CONTENTS

„ Introduction
„ Generic Telecom Networks
„ Basic Concepts & Transmission Media
„ A t
Antennas &P
Propagation
ti
„ Signalling, Switching & Transmission
„ Optical Networking

March 2006 SC 1
 CONTENTS

ƒ D t Communication
Data C i ti
ƒ Broadband Access Systems
ƒ Wireless Networks (Microwave, Satcom & Radar)
ƒ Mobile / Cellular Communication (1G to 22.5G)
5G)
ƒ Bluetooth & WLAN
ƒ Future Trends (3G / 4G, VOIP, NGN)

March 2006 SC 2
 Introduction

What is Telecommunication ?
ƒ Technology that enables Multi
Multi-media
media Communication
between subscribers located anywhere, at any time.
ƒ Deals with Communication of Voice / Data / Video
Message signals from Source to Destination at
acceptable quality levels, using various Wireline /
Wi l Transmission
Wireless T i i Media.
M di
ƒ Viewed as Infrastructure like Power, Roads, Ports,
T
Transport
t etc
t .
March 2006 SC 3
 I t d ti
Introduction
Major Milestones in Telecom Evolution
ƒ Invention of Telegraph & Telephone Instruments
ƒ Birth of Telephone Exchanges & Wireline Communication
ƒ Advent of Wireless Communication
ƒ Establishment of Long Distance Communication Networks (Submarine
Cables / Fiber Optics / Microwave / Satcom)
ƒ Use of Computers in Electronic Exchanges
ƒ Advances in DSP / Data Communication & Convergence
ƒ Evolution of Internet & World Wide Web
ƒ India adopts National Telecom Policy, opening up Telecom Sector
ƒ Mobile Communication Services (GSM & CDMA) expand with focus on
Introduction of Broadband Services, improving Teledensity / QOS and
Cost reduction.
ƒ New Technologies such as ATM / GbE, IP / MPLS, Optical Networking,
3G / 4G Mobile, Wi-Fi / Wi-MAX, VOIP, IPTV etc emerging.
March 2006 SC 4
 Introduction

Telecom Boom
India reaches 125 Million mark in Phone connections
(Land Lines & Mobiles); Large Subscriber base after
China, US, Japan & Germany
Mobile Growth > Growth of Land Lines
Present Teledensity in India > 11 % (Fixed 4 % & Mobile
7 %), as against a total of 1.6 % in 1997 & 2.9 % in 2000
Expected to reach 25 % Teledensity in next 2 to 3 Years.
Decrease in Call charges
Liberalization of NLD / ILD Services & VOIP Services.
March 2006 SC 5
 Introduction

Telecom Value Chain

ƒ Chip Manufacturers
¾ TI, Analog Devices, Philips, National Semiconductors, Intel etc.
ƒ Terminal Devices Manufacturers
¾ Nokia, Motorola, LG, Samsung etc
ƒ Network
N t kEEquipment
i tMManufacturers
f t / Vendors
V d
¾ Ericsson, Nortel, Nokia, Motorola, Lucent, Cisco etc
ƒ Service Providers
¾ Telecom Software Companies, Project Contractors etc.
ƒ Network Operators (Basic, Mobile & MSOs)
ƒ Subscribers
March 2006 SC 6
 Introduction

Major Telcos (Integrated Service Operators):

ƒ BSNL, Bharti, Tata & Reliance.
Telecom Standardization Organizations / Regulators
FCC: Federal Communication Commission
ISO International
ISO: I t ti l Organization
O i ti for
f Standardization
St d di ti
ITU: International Telecommunications Union
ANSI:American National Standards Institute
EIA / TIA: Electronics / Telecom Industries Association
ETSI: European Telecommunication Standards Institute
WPC, TRAI (DOT): In India
March 2006 SC 7
 Generic Telecom Networks

March 2006 SC 8
 Generic Telecom Networks

Public Switched Telephone Network

(PSTN)
Cellular Mobile Communication Network
Data / IP Network
CATV Network
Hybrid / Integrated Network

