Model for longitudinal cracking in non-jointed plain concrete pavements

Lambert Houben
Delft University of Technology, Section Road and Railway Engineering, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, the Netherlands, email: l.j.m.houben@tudelft.nl

Abstract
After pouring the concrete a plain concrete pavement is subject to chemical shrinkage and thermal deformations, which result in cracking in transverse and longitudinal direction. Uncontrolled (wild) cracking is prevented by saw cutting the pavement at regular spacing, and the cracks then occur at these joints (weakened zones). Earlier a mechanical model describing the development of the transverse cracking in plain concrete pavements, without and with joints (saw cuttings), has been developed. In this paper a similar model for the development of longitudinal cracking in a plain concrete pavement (without joints) of limited width is presented. The longitudinal cracking process is analyzed for 2 concrete grades, different days and hours of construction, different pavement temperature conditions, different friction values between the concrete pavement and the underlying base, and different pavement widths. The calculation results are the time of occurrence of the longitudinal crack(s), if any, and the variation of the crack widths during a period of 1 year. Also the maximum pavement width that can be constructed without any longitudinal joint is determined.

Keywords: Model calculations, tensile stress, tensile strength, longitudinal cracking, crack width, maximum pavement width

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Introduction

After construction of a plain concrete pavement a chemical hardening process occurs resulting in an increasingly bound layer. This process leads to shrinkage of the plain concrete pavement that is then also subject to temperature effects. The hardening shrinkage and the temperature effects result, through friction with the underlying layer, in shrinkage cracks that occur shortly after construction of the pavement. In this paper an analytical model is explained that enables the description of the development of longitudinal cracking in plain concrete pavements, constructed in one gang of a slipformpaver. The model yields the time of occurrence and the number of longitudinal cracks, if any, and the (variation of the) crack width in time. The analyses have been done for a jointless plain concrete pavement consisting of concrete grade C28/35 or C35/45. In the analyses the temperature of the pavement, the day and time of construction of the pavement, the friction value between the concrete layer and the underlying base, and the pavement width are varied.

Models for the development of the pavement temperature, the material properties and the tensile stresses in time

Definition of times: t = time (hours after construction) t = 0: time of construction of the plain concrete pavement In this paper compressive strains and compressive stresses are negative and tensile strains and tensile stresses are positive.

2.1. Temperature and material properties of the plain concrete pavement

The models for the time-dependent temperature and the time-dependent material properties of the concrete pavement are described elsewhere (HOUBEN, 2010#1; HOUBEN, 2010#2). The temperature model includes the seasonal and daily temperature variation of the concrete pavement, the temperature of the concrete at the time of construction and the difference in temperature at any time t and t = 0 (time of construction). Also the temporal temperature increase due to hydration of the concrete is included. As far as possible the concrete material properties as described in the European Standard (EUROCODE 2, 2005) are used. For required concrete properties not given in the Standard, e.g. the time-dependent coefficient of linear thermal expansion, assumptions have been made based on engineering judgment. Figure 1 graphically present the time-dependent modulus of elasticity and the average tensile and compressive strength of the 2 concrete grades, C28/35 and C35/45, taken into account in the calculations. The characteristic cube compressive strength (probability of exceeding 95%) after 28 days of these concrete grades is 35 MPa and 45 MPa, respectively; the average cylinder compressive strength after 28 days of these concrete grades is 36 MPa and 43 MPa, respectively.
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m odulus of elasticity Ecm (t)

40000 35000 30000 modulus (MPa) 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 720 1440 2160 2880 3600 4320 tim (hours e ) C 28/35 C 35/45 5040 5760 6480 7200 7920 8640

mean cylinder compressive strength fcm(t) and mean tensile strength fctm(t)
10 0 0 -10 strength (MPa) -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 time (hours) mean cylinder compressive strength C28/35 mean tensile strength C28/35 mean cylinder compressive strength C35/45 mean tensile strength C35/45 720 1440 2160 2880 3600 4320 5040 5760 6480 7200 7920 8640

Figure 1 - Time-dependent modulus of elasticity of concrete, average tensile strength and average cylinder compressive strength of grades C28/35 and C35/45 (EUROCODE 2, 2005).

