Ancient Africa and the Early Black American Historians, 1883-1915 Author(s): Dickson D. Bruce, Jr.

Reviewed work(s): Source: American Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 5 (Winter, 1984), pp. 684-699 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2712867 . Accessed: 08/12/2011 14:06
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ANCIENT AFRICA AND THE EARLY BLACK AMERICAN HISTORIANS, 1883-1915

DICKSON D. BRUCE, JR. University California, Irvine of

THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE CLOSE OF RECONSTRUCTION AND THE COMING OF

a in Following postemancipation WarI wascrucial blackAmerican history. World 1877and1915encompassed the between progress, years of racial interlude apparent blackpeople occupiedin America.Blacks were a real erosionof theposition in politicallife, culminating theirconstitutional excludedfrom increasingly "Jim in statesby the turnof the century. disfranchisement most southern and in Crow" laws established segregation publicaccomodations majorsocial in becamecommon the time.Segregation the at throughout South this institutions and by were buttressed anintellectual as in North well.Changes lawsandpractices the of racism vigorously that asserted inferiorityblackpeopleto whites. popular magazines academic to American from everything themajor pervaded Thisracism era Logansaid,this may Rayford and history thesocialsciences.As thehistorian black Ameribe quite justifiably labeled the "nadir" of postemancipation can history.' this during hostileto black aspirations increasingly Withwhitesappearing saw needtoturn strategies to black period, post-Reconstruction leaders a growing to the in efforts improve conditions and basedon self-help racialsolidarity their to committed the in Although remained they blacks American society. confronting as becameconvinced, August of American they life, integrationblackpeopleinto refused take to demands equality for so their that, longas whites Meierhasshown, life toward better forblackswoulddependupontheir a any seriously, progress in Thisplacedthem of own.2 socialandeconomic institutionstheir strong building

Wilson (New RutherfordHayestoWoodrow B. from of Negro, W. 'Rayford Logan,TheBetrayal the the before after close and ch. racism 13. On racerelations 1965), 11, andsee onpopular York:Collier, ed. Crow,3d rev. (New York: CareerofJim The see ofReconstruction, C. VannWoodward, Strange Jr., and racism, GeorgeW. Stocking, Race, see Univ.Press,1974). On academic intellectual Oxford of (New York:FreePress,1968). and Essays in theHistory Anthropology Culture, Evolution: Age ofBookerT in 1880-1915:Racial Ideologiesin the Meier, NegroThought America, 'August Toll, TheResurPress,1963),42-46. See also William Univ.ofMichigan (Ann Washington Arbor: to Pan-African (Philadelphia: Reconstructionthe Conferences genceofRace: BlackSocial Theoryfrom TempleUniv.Press,1979).

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a difficult intellectual rhetorical and dilemma. theone hand, On their senseofthe them develop rhetoric racialpride a of needforseparate development required to of andsolidarity, a rhetoric asserted distinctive that the character blackpeopleand for their their achievement. the On other potential independent hand, integrationist that of or goals required anyrhetoric separate development distinctiveness not the that to compromise basiccase against segregation, namely blackshada right in to full life without limitations or equality American andwanted claimthat right was to W.E.B. DuBois called,in qualifications. situation closely The related what 1903,theNegro's"double-consciousness" beingbothblackand American.3 of The stimuli a segregationist of reality integrationist meant and goals black that a or leaders couldnoteasilyreject either blackidentity an American one. Hence, that bothelements theyhad to createa rhetoric somehoweffectively brought in together a satisfactory imageof reality. tried One way in whichblackthinkers to come to gripswiththeproblem of a of double-consciousness through reexamination thebackground black was to in was of American Included this life. reexamination a delineation blackAmerica's African heritage. African after setblackpeopleapart from European the roots, all, and claimedby white serveas a basis for heritage Americans, could therefore on racial and The was most solidarity a blackidentity. focus Africa developed fully in a number general of of histories black Americaproduced black writers by about1883and 1915. The authors these of works werenotprofessional between suchfieldsas education, and religion. historians, came from but law, politics, into on sources others Somebasedtheir histories extensive research primary while more lessexclusively, secondary or on materials. works relied, Their the provided counterbalancea white to that only historiography generally excluded blacksfrom theAmerican and loomedlargein all of them. story, theAfrican heritage of The picture theAfrican drewwas strongly past thattheearlyhistorians with influenced the by needtocometoterms black double-consciousness. a Needing vision Africa wascompatible both of that with idealsandthe needfor integrationist racialpride, blackhistorians lookedforaspectsof theAfrican that background tied civilization weredistinctively but black.Theyfound wereclosely to western in histories theancient of of sucha heritage the civilizations Egypt Ethiopia. and In those civilizations also found in they thebelief black powerful arguments against that American in inferiority dominated white thinking thelatenineteenth century.
* * *

The mostsignificant account ancient of Africa a blackhistorian was early by in writen George Williams histwo-volume by Washington History theNegro of in Race inAmerica, not first published 1883.Although the general of history black Americans a blackauthor, Williams's bookhasgenerally acknowledged been by as

3W.E. B. DuBois, TheSouls ofBlackFolk (1903), rpt.in Three NegroClassics,ed. John Hope Franklin (New York:Avon,1965), 215.

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based to history, general effort important bya blackwriter do a scholarly thefirst Williams himself an impreshad research.4 secondary and primary on significant in his Williams in spent youth Massachusetts, Born 1849inPennsylvania, sivecareer. the in during Civil He served theUnionArmy was educated he privately. where Colonelinpostwar Mexicancampaigns. rank Lieutenant of the Warandachieved from Howard University. 1874,he In Williams graduated leaving army, the After and its first black graduateof NewtonTheological Seminary, became the and Williams pursued also legalstudies the After entering ministry, valedictorian. the blackmember In toa successful legalcareer. 1879,hewaselected first went on on this he During busytime, was also atwork hishistory. oftheOhiolegislature. a produced morefocused work,Williams that completing large,general After in a he somespace of study blacktroops theCivilWar, bookinwhich also devoted at to went Africa where, thebehest Africa.5 1890,Williams In actually toancient in conditions theCongo. he government, investigated of theAmerican to of history blacksin theancient three chapters hisgeneral Williams devoted withan accountof theterm"Negro" itself, world.He began his discussion diverse to dark-skinned peoples. and to trying showitsorigins itsapplicability very of Williams discussed unity the the as source, UsingtheOld Testament hischief in of since howblackpeoplehadfigured thegrowth civilization racesandshowed as the earliesttimes. In the ancientworld, he argued, such designations "Ethiopian" and "Cushite" had been applied to all those Africanswith in timesas darkskinsand "woolly hair" who had come to be known modern for "Negroes." These were the people who had been responsible ancient greatness. Egyptian from Greek historian Herodotus, for contention derived the His main support this focusedon a passage in which in B.C. Williams who wrote thefifth century, of of the Herodotus described inhabitants Colchis,a region Asia Minorat the wrote, end of the Black Sea.6 "There can be no doubt," Herodotus eastern upon the race," basinghis claim partly "thatthe Colchiansare an Egyptian of are," to use the 1858 they appearance thepeople,"on thefactthat physical and the "black-skinned have woollyhair."7Although Rawlinson translation,