March 2006 SC 9
 Generic Telecom Networks

PSTN Architecture ((Exchange

g Hierarchy)
y)
State-level Trunk
Exchange
Area-level Trunk
Exchange

Local Exchange

Subscribers

ƒ PSTN: A wide area, circuit switched, partially connected mesh network of

star connected sub networks.
State TE State TE

Area TE
Town area LE
Metro area LE

March 2006 SC 10
 Generic Telecom Networks

PSTN Connectivity
y
ISP
Internet
RAS

Local Loop
Subscribers
1 Trunks
2
DP/
M
EXCHANGE
D 1 MUX / Baseband TX /
D D 2 DEMUX
CCP (Multi F (SWITCH) F m RX
Pair)
n
CPE
TP
Copper
To
Lines DE-MUX RX /
Destination Media
Exchange / / MUX TX
Subscribers
March 2006 SC 11
 Generic Telecom Networks

Access N
A Network
t k (Di
(Distribution)
t ib ti )
„ Local Loop / Point to Multipoint
„ W
Wireline
e e / Wireless
W e ess
Backbone Network (Transmission)
„ Long Distance / Point to Point
„ Wireline / Wireless
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
„ Signalling, Switching & Transmission Systems
„ Dedicated Circuit Switching
Overlay Networks
„ Cellular
C ll l (Mobile),
(M bil ) Internet
I / Data
D (Packet
(P k Switching)
S i hi ) etc.
March 2006 SC 12
 Generic Telecom Networks
Typical Mobile Communication Network
Base Station
Base Station 1 Controller Data
Bases
OMC

BSC
MS
G
Mobile
M PSTN
MSC S
Station
(Handset) C
Base Station 2

Mobile
M bil
MS BSC Switching
Center SMSC / VMSC
Mobile Base
Transreceiver Base St
B Station
ti
Station
Station (BTS) Controller
March 2006 SC 13
 Generic Telecom Networks

CATV Network with HFC (Hybrid

y Fiber Coaxial) Access

Satellite Feed

Optical Amplifier
Head End Coax Tapp
Distribution
Fiber Node
PSTN
/ IP
Local
Programs

Fiber & Coaxial cable for Distribution of Multimedia Services.

March 2006 SC 14
 Basic Concepts

March 2006 SC 15
 Basic Concepts

ƒ Voice Signal
– Analog (continuous)
– Low bandwidth (15 KHz Band limited to 4KHz for
conventional telephony)
p y)
– Transmission can be Analog or Digital.
Data Signal
– Digital (discrete), Bursty
– Low & High Speed; PC / LAN / FAX
– Variable bandwidth (Few bps to 10 Gbps & beyond)
– Transmission
a s ss o ca can be Analog
a og or
o Digital
g ta
Video Signal
– Analog (continuous)
– High bandwidth (5 MHz Typical)
– Transmission can be Analog or Digital
March 2006 SC 16
 Basic Concepts

Si
Signal
l Analog

ƒ Voice is an Analog (continuous) signal

and Data is a Digital (discreet) signal.
ƒ Analog to Digital Converter (ADC):
ƒ Used to digitize voice signal in
transmit side.
ƒ Digital to Analog Converter (DAC):
ƒ Used for re-conversion at the receive
side.
ƒ eg. PCM Codec
C d
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
ƒ DAC used also for Data Transmission over
existing Analog communication medium
(eg PC Modem,
(eg. Modem FAX,
FAX VFT etc).
etc) Digital