2.2. Occurring transverse tensile stresses in non-jointed plain concrete pavement

The time-dependent stress (t) (a compressive stress or tensile stress), occurring in the transverse direction of the non-jointed plain concrete pavement due to the total obstructed deformation (t), follows from Hookes law. Because of the semi-static loading, however, also stress relaxation is taken into account. This leads to the following equation:
(t ) = e 0.0003*t * Ecm (t ) * (t )

(MPa)

(Equation 1)

where: e-0.0003.t = assumed stress relaxation factor (-) (HOUBEN, 2010#1; HOUBEN, 2010#2). Ecm(t) = time-dependent average modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa) (t) = time-dependent total strain (chemical shrinkage plus thermal shrinkage or expansion) of concrete pavement (-)
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In the transverse direction of the concrete pavement the tensile (or compressive) stresses build up over the so-called breathing length due to the friction with the underlying base layer. The breathing length is that part of a structure that exhibits horizontal movements due to temperature changes (or another varying influencing factor). In case of indefinite width of the concrete pavement the breathing length La1 is equal to:
1000 * Ecm (t ) * (t ) La1 = ABS ( ) * f

(m)

(Equation 2)

where: Ecm(t) = average modulus of elasticity (MPa) of the concrete at the moment of the primary cracks (HOUBEN, 2010#1; HOUBEN, 2010#2) = volume weight of the plain concrete pavement (kN/m3); taken as = 24 kN/m3 f = friction between the concrete pavement and the underlying base (a combination of the coefficient of friction and the dead weight of the concrete slab) ABS = absolute value In the transverse direction of the concrete pavement the breathing length La1W is however limited to maximum half of the width W as constructed by the slipformpaver in one gang: La1W = MIN ( La1 , W / 2) where: MIN = minimum value The occurring tensile (or compressive) stress (t) in the transverse direction (equation 1) is limited according to: 0.001* * f * (W / 2) * e 0.0003*t (t ) 0.001 * f * (W / 2) * e0.0003*t (MPa) (Equation 4) (m) (Equation 3)

The calculations have been done for a period of 8640 hours (= 360 days 1 year), when the pavement is constructed at (the months refer to the northern hemisphere): February 1 (coldest day of the year), 10 AM (average pavement temperature on a day) and 4 PM (highest pavement temperature on a day); May 1 (mean climatic conditions, construction prior to the summer), 10 AM and 4 PM; August 1 (hottest day of the year), 10 AM and 4 PM; November 1 (mean climatic conditions, construction prior to winter), 10 AM and 4 PM. Different pavement temperature amplitudes have been applied in the calculations, i.e. a yearly pavement temperature amplitude Tampyear = 0, 10 or 20 and a daily pavement C temperature amplitude Tampday = 0, 5 or 10 In the calculations also differen t values for C. the friction f between the concrete layer and the underlying base layer are included (f = 1, 2, 5, 10 or 20) as well as different values for the pavement width W (W = 3, 6, 9 or 12 m). In the calculations both concrete grade C28/35 and concrete grade C35/45 are included. For illustration some calculated developments of the (tensile) stresses and the tensile strength are graphically presented in the figures 2 and 3.
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C28/35, w idth 6 m, no longitudinal joint, Tampyear = 10C, Tampday = 5C, friction f = 10, construction at May 1, 4 PM
3,5 3 2,5 tensile stress (MPa) 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 -0,5 -1 tim e (hours) tensile stress tensile strength 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Figure 2 - Occurring transverse stresses and tensile strength in plain concrete pavement (concrete grade C28/35, pavement width 6 m, no longitudinal joints, Tampyear = 10 T ampday = 5C, C, friction f = 10, construction at May 1, 4 PM).
C 28/35, w idth 12 m, no longitudinal joint, Tampyear = 10C, Tampday = 5C , friction f = 10, construction at May 1, 4 PM
3,5 3 2,5 tensile stress (MPa) 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 -0,5 -1 tim e (hours) tens ile stress tens ile s trength 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Figure 3 - Occurring transverse stresses and tensile strength in plain concrete pavement (concrete grade C28/35, pavement width 12 m, no longitudinal joints, Tampyear = 10 T ampday = 5C, C, friction f = 10, construction at May 1, 4 PM).