NegroThought, 52. of 4See Toll, Resurgence Race, 23; Meier, Williams, Historian," "GeorgeWashington see Hope Franklin, 5For background Williams, John on A BlackHistorians: Critique 31 Journal NegroHistory, (1946), 61-64. See also Earl E. Thorpe, of works were History the of Negro major historical Morrow, 1971),46. Williams's (New York:William of Race inAmerica, 1619-1880,2 vols. (1883; rpt.New York:ArnoPress,1968);andA History the of of Services 1861-65,preceded A Review theMilitary by NegroTroops theWaroftheRebellion, in 1968). Negroesin Ancient ModernTimes(1888; rpt.New York:Bergman, and of 6Williams, History theNegroRace, I, 12-14, 15. 2 ed. trans.GeorgeRawlinson, E.H. Blakeney, vols. (1858; rpt. 7TheHistories Herodotus, of Williams, including Library, 1910), Book II, ch. 104. None of thehistorians, London:Everyman's similar to employed language was All, of specified which translation Herodotus employed. however, in were the Henry Cary's 1847translation which Colchians as example, Rawlinson's, opposedto,for N.Y.: Books forLibraries Press, 1972), described "swarthy curly-headed" as and (rpt.Freeport, Book II, ch. 104.

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deny thatancient George Rawlinsonwould himself Egyptologist-translator Williamssaw thisas Africa,"8 of were ancestors "the blacks of Egyptians of ancient people. for strong evidence theblackethnicity that by for Egypthad been a setting greatachievements ancient For Williams, in with other races.Indeed, equality of there a state perfect whohadlived blacks, Herodotus's of Thushecited assumed positions leadership. blackpeoplehadoften an and had of eighteen thekings Egypt beenEthiopians, provided of claimthat whowas served an army slaves, by of of description a Negroprincess extended to time, confined was that both blackandwhite."So we find slavery not,at this was as wrote."This Negroprincess race anyparticular of people," Williams some were takenin whiteas black slaves; and doubtless liable to purchase as werepurchased servants."9 nations, whileothers warswithother successful this was stillwilling acknowledge to no of Williams Normally friend slavery, world. in evidence blackstatus theancient of important that lookedinorder ancient Egypt, Williams no YetitwastoEthiopia, lessthan and blackpeople.Egypt hersplendor ofan the toidentify accomplishments ancient on civilization, founded had herself beena derivative but hadbeengrand, Egypt at city civilization hadexisted Meroe,"the chief that of thegreatness an earlier in had interior beenentirely oftheNegroes alongtheNile." Thiscity theAfrican Meroe, a cityof exotic Moreover, and developed black Africans. by created to of According Williams, had splendor, been the birthplace all civilization. from venerable the Negroesup theNile." He then her "Egyptborrowed light from Greece.Thus,theflow Rome,from Egypt; howGreecehadlearned showed "' of an into from African birthplace Europe. Creators ofcivilization proceeded had of other civilizahad great a great Africans laidthefoundations every civilization, tionknown history. to Williams's bookhad of As thefirst history blackAmerica, scholarly general, evenin it fairly widely, At of great impact. thetime itspublication, was reviewed and and comment, it Monthly itlengthy positive gave The press. Atlantic thewhite it of " in Review London. Although notice theWestminster favorable evenreceived of Civil War amongblacksin itspresentation several causedsomecontroversy in ' the achievement blackwriting. as incidents, bookwas also taken thecrowning was lionizedas workon itstopic,and Williams the It was considered standard of starswhichshinein thezenith theNegroworld."'3 "amongtheintellectual workson black It would laterbe joined by severalothergeneral,scholarly T. and T. booksbyWilliam Alexander Joseph Wilson-but notably history-most
vol. I, 164n. 'Translator's in Rawlinson, note trans., Histories Herodotus, of 'Williams, History theNegroRace, I, 15, 17. of he similar the '01bid., 22. In Williams's I, 1888volume, pursued themes, emphasizing leadership rolesblackshad assumedin ancient armies.See Williams, History theNegroTroops,ch. 1. of ""The NegroRace in America,"Atlantic Monthly, (1883), 564-69; WilliamJ. Simmons, 51 1970), 379. Men ofMark:Eminent, Progressive Rising(1887; rpt.Chicago:Johnson, and '2Washington Bee, 5 May 1883. "Simmons, Men ofMark,371.

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work.Norwould the or of nonewouldhaveeither stature thebreadth Williams's as by the whitepress or the black theybe recognized so significant either 4 Wilson's work receive did and widenotice respect). Atthe community, (although works if of that, they lackedthestature Williams's sametime,there wereother Johnson's important. Theseincluded EdwardAugustus book,werenevertheless as of Amos Pendleton's 1912 Narrative theNegro,also intended a textbook. in as text Negro schools North Carolina book Johnson's wasadopted a standard for and in was century, Mrs.Pendleton's usedintheWashington, early thetwentieth D.C., schools.'5 intended a generalaudienceor forschool for These otherbooks, whether All from main the discussed Williams. included by deviated little points children, in of and the much hehad.Johnson, his as accounts ancient Africa, alltreated topic in of slaves. of andRomewas,probably, thehands theforeparents theAmerican of powerful earth, on Theyare,then, descendents a raceofpeopleoncethemost in Mrs.Pendleton, her1912textbook, noted pointedly theraceofthePharoahs." and merchants that in Meroe, "king and court,priestsand worshippers, movednorthward householders wereNegroes," and arguedthat"civilization The motif well established every was at its cradle.'6 intoEurope" from African It a century. is perhaps writing theearlytwentieth by levelof blackhistorical of of to consciousness black Americans measure its importance thehistorical of this Court Freedom that"The Templeof Beauty"in theGreat during period on held atthe1913National Emancipation Exposition inNew Yorkwas modeled with at exposiand anEgyptian pageantry the temple wasinscribed hieroglyphics;
tion included a dance performed "fortymaidens . . . before the Enthroned by 1891 School History,wrotethat'[a]ll thescience and learningof ancientGreece A textbook, School Historyof theNegro Race, and Mrs. Lelia 1891 black history

