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Rock anchoring

Map

of

Nepal

Dhading

District

CONTENTS
1.Introduction 1.1Objectives 1.2Methodology 1.3Instrument 2.Geology 2.1General geology of Malekhu and adjacent area 2.2Major rock type 2.3Major Geological structure 2.4.1Benighat slate 2.4.2Malekhu Limestone 2.4.3Robang Phyllite with Dunga Quartzite 2.4.4Radua formation(Garnetiferous Schist) 2.4.5Bhaisedoban Marble 2.4.6Gneiss(Kulekhani Formation) 2.5Engineering Geological comments 3.Study of river Morphology 3.1Types of river channel 3.2 Erosional and Depositional features of the river 3.3 Constructional material survey from river deposit 4.Study of landslide 4.1Study of different landslide during the field trip 4.2.1Landslide no:1 4.2.2Landslide no:2 4.2.3Landslide no:3 4.2.4Landslide no:4 4.2.5Landslide no:5 4.3Landslide stability analysis 5.Rock mapping 5.1Introduction 5.2Stereo photography 5.3Scan Line Survey 5.4Rock map of the outcrop at the site

6.Conclusion

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION


3 MORPHOLOGY OF RIVER

3.1 INTRODUCTION

ALmost 71 percent surface area of the earth is covered with water in the form of rivers seas and oceans. Water in its liquid forms is the most important geoligical agent that modifies the surface morphology of the earth on a very large scale. The geological work performed by water as a body of running water is mostly in the form of rivers and streams.
MORPHOLIGY OF RIVER CHANNEL

Appearance of river channel and the study of its external fature is known as morphology of river channel. In most cases the tendency of river is to flow towards the sea. The highland or the mountainous regions from where the river originates is called its head region. From the head region, the river flows through gradually decresing slopes and then through almost flat lands before it actually empties into the sea. The place where a stream or river empties into the sea is called its mouth. Based upon its morphology river channels could be divided into 1. Straght 2. Meandering 3. Braided (a) Straight river channel This kind of river channel has its flow of water in straight form. This is mostly possible in hard rocks. Presence of fault changes the course of flow of river channel. From head to mouth, a river may exhibit a variety of geological activity. This is head region, it flows with roaring speeds acquiring energy by virtue of which it is capable of cutting down even the hardest rocks along and across its course.

(b) Meandering River Channel -River channels in which the course of the river is bent towards different direction within small area -Mostly possible in soft rocks -In middle reaches, the river becomes mature. It has alresdy acquired some load to carry down and the capacity to cut vigorously is gone. It does erode but only selectively, changing its course where it finds obstructions which are insurmountable. It meanders profusely, i.e. changes its course again and again through a small area. It flows in loops. Menders are therefore typical character feature of a mature river. (c)Braided River Channel -Rivers in which flow of water is along different channel along different channel within the same river, are said to have braided river channels. This type of river channel is generally present in the flat lands near its mouth, where the river behaves like an old organism: just moving ahead to join the parent body of all the waters, the sea, in a majestic manner: without noise and in full compusore.
EROSIONAL AND DEPOSITIONAL CHARACTERS OR RIVER CHANNELS

Before talking about the erosional and depositional characteristic of the river channels, let us see on what factors the rate of river depends. Rate Of River Erosion The capacity of strems to performerosive work depends on the following main factors: (1)Velocity Fast moving streams are capable of exerting greater pressure on the channel rocks and cause stronger impact bu the course tools. A high velocity enables the stream to carry all the load it acquirea easily so that still some erosive power is left. The quantity of tools that can be carried by fasret streams being more, their broading capacity is also increased considerably. Thus other things being the same, greater the velocity of the stream, higher is its erosive power. The velocity of a stream itself depends on (i) The gradient of the channel (ii) The volume of water in the stream (iii) The nature of the channel (whether rough or smooth) and (iv) The load of sediments in the stream at a given point of time. (2) Lithology