The most important calculation result is the maximum value of the ratio of the occurring tensile stress (t), equations 1 to 4, and the tensile strength fctm(t), figure 1. For all the analysed cases this maximum stress ratio is given in a background report (HOUBEN, 2010#3). The stress ratio reaches its maximum value very short after construction, typically 5 to 40 hours after construction. Only in the case that there are no or very small temperature amplitudes, the maximum stress ratio reaches its maximum value at longer term. If the stress ratio becomes larger than 1, one (or more) longitudinal cracks will develop. In (HOUBEN, 2010#3) the number of cracks and the time of their occurrence are given. This is further analyzed in the next paragraph. Models have been developed that give the maximum stress ratio as a function of all the other variables. These models are:
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Concrete grade C28/35, time of construction 10 AM:

MaxRatio = 0.0007 * (Tampyear + 1)0.016 * (Tampday + 7.784)1.615 * f 0.640 * DayConstr 0.012 * W 0.637
(r2 = 0.976) (Equation 5a)

Concrete grade C35/45, time of construction 10 AM:

MaxRatio = 0.0008*(Tampyear + 1)0.016 *(Tampday + 8.150)1.486 * f 0.661 * DayConstr 0.009 *W 0.671

(r2 = 0.934) (Equation 5b)

Concrete grade C28/35, time of construction 4 PM:

MaxRatio = 0.000465*(Tampyear + 1)0.015 *(Tampday + 6.641)2.079 * f 0.604 * DayConstr 0.0035 *W 0.593

(r2 = 0.968) (Equation 5c)

Concrete grade C35/45, time of construction 4 PM:

MaxRatio = 0.00055 * (Tampyear + 1)0.031 * (Tampday + 7.204)1.970 * f 0.596 * DayConstr 0.003 * W 0.561
(r2 = 0.977) where: MaxRatio Tampyear Tampday DayConstr W (Equation 5d)

= maximum ratio of transverse tensile stress and tensile strength = yearly amplitude of the average daily pavement temperature ( C) = daily amplitude of the pavement temperature ( C) = calendar day of construction = pavement width as constructed in one gang by slipformpaver (m)

The equations 5a to 5d demonstrate that, besides the time of construction during the day, the daily temperature amplitude Tampday has the largest effect on the maximum stress ratio. The friction f between the pavement and the base as well as the pavement width W give second order effects on the maximum stress ratio. The concrete grade, the yearly temperature amplitude Tampyear as well as the calendar day of construction has hardly any effect on the maximum stress ratio which is explained by the fact that that stress ratio usually occurs very soon after construction.

Development of longitudinal cracks

As shown in the background report (HOUBEN, 2010#3), 1 or more longitudinal cracks may develop in the concrete pavement, especially due to a combination of high temperature amplitudes within the concrete pavement, a large concrete pavement width and a large friction between the concrete pavement and the underlying base. In some cases more than 1 longitudinal crack occurs (i.e. 3 or 5 cracks because of reasons of symmetry), and for reasons of simplicity it is then assumed that all the cracks do occur at the same time, i.e. at the time that the stress ratio (t)/fctm(t) reaches the value 1.0 for the first time (in
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reality there will be a time difference, sometimes 1 hour and sometimes some days). It is also assumed that a longitudinal crack occurs exactly in the middle of the concrete pavement width or in the middle between 2 other cracks. The calculation of the development of longitudinal cracking, including the crack width, shows large similarities with the development of the transverse cracking in concrete pavements (HOUBEN, 2010#1; HOUBEN, 2010#2). Just before the moment that the stress ratio (t)/fctm(t) = 1 (ratio of occurring transverse tensile stress and tensile strength, equations 1 to 4 and figure 1), the transverse tensile strain cr in the middle of the concrete pavement width is equal to:
cr ( t ) = ( t ) = f ctm (t ) Ecm (t )

(Equation 6)

The initial width wi of the longitudinal crack(s) is equal to: 1 longitudinal crack:

wi = 1000000*

Ecm (t ) * cr (t )2 * f Ecm (t ) * cr (t )2 3 * f Ecm (t ) * cr (t )2 5 * f

(mm)

(Equation 7a)

3 longitudinal cracks: wi = 1000000* 5 longitudinal cracks: wi = 1000000*

(mm)

(Equation 7b)

(mm)