'7 Pharoah theNegro." Ra,

accountsof ancientAfricawere diverse. Sourcesforthe black historians'

'4William Alexander, T. History theColoredRace in America(1887; rpt.New York:Negro of Universities T. Press,1968);Joseph Wilson'smostgeneral work was Emancipation: Courseand Its New York:NegroUniversities Progress, from 1491B.C. toA.D. 1875 (1882; rpt. Press,1969). Like Williams, Wilson of also wrote history blackAmerican a soldiers: BlackPhalanx:A History the The of NegroSoldiers theUnited of Statesin theWarsof1775-1812,1861-65 (1890; rpt.New York:Arno life were W. in Press,1968).Wilson's andworks eulogized John Cromwell In Memoriam: by Tally R. Holmes, South of Carolina,and Col. Joseph Wilson, Virginia T of (Washington, D.C.: Howard Univ. Print. [1891]). Wilson was a Unionveteran becameactive Reconstruction who in in politics Virginia. he Self-educated, was a prolific essayist well as a historian. as "5Frank LincolnMather, ed., Who's Whoof theColoredRace (Chicago:n.p., 1915), 155, 214. was Johnson a North Carolina teacher schooladministrator likeWilliams, and later a who, pursued legalcareer. Moving NewYork, became member that to he a of state's legislature. Pendleton a Mrs. was and Washington, D.C., teacher clubwoman. A 6Edward Augustus Johnson,SchoolHistory the Race inAmerica 1619to1890(1911 of Negro from NewYork: ed.; rpt. AMS Press,1969),9. Emphasis original. in Lelia AmosPendleton, Narrative A of theNegro(1912; rpt.Freeport, N.Y.: Books forLibraries Press,1971), 14, 16. and in "7Photographs captions Crisis,7 (1913), 78, 79.

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works,but black the probably provided modelformostsubsequent Williams sources.Mostfollowed to painsto makereference other writers tookgreat also to and of to Williamsin referring Herodotus, particularly his description the to because,as theblack of inhabitants Colchis.This was thought be important in wrote 1893, "The hairand thecolor ThomasMcCantsStewart theologian speciesof mankind.'" the distinguish different of with references. buttressed authority Herodotus biblical the Manyhistorians that of to Jeremiah establish the Williams himself citedthetestimony theprophet to of to ancient Ethiopians black,andhereferred thestory Noahandtheflood were argument served also of ancestry all blackpeople.Thisbiblical prove common the of the treatments themotif, as thebasis forone of theperiod'smostelaborate he though cited RufusL. Perry's1893 book, The Cushite.Perry, Reverend on reliedmainly biblicalgenealoevidence, and Herodotus somearchaeological and backgrounds modern of the to gies in an effort establish Ethiopian Egyptian of treatment thetopic. peoples.'9 was theonlybook-length His African for treatment ancient of on sources their also Yetblackhistorians drew modern artifacts theNapoleonic by of Egyptian Africa.The greatdiscoveries ancient of a amount scholarly popular and of expeditions 1798hadinspired large Egyptian of of the part the much which during early appeared on Africa, literature ancient on work. Williams his followers and reliedheavily that century. nineteenth black writings may to background latenineteenth-century historical Themodem of scholar in travel accounts theFrench popular clearly theextremely be seenmost de comte Volney. Volney'svisits Francois Chaseboeuf, de andtourist Constantin and the in antedated Napoleonic expeditions, hisbooks toEgypt the1780sactually an French forces. revolutionary Volney, active by wereusedas guides theFrench to to nobility, the whom elevated the brought idealsoftheRevolution his Napoleon thanin his was thismoreapparent Nowhere observations ancient of Egypt.20 of of of discussion the ethnicity thatancient people. His description ancient as thewordsof suchblackhistorians forexample,clearly anticipated Thebes, he wrote, Williams."There,"
of the whileothers wereyetbarbarians, elements a peoplenowforgotten, discovered, for from sable skin society their theartsand sciences.A race of mennow rejected of thosecivilandreligious on hair,founded, thestudy thelaws ofnature, andfrizzled the whichstillgovern universe.' systems

particuEgyptologists, on influence earlyscholarly Volney'sviewshad great Indeed,the on larly thosewhoseworkfollowed theheelsof the 1798 invasion.
of or Introd., Cushite, theDescendants Ham, as Foundin theSacred The '8T.McCantsStewart, Noah to theChristian Era, by Historians Poetsfrom and and of Scriptures in theWritings Ancient Mass.: Willey,1893), v. (Springfield, RufusL. Perry viii, 11, 25. The of 'Williams,History theNegroRace, I, 6-9; Perry, Cushite, (New York:Viking,1967), 81. of 20Leslie Greener, Discovery Egypt The and theLaw ofNature of on 21C.F. Volney, Ruins.or,Meditations theRevolutions Empires. The in Eckler,1926), 15-17. Emphasis original. (1802; rpt.New York:Peter