This signifies the nature of rock along the river bed and sides. Some types of rocks are more easily eroded by stream water than the other exactly identical eroding conditions. Thus,of a limestone and sandstone forming bed rock of a stream and lying side by side (at the same gradient), limestone will suffer erosion at a higher rate compared to sandstone. This is because limestone have a lower hardness and a chemcal composition favorable for solvent action of water. (3) Load If a stream is fully loaded i.e. it is incapable of taking any furter load, then the tendency to erode the rocks of the channel will be correspondingly reduced. Its major power is used in transporting load on the contrary an unloaded stream can erode the rocks more effectively. Now the erosional and depositional characteristic of river channels can be summerised as below: (a) Straight river Channel In this type of river channel, deposition is not possible. It is associated only with erosion. The gradient of straight river channel is quite high and discharge is quite low. (b)Meandering river channel The gradient of mendering river channel is quite low which increases the possibility of meandering. The discharge is quite high which also contributes to meandering of a river. In this type of river channel, erosion and deposition are frequent and approximately equal. (c) Braided River Channel Amount of discharge varies accordingly to the season in such river channel. Braided river channel account for more deposition and less erosion i.e. depositionis predominant over erosion
DEPOSITIONAL MORPHOLOGY

Deposition by rivers: When water carrying the load losses its every material starts to deposit i.e. deposition takes place at a place of energy loss. Thus the phenomenon of dropping down of the load by any moving natural agent is called deposition; resulting accumulation of the load is its deposition. There are basically three factors sufficient to determine the trend of process of deposition by streams. They are (i)energy (ii)environment (iii)time

Thus,if energy available to transport the load decrease,then a part of the load can no longer be transported.Its deposition thus becomes inevitable.The decrease in energy may take place due to reduction in velocity(as when a stream enters from a steep to gentle gradient)or due to reduction in volume(as during dry spell in the same area. Similarly the factor of environment influences deposition through configuration or shape of the channel.Irregular surfaces of the channel represent such areas which tend to reduce the velocity without a change in gradient or volume of water. The factor of time operates through the above two factors.That when a stream would drop down the load it is carrying will be determined by a general statement"whenever its velocity is appreciably checked". Precipitation of dissolved load is another process contributing to deposition.This takes place where there is an appreciable change in the physico-chemical conditions attending the stream water. Types of Flluvial Deposits: Deposits laid down by running water are called alluvial,flluvial or fluviatile deposits.Such deposits differ greatly in size,shape and mode of origin.Following are some chief types of stream deposits: 1)Alluvial Fans And Cones These are cone shaped accumulation of stream debris that are commonly found at places where small intermittent streamlets coming down from hills enter the low lands.The apex of such a deposit points up hill and its slope may range from almost flat to as much as 50. When the slope of the deposits is below 10,the alluvial deposit is known as alluvial fan,and when it is from 10-50,the deposit is known as alluvial cone. Alluvial fans and cones show contrasting patterns in distributon of fragments and particles of various sizes at their apices,peripheries and in the main body.Further repeated accumulations over an initial fan or cone contributes to its considerable growth.Alluvium is usually very porous and will be compressible if rich in clay and permeable if composed of gravel,sand or silt. 2)Flood Plain Deposits Flood waters are invariably heavily loaded with sediments of all types.When these waters overflow the banks and spread as enormous sheets of water in surrounding arears,their velocity gets checked everywhere due to obstructions.As a consequence they deposit most of the load in the form of a thick layer of mud,so commonly seen after major flood.Since such a process may get repeated year after year,the low lying areas surrounding major rivers are actually made up of the layers of mud deposits laid after a number of floods.These are generally level or plain in nature and

extensive in area and are called Flood plains.All the plain around major rivers are actually flood plains.These are invariably very fertile in nature and hence have been supporting population. Two major types of flood plains known as Convex flood plains and flat flood plains are known.
3.DELTAS:

Deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of roughly triangular shape that are deposited by the rivers at the points where they enter into the sea.This term was first used by Herodotus for the deposits of the river Nile at its entry into the Mediterannean Sea. Deltas are very complex in their structure.A number of fracture are involved in their formation,evolution and modification.
4.CHANNEL DEPOSITS:

Many streams are forced to drop a part of their load along their beds,especially in the flatten regions along their course.Most commonly the deposits so formed take the shape of long narrow rigides called bars,since these are commonly made up of sand,they are reffered as sand bars.Very often, the sand bars are temporary in nature because with an increase in velocity,the river mass cut them down(erode) and take the sand along with it to deposit it at new place.Small landform in the channel of the river is called a Channel bar. Construction material from River. River is the most important source of construction such as sand,gravel,clay,aggregate and dimension stone.These material may be used in their raw state for construction.Being a natural source,river in the most widely used source for excavation of construction materials and also the most cheapest one. The presence of rivers close to the site makes the use of construction material much cheaper than a manufactured alternative such as concrete and also with some thoughts,the design of the structure can be changed so as to make use of the available materials.This is a common practice in the construction of large structure such as embankment,roads and airstrips.To correctly assess the potential of economically available raw materials,it is necessary to appreciate both their geological character and their mode of formation. Rivers are sources of the construction material as explained earlier.So the available deposits of gravel and sand which occur in the terrace gravels are excavated on a large scale for supplies of aggregate and sand for concrete and mortar.Alluvial mud may be used as one of the raw materials in the manufacture of cement by mixing mud with limestone in the required proportions.The construction sand is taken from the deposited bank.
4.STUDY OF LANDSLIDE:

INTRODUCTION:

It is a natural phenomenon in which the slip surface looses its component, thereby causing excessive destruction to the nearby surrounding.Landslide is different from erosion in a way that eroded slope are created by the movement of air,surface water and the sea.The quantities that are capable of loosing dislodging and carrying particles of the soil,sediments and larger pieces of rocks are described as the agent of erosion. Thus landslide can be found in the following ways. 1.By determining the crown and tow:crown is the uppermost part of the landslide whereas toe is the lowermost part of the landslide.The material laying between these two surfaces is carried towards the tow.(fig 2) 2.By determining shear stress of the soil sample from the expected region.For this purpose we take the soil samplefrom the land of expected region and carry out the test to find the shear stress which is given by --T=c+6tanQ----change it-----,where c and Q are shear paramater.Thus we see that shear stress depends upon c and Q ,which are found experimentally. 3.Geophysical study:We can also find the slip surface by inducing physical energy and observing the response of the material of the landslide of the expected area towards that induced physical energy. 4.Drilling:Slip surface can also be found out by drilling exist.They are core drilling and drilling.
CAUSES OF THE LANDSLIDE

Causes of landslide are primarily classified into static and dynamic causes;
STATIC CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE:

1.Material: Highly weathered rock formed by chemical decay process and mechinical disintegration increases the possibility of landslide.Presence of boulder mixed soil which bring about further fracture in the rock structure and thus caused landslide. In phylitic rock,presence of mineral such as talc,graphite,chlorite and even micas on the surface along the rock resulting in landslide. 2.Slope Angle: If the slope angle is greater than the angle #,it is said to be unstable.Thuse a slope which has steeper slope,i.e,more dip,have more chances of landslide.For stable surface,# is mostly less than 40

degree,but if reverse exsist then the surface is said to have unstablle slope and landslide is more prominient in such place. 3.Pore water pressure: Shear stress is also given by the expression T=c+(6-Q)tan#,where Q is the pore water pressure.Excessive rain fall causes cracks in the crown,thus clearing the passage for entry of water through it.Water also entersthe soil pores from underground.In addition to all these water,there is pre-existance of water in the soil pores.Presence of all these water results in the stability of the soil structure or rock structure because in such a condition,the driving force(dF) become greater than the resistance force(RF) ond normal stress reduces leading to the occurrence of landslide,i.e.safty factor dF/RF>1. 4.Construction: During road construction,the toe of the road structure or soil structure is out ,i.e it is greater than 40 degree, which leads to landslide.However this can be resisted by construction of retaining wall.
DYNAMIC CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE

1.Vibration: Due to the movement of the loaded vehicles on the highways,there is certain amount of ground vibration always taking place which reduces the stability of the nearby rock or soil structure,resulting in landslide.
STUDY OF DIFFERENT LANDSLIDE DURING THE FIELD TRIP