(Equation 7c)

where: Ecm(t) = modulus of elasticity (MPa) of concrete at the moment of the crack(s) (figure 1) cr(t) = total obstructed transverse deformation (tensile strain) of the concrete pavement at the moment of the crack(s) The reduction cr of the maximum transverse tensile stress due to longitudinal crack(s) is: wi 1 longitudinal crack: cr = 0.5* (t ) *(1 + (MPa) (Equation 8a) ) 1000* La1W 3 longitudinal cracks: cr = 0.75* (t ) *(1 +
wi ) 1000 * La1W

(MPa)

(Equation 8b)

5 longitudinal cracks: cr = 0.83333* (t ) * (1 +

wi ) (MPa) 1000* La1W

(Equation 8c)

where: (t) = transverse tensile strain just before the moment of cracking La1W = transverse breathing length of the concrete pavement (equations 2 and 3)
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After cracking the maximum transverse tensile stress cr(t) is equal to:
cr (t ) = ( t ) cr e 0.0003t

(MPa)

(Equation 9a)

with the boundary condition: 1 longitudinal crack:

0.001* * f * W / 4 * e 0.0003*t cr (t ) 0.001 * f * W / 4 * e 0.0003*t

(MPa)

(Equation 9b)

3 longitudinal cracks:
0.001* * f * W / 8 * e 0.0003*t cr (t ) 0.001 * f * W / 8 * e 0.0003*t

(MPa)

(Equation 9c)

5 longitudinal cracks:
0.001* * f * W /12 * e 0.0003*t cr (t ) 0.001 * f * W /12 * e 0.0003*t (MPa)

(Equation 9d)

The resulting maximum transverse tensile strain (t) after cracking is equal to:
(t ) = cr (t ) Ecm (t )

(Equation 10)

In case of an indefinite pavement width the breathing length LaW in transverse direction after cracking would be: 1000 * Ecm (t ) * (t ) (m) (Equation 11) LaW = ABS ( ) * f where: Ecm(t) = modulus of elasticity (MPa) of concrete at the moment of cracking (figure 1) (t) = maximum total obstructed transverse deformation (tensile strain) of the plain concrete pavement at the moment of cracking (equation 10) In the transverse direction of the concrete pavement the breathing length is however limited to half of the width between 2 adjacent cracks. Therefore the breathing length is: 1 longitudinal crack: 3 longitudinal cracks 5 longitudinal cracks LaW = MIN ( LaW , W / 4) LaW = MIN ( LaW , W / 8) LaW = MIN ( LaW , W /12) (m) (m) (m) (Equation 12a) (Equation 12b) (Equation 12c)

The change of the crack width w(t) in time is calculated by means of the following equation:
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1 longitudinal crack:

w(t ) = 1000000*

Ecm (t ) * (t )2 L *( aw ) 2 * f W /4
(mm) (Equation 13a)

- w (at time that crack occurs) 3 longitudinal cracks:

w(t ) = 1000000*

Ecm (t )* (t )2 L *( aw ) 2 3 * f W /8
(mm) (Equation 13b)

- w (at time that cracks occur) 5 longitudinal cracks:

w(t ) = 1000000*

Ecm (t )* (t )2 L *( aw ) 2 5 * f W /12

- w (at time that cracks occur) (mm) (Equation 13c) where: Ecm(t) = modulus of elasticity (MPa) of concrete in time after cracking (figure 1) (t) = total obstructed transverse deformation (tensile strain) of the plain concrete pavement in time after cracking (equation 10) The development of the width w(t) of the longitudinal crack(s) is equal to: w(t ) = wi + w(t ) (mm) (Equation 14)

where: wi = initial width (mm) of the crack(s) (equation 7) w(t) = change of the crack width (mm) in time (equation 13) For illustration, figure 4 shows the development of the maximum transverse tensile stress and the crack width for a 12 m wide pavement of concrete grade C28/35, constructed at February 1, 4 PM and subjected to temperature amplitudes Tampyear = 10 and T ampday = C 5 The friction f between the concrete pavement a nd the underlying base is 10. The C. upper graph in figure 4 shows the maximum tensile stress and the tensile strength if no cracks are present. The middle graph shows the maximum tensile stress and the tensile strength if cracks (in this example: 1 crack) are present. The lower graph shows the width of each crack. In the background report (HOUBEN, 2010#3) some numerical characteristics of the longitudinal cracks in the concrete pavement, if any, are given: the number of cracks and, if 1 or more cracks really do occur, the time of occurrence of these cracks (hours after construction); the maximum ratio of transverse tensile stress and tensile strength after occurrence of the crack(s) and the time of occurrence of this maximum stress ratio; the initial width of the longitudinal crack(s) and the width of the crack(s) at long term (i.e. after 360 days 1 year). It appears from figure 4 and the background report that for those cases that longitudinal cracks do occur:
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C28/35, pavement width 12 m, no longitudinal joints, no longitudinal cracks, Tampyear = 10C, Tampday = 5C, friction f = 10, constructed at February 1, 4 PM
3,5 3 2,5 tensile stress (MPa) 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 -0,5 -1 time (hours) tensile stress tensile strength 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