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that Vivant Denon,also concluded the leaderoftheFrench scientific expedition, in Theseidealswerealso known theUnited people.22 werea Negroid Egyptians work-so muchso that werewell awareof theFrench States,wherescholars of members theAmerican Denon werechosenhonorary Napoleonand Vivant to Egypt scholarship.23 of Academy Artsin 1801 foropening as As without dispute. early werenotaccepted findings the To be sure, French the an study provethat to wrote extended W.G. Browne traveller 1806,English works descholarly by werewhite.This was followed other Egyptians ancient A. In signedto provethesame thing. 1832, forexample,thehistorian H. L. by nor that Egypt Meroehad beendominated Negroes, Heerenasserted neither faces. He even of on mainly the lineaments sculptured basinghis conclusion to North South,from had of thatanymovement civilization been from argued Egyptians the the By interior. midcentury viewthat ancient into Egypt theAfrican a position.24 had beenblackwas definitelyminority on drewrather eclectically themodem blackhistorians the Nevertheless, early whobelieved the not to reference only those to making available them, scholarship whodidnot.Williams even to ancient Egyptians havebeenblack,butalsotothose whohademployed Nott George and Gliddon, of to referred thescholarship Josiah in Egyptand to evidence arguethatanyblackspresent ancient archaeological dominated "Pharaonic," by to Ethiopiahad been subservient a leadership Johann naturalist Blumenbach, He CaucasianEgyptians.25 also citedtheGerman Sir Egyptologists John of the whohaddefended unity theraces,andtheEnglish Wilkinson GeorgeRawlinson. and Gardner as SeveralcitedRawlinson, wereas eclectic Williams. blackhistorians Other of life werefulland vivid. Fromhim,theydrew whose descriptions ancient a and wereevenable tofind few of Africa, they of evidence thegreatness ancient of Egyptian ethnicity the to the where seemed stress nonwhite he placesinhiswork citeda passagein for Stewart, instance, people.ThomasMcCants andEthiopian of had notbeen members the"Semitic out they whichRawlinson pointed that with to referred races." E. A. Johnson, less scrupulousness, andIndo-European
in Its Hypothesis: Originand Functions Time Perspective," 22EdithR. Sanders,"The Hamitic of J. History,10 (1969), 525; Herbert Foster,"The Ethnicity the Ancient Journalof African 5 Journal BlackStudies, (1974), 177. of Egyptians," Egyptology (Chicago: of UponPharoah:A History American 23John Wilson, A. Signsand Wonders Univ.of ChicagoPress,1964), 16. and Trade of the 24A.H. L. Heeren. HistoricalResearchesinto the Politics, Intercourse, 2 Press, and Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, vols. (1832: rpt.New York:NegroUniversities wereblack,see that ancient the Egyptians 1969), I, 88, 423, 426-27. On thedeclinein thebelief Race: TheHistory an Idea in of 526-28; and ThomasF. Gossett, Sanders,"HamiticHypothesis," Univ.Press,1963), 66. Methodist America (Dallas: Southern Based Researches, or, Types Mankind: Ethnological of C. 25Josiah Nottand GeorgeR. Gliddon, and Crania of theRaces, and Upon their Sculptures, Monuments, Paintings, Upon theAncient 1969), 52, 214. (1854; rpt. Miami: Mnemosyne, and Biblical History Natural,Geographical, p. book,and princess from 262 ofthis of tookhisdescription theNegro be Williams, should noted, it Egypthad been Nottand Gliddon'sclaim thatNegroesin ancient specifically, used it to dispute, for of any simply ignored implications theprincess their Nott subservient. Interestingly, andGliddon comment. of their description herwithout ownposition presented and

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of a whosemeasurements mummies' heads SamuelG. Morton, "craniologist" had been used forsupport Nottand Gliddon.Johnson by Morton's ignored and himon ancient craniology, however, simply Most quoted Egyptian splendor. commonly, however, blackwriters drewon friendlier authorities, including the naturalist Cowles Prichard, and egalitarian James Blumenbach, Volney.26 if on However, theblackhistorians' reliedheavily earlier nineteenth-century for of a sourcefor scholarship their accounts ancient Africa, farmoreimportant of thoseacountslay in workswritten antebellum This by opponents slavery. Africacan be tracedmostclearlyback, after antislavery treatment ancient of in Volney, theFrench to HenriGregoire his 1808 book, De La Revolutionist des anc in Litterature Negres, work a translated English published Philadelinto to to in attention blackachievements a phiain 1810.Thebookwas intended draw variety areas.As part this of of on as effort, Gregoire drew suchauthorities Volney blackEgyptians andBlumenbach, quoted and to that had Herodotus, prove ancient originated "the arts,sciences,and even speech." Thus, he argued,any all of had defense slavery blackinferiority to be wrong.27 based on someputative of orientations similar made American writers various about antislavery points theancient African past.An 1825essayinthecolonizationist African Repository for and drew Volney, on and to Gregoire, Herodotus argue theantiquity distinction of blackhistory.28 also discussed Anticipating the Williams, author Meroe,and all to of assignedcredit thatEthiopian cityfororiginating the marks modem civilization-government, arts,thesciences,and evenreligion. the their of Abolitionists, despite rejection thecolonizationist to remove free plan blacksfrom United the States,made similar of accounts ancient of use Africa. Thus, thewhiteabolitionist E.H. Sears, writing theChristian in Examiner of 1846,described "largecities,abounding wealth the in and splendor," that had in existed ancient Ethiopia. that Echoing Volney, wrote civilization descended he had theNile from black-populated a interior, moving Egypt, to thence Greece, to Rome,and therestof Europe,where "helpedto givepolishto ourScythian it rudeness and soften barbarism our Saxon manners."In 1848, Wilson the of
2Stewart, Introd., Johnson, 3; SchoolHistory, On Morton, Reginald see 9. Race and Horsman, Manifest The Destiny: Origins American of RacialAnglo-Saxonism Harvard Univ.Press, (Cambridge: 1981),129-30.Fora fascinating reevaluationMorton's of work, Stephen Gould, Mismeasure see Jay The ofMan (New York:Norton, 1981), 50-69. Alexander, his History theColoredRace, relied in of on primarily Prichard. in William Ferris TheAfrican H. Abroad:or,His Evolution Western in Civilization:Tracing Development His under Caucasian Milieu,2 vols. (1913; rpt.New York:Johnson Reprint, 1968)relied and mainly Rawlinson Wilkinson. on in Perry, TheCushite, drew Blumenbach on andPrichard. Heeren, interestingly, citedas a defender theblackethnicity theEthiopians was of of in Joseph Hayne, BlackMan; or,TheNatural E. The History the of Hamitic Race (Raleigh: Edwards and Broughton, 1894), 7, butit is notclearto whatpartof HeerenHaynewas referring. An 27Henri Gregoire, Enquiry the Concerning Intellectual Moral Faculties,and Literature and of Negroes; follosved with Account theLifeand Works Fifteen an of of Negroesand Mulattoes, Distinguished Science,Literature theArts, in and trans. D.B. Warden (1810; rpt.Nendeln, Lichtenstein: KrausReprint, 1971), 21, 23. 28T. "Observations theEarlyHistory theNegroRace," African R., on of 1 Repository, (1825), 7, 8, 11, 12n.See, onthis, George Fredrickson, BlackImageintheWhite M. The Mind:TheDebateon Afro-American Character Destiny, and 1817-1914 (New York:Harper, 1971), 13.

