger capacities are suitable for spinning reserves. Batteries, flywheels, and supercapacitors are suitable for UPS applications, while CAES and pumped storage are compatible for spinning reserves.

TABLE I SUMMARY OF STORAGE TYPE CHARACTERISTICS

Storage Type LeadAcid NaS VRB CAES Hydro Pumped Storage Flywheel Supercapacitor
+

Energy Density [32] low high low very low low very low very low

Power Density [32] moderate high high low low high high

Capacity [2]

Efficiency (%) [2]

74-78

1kW 10MW 40kW -10MW 40kW -20MW 100MW -1GW 100MW -2.4GW 10 kW 1MW ^ 10 kW 1MW

Plant Capital Cost US$/kW [10] 120 2,500 1,500 390 1100 150 n/a

Storage Capital Cost US$/kWh [10] 170 n/a 150 1 10 300 n/a

Response Rate

Discharge Time [2] hours hours hours hours hours seconds seconds

Life Cycles (1000 Cycles) with DoD+ 80% [2] 0.2-2 3-6 2-5 9-30 30-60 40-70 10-100

UPS compatible UPS compatible UPS compatible spinning reserve compatible spinning reserve compatible UPS compatible UPS compatible

87-90 72-84 70-78 73-85 87-94 > 95

^ For single flywheels, ie not a matrix of flywheels

DoD Depth of Discharge VIII. CONCLUSION for utilities to be aware of all the types of storage systems available, especially the new technologies, so that they may have a greater flexibility in choosing the most suitable systems for their various circumstances. Many utilities are reluctant to adopt the newer technologies such as underground pumped storage and supercapacitors for fear of the problems attached to being one of the first to employ such alternatives; these technologies harbour great potentials and increasing their use in the industry will allow the energy storage industry further develop and grow. With the increased development of storage technologies, there will be more effective management of the grid, more

The various types of energy storage systems discussed in this paper can be divided into two main categories: one for long discharges in load management, the other for short discharges in frequency regulation. Batteries, CAES and pumped storage are suitable for load management services through peak shaving and load shifting, while high power flywheels and supercapacitors are suitable for frequency regulation. With the increased distribution of renewable energy into the grid, both load management and frequency regulation services have become increasingly important. It is imperative

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