March 2006 SC 17
 B i Concepts
Basic C t
Voice Traffic
ƒ Analog Voice signal band limited to 4 KHz for Plain Old
Telephone System (POTS); Higher Bandwidth for Broadcast.
ƒ Voice Traffic in Telephony measured in Erlang units (One Call
Hour).
ƒ Erlang – B & C formulae represent Grade of Service in terms of
Blocking Probability & Queuing Delay.
ƒ Received Voice Quality is measured by Signal to Noise Ratio
(SNR) in dB.
dB
„ 30 db SNR implies that signal is 103 times noise on the average (Telephone
Voice quality and AM broadcast quality).
„ 45 db SNR implies
i li th
thatt the
th signal
i l is b t 3 x 104 times
i about ti noise
i on an
average (Very good as available in Hi-Fi FM broadcast).
March 2006 SC 18
 Basic Concepts

Relative Power unit

db : 10 Log10 P2 / P1
10 log
l 10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 0 db,
db when
h P2 = P1
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 3 db, when P2 = 2 P1
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 6 db
db, when
hen P2 = ?
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = -3 db, when P2 = ?
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 10 db,
db when P2 = 10 P1
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 20 db, when P2 = 100 P1
10 log10 ( P2 / P1 ) = 23 db, when P2 = ?

March 2006 SC 19
 Basic Concepts

Absolute Power unit

dbm
Power in dbm = 10 log10 (Power in mW)
1 mW = 10 log10(1) dbm = 0 dbm
2 mW = 10 log10(2) dbm = + 3 dbm
4 mW = ?
10 mW = + 10 dbm; 40 mW = ?
100 mW = + 20 dbm; 250 mW = ?
0 5 mW
0.5 W = -33 dbm;
db 5 mW W=?
0.1 mW = -10 dbm
1 µW = -30 dbm
1W = + 30 dbm; 1 KW = ?
March 2006 SC 20
 Basic Concepts

D t T
Data Traffic
ffi

ƒ Data Traffic is measured by Bit Rate ( Data Rate/Throughput)

in Bps / Kbps / Mbps / Gbps etc.

ƒ Q
Quality y of Data Reception
p is measured byy Bit Error Rate
(BER), the rate at which errors take place; 10-6 BER implies one
bit error received for a million bits transmitted on an average.

Video Transmission
ƒ Analog or Digital; It could be Compressed or of Studio Quality.
Quality

March 2006 SC 21
 Basic Concepts

Transmission Media

Wire line Wireless

Copper Fiber Optic Fixed Mobile

Cable Cable

Twisted Coaxial Single Multi

Pair (TP) M d
Mode M d
Mode
Fiber Fiber
March 2006 SC 22
 Basic Concepts

Electromagnetic Spectrum (Frequency Bands)

RF

f 300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF/MF HF/VHF UHF/SHF EHF Infrared Visible UV

( AF ) Light
λ 10 Km 100m 1m 1 cm μ
1μm
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable

Radio TV Microwave Optical

p
Fiber

„ Wavelength = = Velocity of Light (c) / Frequency (f )

RF ((UHF)) - Wireless Medium for Mobile communication.
Infrared (IR) – For Fiber Optic Core Transmission Networks.
March 2006 SC 23
 Basic Concepts
Copper Media
ƒ Types of Transmission Lines:
ƒ Can be represented by Equivalent Circuit with L, R, C & G per unit length.
ƒ Balanced: Twin Lead / Twisted Pair (UTP/ STP) for lower Frequency applications.
ƒ Unbalanced: Coaxial (Thin / Thick) Cables for Higher frequencies such as VHF /
UHF; Support TEM wave propagation.
ƒ Wave Guides: Used above Cut off frequencies of several GHz; Support TE or TM
modes.
ƒ Characteristic Impedance:
ƒ Input Impedance of line of infinite length or of a line of finite length, terminated by
Characteristic Impedance.
ƒ Standing Wave Ratio (SWR): Caused by reflections from imperfect termination;
Forward & reflected waves set up an interference pattern.
ƒ S ith Ch
Smith Chart:t Polar
P l Impedance
I d diagram
di enables
bl calculation
l l i off Z or Y or SWR at any
point on line with any load.
March 2006 SC 24
 Basic Concepts

ƒ Typical Characteristic Impedance Values:

ƒ 600 & 120 Ohms Balanced (TP)
ƒ 50 & 75 Ohms Unbalanced (Coaxial).
ƒ V lt
Voltage C ffi i t (ρ
R fl ti Coefficient
Reflection ( v):
) Reflection due to Impedance
mismatch with Load, resulting in Standing Waves.
ƒ VSWR (s): Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.
ƒ s = 1+ρ / 1−ρ ; ρ = s –1 / s + 1 ; Return Loss (dB) = 20 log (1 / ρ).
ƒ Transmission Line examples:
¾ Twin Lead (Balanced) : TV Antenna Lead
¾ T i d pair
Twisted i (Balanced)
(B l d) : Local
L l Loop
L for
f Telephony
T l h
¾ UTP, STP : LAN Cabling
¾ Coaxial ( Unbalanced ) : Antenna Feeders, RF Cabling, CATV Access
¾ Wave guides: Microwave Antenna feeds

March 2006 SC 25
 Basic Concepts
Copper Media
Coaxial Cable Outer Conductor
„ 3 Concentric Elements (Inner Di l
Dielectric
i
Conductor, Dielectric & Outer
Conductor) form the Transmission Inner Conductor
Line.
„ The Materials & Dimensions of
these elements determine the
eelectrical
ect ca ccharacteristics.
a acte st cs.
„ Protective Plastic Sheath around the
Outer Conductor.
„ Capable of supporting Transmission
of RF Signals (upto 3 GHz).
March 2006 SC 26
 Basic Concepts

Copper Media
Wave guides:
„ A pipe type Transmission Line with Rectangular or Circular Cross
section.
ti
„ No Inner conductor nor supporting Dielectric.
„ Supports TE (No component of Electric field in the direction of
Propagation)
p g ) or TM (No
( component
p of Magnetic
g field in the direction of
Propagation) modes.
„ Probe / Loop / Slot coupling for excitation.
„ Adaptor to couple to Coax cables.
„ Accessories: Flanges, Joints, bends etc.
„ Cavity Resonators: WG closed at both ends act as Tuned Circuits.
„ Aux. Components: Directional Couplers for measurements, Isolators &
Circulators made of ferrites.
ferrites

March 2006 SC 27
 Basic Concepts
Optical
p Fiber
ƒ Purpose: Geometry
− Propagation of Light
waves carrying Electrical
signals.
Core

Cladding
Silicone
Coating
Buffer
Jacket
Strength
Members Outer
Jacket

March 2006 SC 28
 Basic Concepts

Fiber Media (Fiber Optic Cable)

Function: Transmission of Electrical signals thro’ light waves
in a gglass medium.
Application: For Broadband & Long distance communication.
ƒ Examples: Telephone Trunk circuits / Backbone Networks, WAN,
Networks FTTH etc.
CATV Networks,
ƒ Submarine Cables provide International Broadband Communication.
ƒ Technology: Uses Total Internal Reflection inside an Optical
Fiber,
ib consisting
i i essentially
i ll off inner
i Core & Cladding
l ddi outside;
id
Refractive Index, µ, decreases from Core to Cladding, gradually
or abruptly.

March 2006 SC 29
 Basic Concepts
p

Fiber Media (Fiber Optic Cable)

ƒ Fiber Types:
ƒ Single
i Mode (Smaller
( ll Core dia)
di ) for
f long
l haul
h l
applications.
ƒ Multimode ((Larger
g Core dia)) for shorter distance
coverage; Step Index & Graded Index versions
available.
ƒ Fibers with 1310 nm & 1550 nm wavelengths as optical
windows.
ƒ Multi Fiber Cable: Indoor & Outdoor (Buried / Aerial).

March 2006 SC 30
 Basic Concepts

Fib Media
Fiber M di (Fiber
(Fib Optic
O ti Cable)
C bl )

ƒ Characteristics:
ƒ Attenuation: Reduction of signal strength in db / km;
1550 nm fiber has lower attenuation ( 0.2 db / km typical).
ƒ Dispersion: Leads to Pulse spreading / Optical Signal
broadening wrt distance; 1310 nm SMF has least
dispersion.
ƒ Splicing & Connectorization: Means of joining two fibers.