During the course of this geological fieldwork,we visited some sites of landslides which helped us immensely in learning about its features practically. Below are the sites of landslides visited by us.The explanation of some striking features of the individual landslide wherever required along with their photographs are also given alongside. SITE 1 I t included three landslides,with only two having practical significance.The third one being only a scarp.Since there was no main body in htis supposed landslide,it was called a landslide scarp. 1st landslide Features:SAME AS EXPLAINED EARLIER 2ND LANDSLIDE

Features It actually consists of two landslides as there are two scarps.In this landslide,the orientation of its planar features are in unfavourable direction to its slope.Nature itself has brought this landslide with cause,and solution of this type of landslide being same as explained earlier. 2)Site 2(Ranagaun)(Refer Fig 3) Features: It is an old landslide,the evidence of which being the presence of completely weathered rocks,loose soil etc.Since houses have been made below the area of alndslide,safety is very less,as there is evry possibility of another landslide at this place. However,the village residing in this landslide affected area can be protected to a certain degreee by control drainage. SITE 3(JugeKhola) (fig4,5) It is a highly landslide affected area. Presence of six landslides with each having its own slip surface. SOLUTION: Removal of debris alongside JugeKhola is not the solution.Even tunneling is very dangerous at this place. The only solution for this landslide is cut and fill i.e remove some part of the landslide from one side and fill some on the another side. SITE4 (FIG6) Landslides also bring with them the debris i.e the boulder and fine sized particles.Such debris is called landslide debris.The information about debris plays an important role in design of bridge.While designing a bridge one should look for the followinf things: a)Site Selection:A site for the construction of bridge has to be selected. b)Flood Level:The flood level or water level during times of flood in the river upon whiach the bridge is to be made should be found out. c)Debris Potentiality: The most important aspect of bridge designing is the determination of debris potentiality in the river upon which the bridge is to made.The size of the debris i.e whether it consists of finer or boulder materials should also be taken into account,along with the calculation of its amount. 5)FIG 7 AND 8

It consists of two landslides.The first one ahving vegetationon the inclined surface.This has been made possible by taking slope protection measure and slope stability measyre such as construction of the retaining wall and anchoring. Second Landslide It consists of less weathered rocks and weathering has taken place along the planar feature.It has occurred as the orientation of discontinuity is unfavourable to the dip directionand the dip amount.The slope of the surface is very steep. The palce can be protected by anchoring and bolding.
4.3.LANDSLIDE STABILITY ANALYSIS

(a)Retaining wall:Retaining walls can be constructed at the landslide expected area.However it is costly.Even then it should be constructed at the place which do not have differential movement. (b)By reducing Q:By bringing about reduction in pore water pressure(Q) also,we can avoid landslide. (c)Construction of surface drainage from the area behind the scarp :We should construct surface drainage from the area behind the scarp so that water does not enter into the crack and thereby also does not affect the pore water pressure.The drain should however be maid above the crack for this purpose. (d)Avoid disturbing mechanical equilibrium condition:Landslide occure due to disturbance in mechinical equilibrium.Thus one should avoid doing such a thing so that pore water pressure does not develop. (e)Construction of Gabonian wall:Gabonian wall should be constructed at the place of differential moment.If retaining wall is however maid ,it will be waste of money.Gabonian wall can also be constructed at a place which have developed pore water pressure.At a place where pore water pressure exist,a small hole should be made before construction of gabinian wall. Though most of the reasons given above for the occurance of landslide are true,some may be stated otherwise.for eg.It is not always true that construction of road results in landslide,Sometime nature itself may bring about devastating landslides. In addition to above stated things one should also know certain important features of landslide.When we look at the place of landslide,if we see too many scraps, we can conclude that many landslide may have been gone at that place.Age of landslide can be recognized by the degree of weathering of the rock at the place of its occurrence.
5 ROCK MAPPING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of the rock mapping for much of its history has been reconnaissance mapping of large regions whose geology was essentially unknown. The general geological framework, essentially what rock is where, has now been established, and the work of the rock mapping is now directed more towards the understanding of the cause and effect, and sequence of geological events. This entails many studies in addition to geological mapping, such as data compiled from geophysical and geochemical surveys as well as from remote sensing. Yet the relevance of such studies remain strongly dependent on accurate geological mapping. The resultant geological maps contain much more information than the simple distribution of rock types, and are essential in revealing favourable areas for mineral exploration, fossil fuels (mainly coal, oil and gas), and identification of potential geological hazards Information is gathered through geoscience field surveys and from industry assessment reports filed in compliance with legislation. The inventory is used to attract industry investment, to assist government's stewardship of its rich mineral resource endowment, and to help manage and protect Crown Lands. The main activities include: geological and geochemical surveying; mineral, coal and industrial mineral inventories management; mineral potential assessments for land use planning; monitoring exploration activities; assessing geological hazards; publishing maps and reports; and providing geoscience expertise to support government's sustainable development objectives. Conclusively Rock mapping (geologic maps) is the plotting of target formations and terraines on maps or areial photographs for later compilation.
STEREO PHOTOGRAPHY