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civilization" of blacksas the "parents Egyptian likewisedescribed Armistead hundred out wordthat"eighteen of three tookHerodotus's and, likeWilliams, of were Ethiopians,"by whichhe meantthe ancestors sovereigns Egyptian writer G. John Fee also white slaves. The southern-born antislavery American "thatto theblack race, now slaves, we are referred back to Volney,arguing "29 for indebted theartsand sciences,'and evenforspeech.' as of in figured thewritings blackabolitionists well. Africa of Accounts ancient raisedtheissuein his David Walker, to national attention, One ofthefirst attract blackstobe awareoftheaccomplishments he controversial Appeal,where urged and originated of "the sons of Africaor of Ham, among whom learning J. upon and refined." W. C. intoGreece,whereit was improved was carried to was black whose1841textbook-style history intended moldantiPennington, the from and described flowof civilization slavery opinion,citedHerodotus of influential all blackabolitionists, the and Finally, most Africa Greece beyond. to to Frederick Douglass, referred bothDenon and Volneyto argue,in an 1854 owed its beginnings that ancient Egyptand, hence,all of civilization address, to blackAfrican peoples.30 blackcivilizations viewofancient a then, positive of By thetime theCivilWar, the It wouldsurvive war spokesmen. antislavery among hadbecomewidespread William Wells The blackabolitionist in amongthosewhopersevered thecause. stressed signifiandhistory, the in of Brown, an 1874examination blacksociety on but mainly abolitionist Herodotus, relying cance of ancient Africa, quoting class in 1865, usingabolifreedmen's for writings his sources.In one postwar to to weretaught respond theteacher's query, tionist-authored students texts, of was the wisestcountry old times?" withthe answer,"Egypt in "what of Africa continued accounts ancient was The implication clear.Indeed, Africa." wrote.David McBride,in a even to be polemically important as thehistorians at in speeches Lincoln of that study ideasaboutAfrica wereconveyed graduation the ancient Africa howstudent exalted throughout has speakers University, shown "When all of declared, speaker late 1870s and early1880s. As one graduation in was there light Africa." Asia lay sunkin deep darkness, EuropeandWestern

41 Examiner, (1846), 40-41; WilsonArmistead, Race," Christian 29E.H.Sears, "The African of and Capabilities of A Tribute theNegro:Beinga Vindication theMoral,Intellectual, Religious for Race (1848; rpt.Miami: to Reference theAfrican with Particular Portion Mankind: of theColoured in Manual,Beingan Examination, the Fee,AnAnti-Slavery Gregg 1969),121, 123;John Mnemosyne, with Slavery, a Remedy the of of Bible,andofFacts,into MoralandSocial Wrongs American Light the for theEvil (1848; rpt.New York:ArnoPress,1969), 210. to Coloured with together a Preamble, the Appeal,inFourArticles; David Walker's "David Walker, States America, to of and Expressly, ThoseoftheUnited But Citizens theWorld, inParticular, Very of Benjamin New York:HillandWang,1965), 19. See onthis, 3d M. ed. Charles Wiltse, ed. (1830; rpt. A W. Univ.Press,1969),34. James C. Pennington, (New York:Oxford BlackAbolitionists Quarles, Negro Detroit: People(1841; rpt. &c. and of Text BookHistory theOrigin History, &c. oftheColored Douglass,ed. of Douglass,TheLifeand Writings Frederick Press,1969),47-48; Frederick History 1950-1975),II, 301, 304. Publishers, 5 PhilipS. Foner, vols. (New York:International

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Africa as the Toward close of thecentury, WilsonJ. Moses has shown,ancient rhetoric.3' pan-African in prominently theearliest wouldfigure devicedoesnot as was Africa familiar a polemical of Thattheevocation ancient The to contribution itsdevelopment. view historians' specific trivialize early the had of blackAmericans had ancient Egyptians been ancestors present-day that as to its sought restore scholarly one, as begun a scholarly andtheblackhistorians or however carefully selectively, in works referring, by vitality their wellas polemical to the Not merely assert truth sources. content and tothemajor primary scholarly that claimhadlong aware the heritage-and African ofthe claimtoa distinguished to to historians returned thesources from white scholars-these attack beenunder shared. in blackAmericans the grounds, heritage which on reestablish, scholarly Africa ancient the reframed traditional the scholarship, blackhistorians By their foundations. and historical intellectual motif gave it reinvigorated and related the to Africawas directly of This reinvigoration ideas aboutancient in America. of racism toblackideology post-Reconstruction and challenges white and racial was of accounts toengender reinforce obvious function these The most on emphasis withthegrowing ideological wholly compatible pride,a function the by this Theyfulfilled function countering general and solidarity. racialpride he Williams, though lack of knowledge aboutblack achievements. American for claimedto be no "blind panegyrist" blacks and aimed onlyto write"a that felt nevertheless keenly theAfro-American history," trustworthy thoroughly would that historians. believed itsrecounting He by pasthadbeenneglected white help to bring on racial equality by making everyone aware of black because was written School History explicitly Johnson's accomplishments.32 exclusivelyfor whitechildren,and white authors"seem to have written black creditable deedsof theNegro." As a result, left studiously outthemany on information the workthatwouldgive thema little children needed"some of of own brave deedsandnoblecharacters their race." His account ancient many that"the originof the Negro is high proving relevant, Africawas directly hopes his boastsof thepast,and arousehis grandest to enough merit proudest of contribution theblack the forthefuture.' Giventheir purposes, specific their couldnothaveperformed corrective Theirworks historians important. was in writers scholarship, thoseof white to not function they attempted match had writers seemedunaware. recounted Negropastof whichwhite a evenas they
3'

of Aftermath Slavery (New York: Knopf, 1979), 543. David McBride, "Africa's Elevation and

of Race and Son; or,TheAntecedants AdvancementtheColored The "'William WellsBrown, Rising C. class,see Robert the 44n. Regarding 1865freedmen's 1969),37ff, Miami:Mnemosyne, (1874;rpt. in of The and Reading,'Riting, Reconstruction: Education Freedmen theSouth,1861-1870 Morris, So Been intheStorm Long. The (Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1981), 174; andLeon F. Litwack,