C28/35, pavement width 12 m, no longitudinal joints, 1 longitudinal crack, Tampyear = 10C, Tampday = 5C, friction f = 10, constructed at February 1, 4 PM
3,5 3 2,5 tensile stress (MPa) 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 -0,5 -1 time (hours) tensile stress tensile strength 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

C28/35, pavement width 12 m, no longitudinal joints, 1 longitudinal crack, Tampyear = 10C, Tampday = 5C, friction f = 10, constructed at February 1, 4 PM
0,16 0,14 0,12 crack width (mm) 0,1 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 0 0 -0,02 time (hours) 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Figure 4 - Development of the maximum transverse tensile stresses in a 12 m wide concrete pavement without/with cracks, and the crack width, constructed at February 1, 4 PM (concrete grade C28/35, Tampyear = 10 T ampday = 5C, friction f = 10). C,

the variables governing the development of longitudinal cracks are the magnitude of the daily pavement temperature amplitude, the time of construction during the day, the
10

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total width of the pavement as constructed in one gang by the slipformpaver, and the friction between the concrete pavement and the underlying base; the concrete grade, the day of construction as well as the yearly (seasonal) pavement temperature amplitude only have a very small effect on the cracking process; both the initial and the long term crack width remain below 0.3 mm in all of the analyzed cases; the later the crack(s) occur, the larger the crack width; in pavements constructed at 10 AM maximum 1 crack occurs at relatively long term (16 or 41 or 42 hours after construction, so at 2 AM during the first night or at 3 AM or at 4 AM during the second night) resulting in a relatively large crack width; in pavements constructed at 4 PM up to 5 cracks (concrete grade C28/35) and up to 3 cracks (concrete grade C35/45) occur at short term (6 or 11 hours after construction, so at 10 PM or 3 AM during the first night) resulting in relatively small crack widths; the more cracks do occur, the finer the cracks; the wider the pavement, the larger the friction between pavement and base and the larger the daily pavement temperature amplitude, the larger the number of cracks; when the number of cracks is the same: the wider the pavement, the larger the crack width although the effect is not large; the most critical time of construction is at November 1 at 4 PM (hottest moment of the day) because after construction both the seasonal and daily pavement temperature go down most fast; the effect of the day of construction is however not large.

Maximum concrete pavement width without longitudinal cracking

By rewriting the equations 5a to 5d it can easily be derived what is the maximum pavement width W that can be constructed without any longitudinal joint. As the yearly temperature amplitude (Tampyear) and the calendar day of construction (DayConstr) have C hardly any effect, the rewritten equation 5a to 5d are given for Tampyear = 10 and DayConstr = 121 (i.e. construction at May 1). The resulting simplified equations are then: Concrete grade C28/35, time of construction 10 AM:

W = 86938 * MaxRatio1.570 * (Tampday + 7.784) 2.535 * f 1.005

Concrete grade C35/45, time of construction 10 AM:

(m)

(Equation 15a)

W = 41047 * MaxRatio1.490 * (Tampday + 8.150)2.215 * f 0.985

Concrete grade C28/35, time of construction 4 PM:

(m)

(Equation 15b)

W = 399372 * MaxRatio1.686 * (Tampday + 6.641) 3.506 * f 1.019

Concrete grade C35/45, time of construction 4 PM:

(m)

(Equation 15c)

W = 622081* MaxRatio1.783 * (Tampday + 7.204)3.512 * f 1.062

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(m)