March 2006 SC 31
 B i Concepts
Basic C t
Basic Fiber Optic
p System
y
Transmitter Receiver
Electrical Fiber Optic
p Cable Electrical
Si l
Signal Signal
IN SI Fiber OUT

GI Fiber

SM Fiber
Fib

Transmitter ((LED or LASER)) converts an electrical signal

g into a light
g signal.
g
Receiver (Photodiode) converts the light signal back into an electrical signal.
March 2006 SC 32
 B i Concepts
Basic C t

Fiber Optic
Fib O ti Advantages
Ad t Fiber Optic
Fib O ti Disadvantages
Di d t
ƒ High bandwidth ƒ Minimum bending radius
ƒ Low loss required
q

ƒ No EMI ƒ Nonconductor; Cannot

transmit power feed along
ƒ Small physical size and with transmission as in
weight telephony
ƒ Tap proof
ƒ High cost in low bandwidth
ƒ Safe - Doesn’t carry and short distance
electrical current,
current no applications
shock hazard
March 2006 SC 33
 RF / Wireless Basics

Wireless Media
ƒ Electromagnetic Waves travelling in free space with Velocity of
light, are used as wireless media.
ƒ Message signals superimposed on Carrier signals (Transverse EM
Waves) are radiated by Antennas for Transmission and
Reception.
ƒ Frequency Bands are allocated for various applications ( Fixed &
Mobile).
¾ Frequency Bands: Radio Frequency (RF), Microwave, Infra
Red (IR) etc.
ƒ Electromagnetic Spectrum is a limited resource and its usage is
regulated
regulated.

March 2006 SC 34
 RF / Wireless Basics

Wireless Transmission
Wireless
Channel
Pass
P (RF / MW) Pass
P
band band

Base Band Radio Modem Radio Modem Base Band

(Mux/ (TRX) (TRX) (Mux/
Demux) Demux)

Carrier Carrier

March 2006 SC 35
 Antennas and Propagation

March 2006 SC 36
 Antennas and Propagation

Antenna Basics
ƒ Antenna is a part of Transmitting or Receiving system; Provides
efficient coupling between Space & Tx O/P or Rx I/P.
ƒ It radiates or receives Electromagnetic waves; It redistributes energy,
increasing it in some direction than in the other; Compared with
fictitious Isotropic Antenna.
ƒ Evolution
E l ti off Half H lf Wave
W Dipole
Di l from
f open circuited,
i it d enlarged
l d / bent
b t
and resonant Transmission Line with Figure of “8” bi-directional
Radiation Pattern due to Standing Waves.
ƒ Non resonant Antennas with matched Transmission Line produces
p
unidirectional Radiation Pattern.
ƒ Folded Dipole has similar Radiation Pattern as straight Dipole, but
with higher I/P Impedance & greater Bandwidth.

March 2006 SC 37
 Antennas and Propagation
p g

Antenna Basics
ƒ There is no real gain; Directive Gain compared to that in an omni directional
antenna.
ƒ Major/main lobe: The radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation.
Antenna Pattern Specifications
• 20 db gain: in 0 0 direction; 100 times more
energy in 0o than an omni directional antenna.
• 0 db gain: in 120 0 direction; Same as omni
antenna at 120 0 direction.
0 th
20db • -10 db gain: in 180 direction; 1/10 energy in
-10db 0db 180 0 direction compared to omni.
• Front to Back ratio: 30 db.
db

