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Measurement of Background Muon Flux Using a Single Channel Analyzer and an NaI(Tl) Detector
(Experiment 10)
OBJECTIVE The objective of this experiment is to use a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector and single channel analyzer along with methods of radiation counting statistics to approximate the muon flux in the laboratory. The 137Cs gamma-ray spectra will be used to calibrate our detector. INTRODUCTION In this experiment we will be trying to approximate the average muon flux in our laboratory by using what we know about background radiation. First of all we will need to discuss the sources that our background radiation comes from. There are 5 main sources background radiation can come from. 1. The natural radioactivity coming from the materials used in the detector. 2. The natural radioactivity from the other materials in your detection system (shielding, supports and containment structure). 3. Radiation coming from the earths surface (terrestrial radiation), construction materials of the laboratory, and other structures surrounding the laboratory. 4. Radioactivity in the air surrounding your detector. 5. The multiple components of cosmic radiation.

Figure 1 Gamma Ray Spectrum of a Natural Tilling Rock

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Figure 2 - Gamma Ray Spectrum of Atmospheric Aerosol Sample In order for us to accurately measure the muon flux we will need to be able to differentiate between the energy deposited in our detector by the muon flux and the energy deposited by the other sources. In the two plots above we have shown gammaray spectra for a terrestrial source (specifically granite) and an atmospheric aerosol sample. It is important to note that the x-axis in Figure 2 is by channel number and not energy. Each important peak in the plot has the energy level displayed. The important fact about the NaI(Tl) detector that makes this experiment very easy is that muons will deposit a certain amount of energy for the amount of distance it travels through our detector. A muon will deposit approximately 2 MeV of energy per 1 cm of NaI scintillator. Using this fact we can setup our detector so that it will record every count above a critical energy level. Since the rest of our background sources will only produce radiation that gives of energies below about 3~3.5 MeV we can record all of the counts above 4 MeV and assume that these counts will only correspond to muons. Once our detection system is setup correctly we will then be able to start taking counts for our muons. Using our knowledge of radiation counting statistics we can then breakdown and evaluate our data set. It will be important for us to test our system as well. We will use the Ratio Test (T-test), Chauvenets Criterion, and the Chi-square Test to evaluate our results. Microsoft Excel will be used to do the majority of our calculations, but hand calculations will need to be used to confirm the accuracy all of our Microsoft Excel equations.

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READING ASSIGNMENT Read Knoll, chapter 3 (pages 65-102), chapters 8-10, and chapter 20 (pages 779-798). EQUIPMENT The equipment used in this experiment is listed in Table 1 and a block diagram showing the setup for the experiment is show in Figure 2. Bias (HV) power supply Single Channel Analyzer Oscilloscope Counter/Timer NaI(Tl) detector (see Appendix B-1) 137 Cs source Preamplifier Amplifier

Table 1 - List of equipment to be used in Muon Flux Experiment

Figure 3 Block Diagram Setup for Muon Flux Experiment SOFTWARE Microsoft Excel

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A. Set-up Procedures 1. Using the equipment listed in Table 1, set up the detection system according to the block diagram shown in Figure 2. 2. Record all of the model and serial numbers of each piece of equipment used. Draw a diagram of your setup in your laboratory notebook. B. Determine characteristics of detector? 1. Place a 137Cs source on the bottom most shelf of the detector. Set the single channel analyzer to integral mode and the lower level discriminator high enough to just eliminate electronic noise. 2. Take counts at 15 evenly space voltages (WARNING: Dont go above 1600V because it could damage the detector). Generate a plot of the counts versus voltage. Draw a smooth curve through the points. From the plot, determine the operating voltage based upon the plateau region. Record the plot, operating voltage and detector settings in your laboratory notebook. 3. Use this voltage as the operating voltage for the remainder of the experiment. 4. Readjust the amplifier gain at this voltage such that the maximum pulse amplitude (662 keV) equals just less than 1 V. C. Muon Counting 1. With the SCA set to integral mode increase the LLD to 6.1 volts. With this setting we will only be recording counts above approximately 4 MeV. 2. Remove the 137Cs source and place the source box away from the detector. 3. Set up the timer/counter to take 30 second counts. 4. Take a 1 minute count. Repeat until you have a data set with 50 trials. Record all data in your laboratory notebook. D. Statistical Analysis 1. Open Microsoft Excel and save the spreadsheet as MUON_CTS.xls. 2. Create a table with two columns. The first column should be labeled trial and the second column counts. Enter your data into the table.