(Equation 15d)
11

Figure 5 is the graphical representation of equation 15c for 2 values of the maximum ratio of occurring tensile stress and tensile strength, i.e. MaxRatio = 1.0 and MaxRatio = 0.6667 (i.e. safety factor = 1.5). The graphs shows the maximum concrete pavement width against the magnitude of the daily temperature amplitude of the pavement and the magnitude of the friction for concrete grade C28/35 and time of construction at 4 PM.
maximum pavement width without longitudinal joint, construction at 4 PM, C28/35, max. stress ratio = 1.0
12 maximum pavement width (m) 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 daily pavement temperature amplitude Tampday (C) friction f = 1 friction f = 2 friction f = 5 friction f = 10 friction f = 20

maximum pavement width without longitudinal joint, construction at 4 PM, C28/35, max. stress ratio = 0.6667
12 maximum pavement width (m) 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 daily pavement temperature amplitude Tampday (C) friction f = 1 friction f = 2 friction f = 5 friction f = 10 friction f = 20

Figure 5 - Maximum width (m) of concrete pavement without longitudinal joint as a function of the daily temperature amplitude Tampday and the friction f; concrete grade C28/35, construction at 4 PM, maximum stress ratio 1.0 (top) or 0.6667 (bottom).

Figure 5 clearly demonstrates the huge effect of both the daily temperature amplitude Tampday and the friction f between the concrete pavement and the base on the maximum concrete pavement width that can be constructed without longitudinal contraction joint. In case of a high friction (e.g. concrete pavement on asphalt layer) and extreme daily temperature variations the joint spacing goes down to as low as in the order of 1 m, which indeed is common practice when an ultra thin whitetopping is applied on an asphalt pavement. For thick concrete overlays the variation of the average daily concrete pavement temperature is much smaller allowing larger (longitudinal) joint spacing. Also the time of construction during the day appears to be relevant. Constructing the concrete pavement at 4 PM, i.e. at the hottest moment of the day, requires a much smaller
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joint spacing compared to construction at 10 AM. The explanation is the decreasing pavement temperature during the first hours after construction (resulting in thermal shrinkage, together with the chemical shrinkage) in the first case, and the increasing pavement temperature (leading to thermal expansion, which partly compensates the chemical shrinkage) in the second case. It also appears from figure 5 that increasing the safety factor against wild cracking from 1 to 1.5 results in a decrease of the longitudinal joint spacing with a factor of around 2.

Conclusions

The time-dependent occurring maximum tensile stress in the transverse direction of the non-jointed concrete pavement has been calculated as well as the maximum value and the time of occurrence of the ratio of tensile stress and tensile strength. For those cases that the maximum stress ratio exceeds 1, the longitudinal cracking process has been calculated. This cracking process is mainly governed by the magnitude of the daily pavement temperature amplitude, the time of construction during the day, the total width of the pavement as constructed in one gang by the slipformpaver, and the friction between the concrete pavement and the underlying base. The cracking process is characterized by means of the time of occurrence of the longitudinal crack(s), the crack spacing and the development of the crack width. It appears that the cracking process is already completed in the 1st or 2nd night after construction of the concrete pavement. The width of any longitudinal crack never exceeds 0.3 mm. Based on limiting the maximum stress ratio, equations have been developed for the maximum (longitudinal) joint spacing. The maximum joint spacing mainly depends on the daily pavement temperature amplitude, the friction between pavement and base, the hour of construction of the pavement, and the safety factor against wild cracking.

References
EUROCODE 2. Design and Calculation of concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (in Dutch). Netherlands standard NEN-EN 1992-1-1 (en), NNI, Delft, April 2005. HOUBEN, L.J.M. Model for transversal cracking in non-jointed plain concrete pavements as a function of the temperature variations and the time of construction. Proceedings 7th International DUT-Workshop on Design and Performance of Sustainable and Durable Concrete Pavements, Carmona, Spain, 10 11 October 2010. HOUBEN, L.J.M. Transversal cracking in jointed plain concrete pavements for Dutch climatic conditions. Proceedings 7th International DUT-Workshop on Design and Performance of Sustainable and Durable Concrete Pavements, Carmona, Spain, 10 11 October 2010. HOUBEN, L.J.M. Model for longitudinal cracking in non-jointed plain concrete pavements. Report 7-08-216-8, Road and Railway Engineering, Delft University of Technology, July 2010.
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