Stereo photography is the practice of having successive [aerial] photographs overlap the next by 55%-60%. This pair (known as a stereo pair) is used with either a stereo viewer, stereoplotter, or digitized for use with soft-copy stereo programs to view the desired area in three dimension (3-D). It may surprise you to hear that the hype of stereo photography was 100 years ago, in the late 19th centuary.The stereo photography helps effectively in rock mapping by providing clear 3D image of the rock.Dip directoin ,dip amount and strike can be found from the photograph. About 2km north from Malekhu bazar ,two photograph of the rock outcrop has been taken simultaneously from the same point at a distance of 7.5km away from the site.(2 photos are attached below).
SCAN LINE SURVEY

Scan line survey is a sampling technique whereby information is detailed along a single pass of the recording device. The process is repeated at intervals to cover the desired area. Scan Line Survey is

mostly used in engineering structure.The discontinuities which impart the loss of strength of the rock are found out by this method.This survey is carried out on the road alignment before its construction. The rock outcrop has been surveyed for the different structure feature of the rock massOn the total span of 10meter the survey was carried out at the level of the road and 1meter high from it.Following are the geological engineering data collected at the site. Rock type:Schist,Phyllite.(metamorphic) Weathering:Moderately weathered Distance(m) FIRST LINE 0.5 2 4.75 5.1 5.15 SECOND LINE 0.65 2.25 3.6 3.75 5.85 6.6 THIRD LINE 1 1.45 3 4.2 5.15 7 7.6 9.5 76 80 76 50 76 76 26 76 N8 E N85E N8E N74E N8E N8E N40E N8E F J1 F J2 F F J3 F 76 76 76 81 26 7.15 N8E N8E N8E N86E N40E N74 E F F F J1 J3 J2 76 76 80 76 27 N8E N8E N86E N8E N40E F F J1 F J3 Dip amount(`) Dip direction(`) Joint/Foliation

The Dip

general

attitude

of

the

rock

mass is: direction:N42`E

Slope Characteristics of the planer feature:


1.Roughness: J1-Rough 2.Opening: J1-Open 3.Infilling: J1-Clay J2-Rough J2-Close J2-Clay J3-Rough J3-Close J3-Clay

amount:65`

4.Ground water condition:


J1-Dry J2-Dry J3-dry

5.Intact 6.Continuity:
J1-110cm J2-20cm

Rock:Moderately
J3-15cm

strong

STUDY OF THE OUTCROPT AT THE SITE

The rock map of the outcrop can be obtain by joining same joints and foliation plane obserbed at different point of the rock outcrop.The obserbed point can be plotted on the graph.
CONCLUSION

This geological field trip to Malekhu was organized to provide the practical knowledge of geology to the students.The geological field trip to Malekhu aimed to provide the acquaintance and knowledge of geological element and their proporties as well as features.The scope of field study outlined before were fully met with the co-operation of the faculty member and Malekhu posses wonderful geological diversities and almost all type of the rocks,structures,and grological factors like rivers, hills ,slopes, sedimentation etc , were available to study within a small area.

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