62 of 1854-1886,' Journal NegroHistory, (1977), at University, RacialThought Lincoln Changing 1850-1925 (Hamden,Conn.: 363-77; WilsonJ. Moses, The GoldenAge of Black Nationalism, Archon,1978),e.g., 200. of 32Williams, History theNegroRace, I, x. iii, SchoolHistory, 10. "3Johnson,

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had case pride tobe encouraged a and notion, in this is Yetpride itself relative DuBois of within confines whatDuBois called a double-consciousness. the of summarized meaning this"two-ness"whenhe wroteof Americaas a the but yieldstheNegro"no trueself-consciousness, onlyletshimsee worldthat For world. DuBois, world'-the white of through revelation theother the himself and self" in which his theneed was "to merge doubleselfintoa better truer The of Africa by werepreserved.34 treatment ancient and America bothAfrica was to this presented truly attempted bring about.The heritage blackhistorians after in timeshad notbeen patterned Black achievements ancient distinctive. to of Africa gave meaning a whites done. Hence,thestory ancient had anything of these accounts inspired Yet blackidentity. thecontent theracepride distinctive goals influenced thebasicallyintegrationist of black thought, by was strongly ties strong tothe historians was described one with past becausetheancient these in the took pride world. The achievements which historians great western modern to civilization. had direct relationships western werethosethat of black societies,it is of this To appreciate characteristic accounts ancient in of withthepresentation theearlyhistories to thoseaccounts useful compare to Black historians little be proudof in saw century. Africain thenineteenth of the character the African To be sure, life. might praise native they contemporary In these of people or the achievements a few individuals. general,however, or it, of time, eventodenigrate claiming the chosetoignore Africa their historians in of Williams, to irrelevant theexperience blacksin America.35 its character of the denounced societiesand customs nineteenth-century strongly particular, of a for Africa.Describing Benin,in Dahomey, example,he offered number sacrifice of and talesof human and of including accounts brutality degradation, throughscale. As he madeclear,suchsceneswere present on violence a massive of of He girls theking by young outAfrica. eventoldofthemassacre twohundred for of of usingtheir mortar repair blood formixing "forthepurpose Ashantee he evenforwhat but of thestate Moreover, had little contempt one buildings." African achievements. that somemight taketo be contemporary Thus,noting it of "kingdoms"and students Africato writeaboutAfrican was commonfor "these kingdomsare called so more by "empires," Williams remarked, the that to than with desire convey realmeaning we getwhenthe any compliment of." To be sure, Williams had of of or empire Germany kingdom Spainis spoken as the of to themselves, people,andhe didnotignore much sayin favor Africans man of accomplishments such a distinguished as the YorubaBishop Samuel in African more that positive existing was societies.36 but Crowther, he saw little

'DuBois, Souls ofBlackFolk, 214-15. 35For discussion thegeneral a of M. "A of currency thispointof view,see James McPherson, BriefforEquality:The Abolitionist Replyto the RacistMyth,1860-1865," in The Antislavery NewEssayson theAbolitionists, Martin ed. Duberman Princeton Univ.Press, Vanguard: (Princeton: 1965), 162.
36Williams, History of the Negro Race, I, 42n, 50, 33, 71.

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He one, as writers quiteas negative was Williams. was theonly were Fewother Yet whosaidanything much stories. most to spacetoatrocity for example, devote Africa becomea had his sinceancient times, shared viewthat atall on thesubject was E. SchoolHistory typical for and setting barbarism degradation. A. Johnson's are savage." Peter that in asserting "manyof thenativeAfricans desperately and a describedAfricaas "a land of ignorance Stanford, black minister, that had and darkness, thehomeoftheNegro,"andwouldargue conditions been of of in wrote thenecessity fardifferent ancient times.WilliamT. Alexander of once morein Ethiopia,the land of the "the standard civilization planting in Africawere widelycurrent American Pharoahs."These views of modern creatures their of wereverymuch On society.37 thistopic,theblackhistorians time. in wouldmoderate blackhistorical of Africa the To be sure, denigration modem as pan-African themes beganto after turn thecentury, the of especially writing H. and Mrs.Pendleton's inthewritings DuBois,William Ferris, others. of appear viewof modemAfrican positive for presented fairly a 1912textbook, example, accomplishments would ancientAfrican Even forthesewriters, backward.39 the heritage. until Not to continue serveas thekeybasis forpridein an African take of HarlemRenaissance the 1920s wouldmanyleadingblack intellectuals of day. interest pridein theAfrica their and of the becauseitresolved problem a on Africa writers focused ancient Theearly Africa couldnot.Modern in an for dual identity waysthat appreciation modern takenby black and whitepeople alike as a primitive, Africawas generally of and Ethiopians continent. contrast, achievements ancient the By backward and by werewidelyacknowledged easilycomprehended Americans Egyptians Even white century. fromantebellum timesto the openingof the twentieth drawn itfor to and civilization, Americans werefascinated inspired Egyptian by of of that and architecture fully cognizant itsroleinthecreation much they public couldbe shown havebeenresponsible to to Thusifblacks took civilization entail. that forEgyptian theyhad done something was prizedby civilized greatness, but identity, itwasnot give Beingblackmight onea distinctive people everywhere. as with incompatible being"American" well. in becauseofthe double-consciousnessthis waywas also important Resolving white Americans. Accounts ancient of held conviction blackinferiority bymost of with asserted distinctiveness a goals, Africa only not compatible integrationist but racism the underlay to directly ideasthat also allowedblackwriters counter they to blacksubordination. andthat white Americans tojustify used According Guion
thatmodem Africawas relatively societies.38 Yet even thentherewas agreement

1 SchoolHistory, 1; Peter 37Johnson, ThomasStanford, Tragedy theNegroinAmerica The of (1897; Libraries N.Y.: Booksfor rpt. Freeport, Press,1971), 13-14;Alexander, History theColored of Race, 8-9. On thewidespread nature suchviews,see Logan,Betrayal theNegro,269-72. of of 38Pendleton, Narrative theNegro,27-37. of for 39See, example, discussions ibid., 16, and in Ferris, in African Abroad,I, 431.