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3. Using the equations in Appendix C, use the capabilities of Microsoft Excel to calculate values for the experimental mean, standard deviation, Ratio Test, Chauvenets Criterion, and the Chi-square Test. If you have any trouble with Microsoft Excel, please first refer to http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/excelhelp/excel-help-and-how-to-FX102847162.aspx to figure out how to calculate the values. If you continue to have problems see the instructor. (Note: It may be helpful to organize your data by using different tabs in the Excel spreadsheet for each section.) 4. Create a histogram of the frequency distribution of your data set. 5. Also, create a Poisson distribution for the expected frequency distribution by applying the Poisson equation. 6. Remember to save all of your information before leaving the laboratory.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is it important to determine the operating voltage of the system before conducting muon counting? 2. Why was it important to set the LLD to count only radiation above 4 MeV in step C1? 3. Using the dimensions of the detector, determine the area of the detector. Comment on how the height of the detector will affect the count rate. (Reminder: A muon deposits 2 MeV per 1 cm of NaI scintillator) 4. Compute and S for this sample, (Equations in Appendix C.) Convert these values into units of counts per minute (cpm). Compare the experimental standard deviation (S) with the expected standard deviation, . (Note: Show at least one hand calculation for each answer.) 5. Using the calculated and area of the detector from above, calculate the (average muon flux) through the detector. 6. Apply the Ratio Test to the first three data points in the sample to test for statistically incredible behavior. How do these values compare with the computer generated values? 7. Apply the Chauvenets Criterion to the first three trial results and to any trials that were identified by the computer as not meeting the criteria. How well do

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these values compare to the computer results? What do these results tell you? 8. Compute the Chi-square for the 50 trials rejecting any points that do not satisfy Chauvenets Criterion. What does the Chi-square value say about the data? 9. Compare the frequency distribution of the data to the Poisson distribution calculated from the experimental mean. Plot both distributions together on the same plot and comment on similarities and differences. 10. As a result of the above tests, give your conclusion as to whether or not your sample belongs in the same random distribution. 11. Compare your calculated Muon flux to reference Muon fluxes provided in appendix D. Explain any discrepancies in the comparison if any.

APPENDICES A. Supplemental Reading Knoll, Glenn F. Radiation Detection and Measurement. 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 2010. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. B. Detector Specifications/Preamplifier Specifications Harshaw NaI(Tl) Detector 4 inch diameter Scintillation Crystal Type: 16MBW16/5A C. Statistical Calculations I. Experimental Mean This is useful when finding the average number of a set of values. is the experimental mean: II. Standard Deviation

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This is the average value of the deviation from the experimental mean S is the standard deviation: III. Ratio Test (T-test) T is the ratio test (T-test): | |

If this is true, there is a high probability of non-statistical error and the counting system should not be considered valid. IV. Chauvenets Criterion This criterion states that an observation should be rejected if its probability of occurrence is equal to or less than 1/(2N), where N is the number of observations. Assuming a normal distribution, one can compute the ratio of the deviation to the expected standard deviation, () for each of these probabilities: is Chauvenets Criterion: | V. Chi-square Test This test examines whether the members of a data set belong to the same random distribution. A Chi-squared value greater than 5.00% proves that the data does not vary significantly from observed results is the Chi-square: A data set is considered: Acceptable: 0.10 < P(2) < 0.90 |

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Marginal: 0.05 < P(2) 0.10 or 0.90 P(2) 0.95 Rejected: 0.05 > P(2) > 0.95 VI. Poissons Distribution This is used to characterize radiation counting statistics if the following conditions are satisfied: a. b. Half-life is long in respect to counting time, i.e. >100 times longer Number of radioactive nuclei present is large, i.e. >100

P(x) is the Poissons distribution:

This shows that the probability P(x) for each possible value of x; and the sum of all possible P(x) values is unity. D. Muon Reference Table The following table shows calculated muon fluxes at different heights above sea level.

Figure 4 Muon Flux at Altitudes above Sea Level

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E. Works Cited Figure 1: Tzortzis, Michalis, and Haralabos Tsertos. "Gamma Radiation Measurements and Dose Rates in Commercially-used Natural Tiling Rocks (granites)." Science Direct. Elsevier Science Ltd, 2003. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265931X03001061>. Figure 2: Papastefanou, C. "Chapter 3 Radioactive Nuclides as Tracers of Environmental Processes." Science Direct. Elsevier B.V, 2008. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1569486007120039>. Figure 4: Mitrica, B., I. M. Brancus, R. Margineanu, M. Petcu, M. Dima, O. Sima, A. Haungs, H. Rebel, M. Petre, G. Toma, A. Saftoin, and A. Apostu. A Mobile Detector for Measurements of the Atmospheric Muon Flux. Diss. University of Bucharest, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Horia Hulubei Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, 2011. 2011. Astrophysics and Space Sciences Transactions. 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. <www.astrophys-space-sci-trans.net/7/163/2011/astra-7-163-2011.pdf>.