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racismwas notonlythat behind American the assumption Johnson, dominant but inferior whites, also thatblacks to and intellectually blacksweremorally of members society. productive in to white guidance order be industrious, needed a majorpartin the period,suchviewsof blacksplayed the During antebellum the After Civil War similarviews were espousedby the defenseof slavery. at Adamsargued that, Francis of and defenders segregation caste.In 1906Charles They could domestication." admit"of an imitative best,black people might own. ThomasNelsonPage saw the on much their to be hardly expected do very thatcontactwithwhiteshad been corollary thisidea, asserting to historical it receive"theonlycivilization has had sincethe for necessary theblackraceto dawnof history."40 racist Africaclearlycontradicted accountsof ancient The black historians' blacks showed, As thehistorians of and assertions blackinferiority dependence. and that an a a architecture,art, science, a literature a hadbuilt polity, monumental white of the civilizedworld.Ironically, to continued receivethe admiration as civilization itselfdependedupon a people now characterized permanently that blackwriters McCants argued blacks likeThomas Stewart, When, dependent. fields of had been "the pioneers of mankindin the various untrodden theynotonlydeniedtheview thatblackswere,at best,good civilization,"4' had to Page,whites developed that, paraphrase way but imitators, ina subtle argued laid they whatever civilization couldboastofon a foundation byblackAfricans. than racism. more popular blackcivilizations countered of Yetaccounts ancient in and foundation intellectual scientific Racistideashadalso beengivena strong were agreedthatnonwhites the UnitedStatesand Europe,as mostscientists At inferiority. the debate causesofthat the might to they though inferior whites, scientists believedthatblack mostwestern century, of opening thenineteenth as Horsman factors. However, Reginald of was result environmental inferiority the environmentalist soon started questionthe dominant to has shown,scientists of that by the marking beginning a shift wouldbe complete about assumptions, that virtual unanimity wouldholdwith community the 1850. By then, scientific As of biologicaldifferences. George was black inferiority theproduct innate environmentalist scientists had even Fredrickson demonstrated, ostensibly has as The view caused cometoviewenvironmentally differencesirreversible. innatist who of as Nott, theories suchscientists Josiah reached apogeeinthepolygenist its comfrom whites and,therefore, blackshad beencreated separately that argued the After CivilWar,at leastsomespokesmen a inferior species.42 prised distinct,
4"'Guion Griffis Johnson,"The Ideology of White Supremacy,1876-1910," in Essays in ed. Melvin Green Carolina Southern History, Fletcher (ChapelHill:Univ.ofNorth Press,1949), 131, 139; CharlesFrancisAdams, "Reflex Lightfrom Africa," Century Magazine, 72 (1906), 105; ThomasNelsonPage,TheNegro:TheSoutherner's New York:Johnson Problem (1904; rpt. Reprint, 1970), 285. of 3-iv (pagination original). 4"Stewart, Introd., 42Horsman, Race, 45; see, also, Gould,Mismeasure Man, 31. Fredrickson, of BlackImagein the White see The Mind,83. Onpolygenist theories, William Stanton, Leopard'sSpots:Scientific Attitudes Toward Race in America,1815-1859(Chicago:Univ.of ChicagoPress, 1960), 69-70.

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to continued arguethatblacksbelonged a to fora postwar racialcaste system them "preadamic"menwho werenot as species,describing separate, inferior whichCaucasianshad descended.43 from inheritors thesamecreation of debate, were Blackhistorians wellawareoftheenvironmentalist-innatist even witha form.This was whyWilliamsbegan his history in its mostextreme of race." Indeed,he madea point directly of discourse the"unity thehuman on his as Peter addressing Nott'stheories.44 Stanford, lateas 1897,prefaced history of by asserting "Man is one thewholeworldover,and consists a single that of notions also metbyaccounts was innatist Yet species."45 theneedtodeal with of that If, all, had ancient Africa. after blacks oncebeencreators a civilization was for made arguments blackinferiority no sense. theenvy theworld, of then innatist innately of blackswere strong evidence what provided Ancient Egypt Ethiopia and had of modem inequality tobe theresult external, capableofdoing.Anyapparent factors. environmental own clear madetheir environmentalism when the blackhistorians Indeed, early sincetheglorious in to what happened Africa had daysofthe they sought explain of the factors, agreed, they explained decline Africa ancient past.Environmental H. and Wiliam Ferris Mrs. barbarism. thescholarly Both to from civilization near had Blackcivilization not in textbook, to looked mainly geography. Pendleton, her of barriers Africa becauseit had beenblockedby thenatural spread throughout "jungles, deserts, swamps,and ravines." Hence, it had moved mountains, of on blamed decline Africa theclimate, the McCants Stewart northward. Thomas rather than of races." In any case, conditions and on the "cupidity theother there had the state peoples.By extension, capacity determined present ofAfrican from deleterious removed the was no reasonto believethatblackAmericans, causesofAfrican of African should alsohaveescapedthe not continent, effects the the Williams stated obviouslessonin a letter GeorgeWashington degeneration. the Negroand between American from Africa."Thereis no morerelationship of is Dutch families New the than between present the SavageAfrican there kinship he Yorkand theHollanders Rotterdam," wrote."Witha new and different of climate environment geta newrace of peoplein a century."46 and you Yet for many black historians,the importanceof taking part in the debate by pressing thelatenineteenthenvironmentalist-innatist was mademore has W. science.As George Stocking of in century triumph Darwinism American blackinferiority, ideas innatist about did to Darwinist thought nothing shake shown, of selection. as results natural differencesthepermanent sinceitexplained physical ideas by of reinforced main thrust innatist the Indeed,manyracial theorists This social Darwinism. witha social, historical biologicalnotions combining
(Lexington: H. of Supremacy 43Claude Nolen,TheNegro'sImageintheSouth:TheAnatomy White Univ.of Kentucky Press,1967), 9, 19-20. 'Williams,History theNegroRace, I, 1. of 45Stanford, Tragedy, 16. Introd., George 5; Abroad,I, 43; Stewart, of African 46Pendleton, Narrative theNegro,16; Ferris, papers, ManuHeberton Terrell H. 14 Washington Williams Robert Terrell, Oct. 1890,in Robert to of Washington, D.C. script Division,Library Congress,

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evolutionary an comprised inexorable thathumanhistory asserted Darwinism barbarism through savagery from by progressed stages societies in process which not From perspective, onlywere levelsofcivilization.47 this andon toeverhigher showed but, of in stages socialevolution, evenifthey whites the blacks wellbehind level. Given on forever a different theywouldhave to remain some progress, process, of and differences theinexorability theevolutionary biological evolved theycould not "jump stages" in orderto catch up with the continually whites.48 progressing as as racialthought, suchscholars ThomasF. to Yet no less crucial Darwinist of was have principle and Fredrickson demonstrated, theimportant Gossett George as had that selection,"themechanism Darwinhimself identified the "'natural mechathis translated Darwinian of basisfor origin species.Social Darwinists the with thosewhowere human beings, conflict among to nism an imageofconstant that This principle Herbert victors. as emerging theultimate mostfitto survive was of Spencerlabeled"the survival thefittest" believedto be themeansfor to races.49 According some racial and individuals superior superior producing in for blackshad already begunto provea lackof fitness survival the theorists, of and sincetheend of slavery theremoval constant world,especially modern Thomas Nelson Page and the including writers, Southern whitesupervision. a retrogresthat Bruce,argued blackshadshown moral Alexander Philip historian of discussion to This was central themostinfluential sion sinceslavery.9" point and L. 1896Race Traits Frederick Hoffman's century, raceinthelatenineteenth the amongblacksin manyareas, including deathrate,and arguedin innatist and To the that tendencies we find causes of excessivemortality." Hoffman, to was this theorists, excessivemortality a clear signthatblackshad failed other has he As for inthe battle survival. Fredrickson shown, wasnotaloneinpredicting natural tendencies.' of theextinction therace,givenitsmembers' with blackhistorians a powerful argument and Ancient provided Egypt Ethiopia were Its elements racialthought. innatist of the tendencies Darwinist against main Accounts of of blackcivilizations. achievements ancient contradicted thehigh by evolved idea thatcivilizations the ancientAfricaalso contradicted Darwinist that career showed the inevitable plan.Blackhistory to according somehistorically and After progress. had beencharacterized inevitable unbroken by ofhumanity not but of civilizations, had once beenthegrandest human and Ethiopia all, Egypt for decline, not progress,had markedAfricanhistory many generations.
112, 114. and Race, Culture, Evolution, 47Stocking, Social Thought in Scienceand Myth Anglo-American C. Social Darwinism: 48Robert Bannister, TempleUniv.Press,1979), 186-88;Nolen,Negro'sImage, 19-20. See also PaulM. (Philadelphia: (1970; rpt.New York:Vintage, Mythmaking of Gaston,The New SouthCreed: A Study Southern thinking. 1973), 135, fortheroleof thisidea in popular 49Gossett, Race, 145-46. Mind,260. 5Fredrickson, BlackImagein theWhite Negro(1896; rpt.New York: of American and Race Traits Tendencies the "Frederick Hoffman, L. Mind,230, 249; Gossett, Black Image in theWhite AMS Press, 1973), viii, 95, 37; Fredrickson, Race, 281.

Tendencies of theAmericanNegro. Hoffmansaw signs of "race deterioration" language that "[i]t is not in the conditions of life, but in the race traits and

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should also not civilizations to that there Accordingly, wasnoreason believe white As wrote, worldwas the a fatein thefuture. WilliamH. Ferris suffer similar of race. march theAnglo-Saxon resistless witnessing "the triumphal, currently and the maywitness riseoftheblack,brown, yellow In thenext 50,000years they The of Africa rise races.Mencomeandgo; kingdoms andfall."52 decline ancient contradictions determinist tothe represented powerful accomplishments as wellas its of evolutionist History provedthe conditional arguments. tendencies innatist, inmodem was to There noreason of blackinferiority times. character anyapparent assume either the permanent"fitness" or "unfitness" of any race for in history. surviving human thrust which with a Africa provided nicerhetorical of Indeed, story ancient the in to the to parry evolutionists' presumption assigning the "Anglo-Saxon"the novelist CharlesW. As of accomplishment. thedistinguished pinnacle human Chesnutt wrote,
was evolved,and his thicklips and The Negrowas here beforethe Anglo-Saxon crossthesandsofEgypt while out Sphynx the eyes heavy-lidded looked from inscrutable in himwereliving caves,practicing human of yettheancestors thosewhonowoppress withwood-and theNegrois hereyet.53 and themselves sacrifices, painting

White inferiority. people,too, had known to with Africa allowedblackhistorians cometo grips of thus The story ancient the era. black during post-Reconstruction In challenges confronting thought major and an American theface of whiteracism,it allowedthemto claim equality of black heritage but pridein a distinctive identity, in ways thatmaintained is and of to achievement. importance thestory testimony thesignificance The discussedby DuBois. Thatit should of meaning that"double-consciousness" in backtoantebellum times indicates that going havehada tradition blackthought in era theforces that producing dual identity thepost-Reconstructionbuiltupon in the with society. Indeed, though traditions concerns a longhistory American and is in as Africa contemporary thought notas great it black of significance ancient writers to testify itscontinuing of many century, was attheopening thetwentieth of and roots the alivethe Egyptian Ethiopian questfor ancient relevance keeping by As of black cultures.54 a symbol bothblack prideand the morecontemporary of Africa been an important has the dilemmas created racism, story ancient by * measure American of race relations.
Abroad,I, 7. 52Ferris, African Magazine,I, no. 1 15 May 1905, 16. 531n Alexander's Our GloriousHistory," Essence, 12, no. 8, 54See,forexample,Phil W. Petrie,"Celebrating of of discussion thisidea. For a survey morerecent Dec. 1981, 74, 132, 134, 139, fora popular of passim.An excellent Egyptians," on "Ethnicity theAncient scholarship thetopic,see Foster, N.J.: Cliffs, (Englewood History in in 0. survey appears Robert Collins,ed., Problems African also 1968), 7ff. Prentice-Hall, on White commenting for Creel,toBonnie Ross,andtoSherry Margaret *1amgrateful Professor to from National the stipend by was of drafts thispaper.Some oftheresearch funded a summer earlier Philosophical FundoftheAmerican from Penrose the and for Endowment theHumanities bya grant Society.