March 2006 SC 38
 A t
Antennas and
dPPropagation
ti
Antenna Specifications
p
ƒ Half-power beam width: In a radiation pattern, the angle
between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-
h lf the
half th maximum
i value.
l
ƒ VSWR: Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
ƒ Frequency bandwidth: Operating range of frequencies over
which the performance conforms to a specified standard.
ƒ Antenna Types & Examples:
ƒ Dipole, Omni directional Antenna for Central Station / Broadcast,
Directional Yagi Antenna for Remote Station / TV Receiver, GSM Sectoral
Antenna at BTS Site,, Parabolic Reflector at Microwave Tower,, DTH Dish
Antenna, Loop, Horn, Helical Antennas etc.
March 2006 SC 39
 Antennas and Propagation
p g

RF Propagation Modes
MF: Ground / Surface Wave
HF: Sky Wave; Frequencies below Critical frequency / MUF
reflected by Ionospheric layers (D,E,F)
VHF / UHF : Direct Wave ( Line Of Sight - LOS) / Ground
Reflected Wave / Scattered Wave
Microwave: LOS / Repeater / Troposcatter / Satcom
Infra Red: Fiber Optics / Free Space Optics (FSO)

March 2006 SC 40
 RF Propagation

Wireless Transmission / Reception

Wireless
Channel
Pass (RF / MW) Pass
band band

Base Band Radio Modem Radio Modem Base Band

(Mux/ (TRX) (TRX) (Mux/
Demux)) Demux))

C i
Carrier C i
Carrier

March 2006 SC 41
 RF Propagation
P ti

RF Communication Link Analysis / Free Space Path Loss (LOS)

GT GR P
Received Power =
((4 π r/λ ) 2
where
„ GT is transmit antenna gain in direction of receiver
„ GR isi received
i d antenna
t gain
i in
i direction
di ti off transmitter
t itt
„ P is transmit power
„ r is distance between transmit and received antenna
„ λ is wavelength of communication

ƒ Received Signal Level = TX Power + Net Gains – Net Losses

March 2006 SC 42
 RF Propagation
Link Power Budget
Tx power = 2 W (33 dbm) at 2 GHz ; Tx and Rx antenna gain = 10 db
c 3 × 10 8 m/sec ⎛ 4π ⎞
2
⎡ 4 × 3.1415 ⎤
2
λ= = = 0.15m ⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥⎦ = 7017
f 2 × 10 Hz
9
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎣ 0.15
ƒ Power Received at 1m from Transmit Antenna
= 33 dbm
db + 10 db + 10db - 38db = 15 dbm
db
Tx Tx antenna Rx antenna ⎛ 4π ⎞
2

power gain gain ⎜ ⎟ factor

⎝ λ ⎠
ƒ Power at 10 km from
f Tx = -65
6 dbm; Power at 40 km ffrom Tx = -77 dbm.
ƒ Free Space Path Loss (LOS) = Effective Tx Power – Rx Power = 130 db.
ƒ Free Space Path Loss & Fading (Signal fluctuations at Receiver) due to
Multipath Propagation considered for channel modeling.
modeling
ƒ Fade Margin = RX Level – Threshold Level (Rx Sensitivity)
March 2006 SC 43
SIGNALLING, SWITCHING & TRANSMISSION

March 2006 SC 44
 Signalling, Switching & Transmission

Key Processes in a Telecom Network

ƒ Signalling: Required for establishing, monitoring &
releasing a call.
ƒ Switching (Circuit Switching): Subscriber Lines
switched to dedicated circuits (Trunks)
(Trunks).
ƒ Transmission / Reception over Media
¾ Modulation / Demodulation (Analog / Digital)
¾ Multiplexing / Demultiplexing (FDM/ TDM)
¾ Media Conversion (RF / Optical)

March 2006 SC 45
 Signalling

Signalling
Si lli is
i usedd to convey Control
C t l and d Add
Addressing
i
messages between the Subscriber & Exchange as well
as between the Exchanges.
Signalling Types
„ Subscriber Signalling:
g g Signalling
g g from subscriber
to exchange
„ Control Signalling / Addressing Signalling
„ Trunk Signalling: Signalling
i lli between
b exchanges
h
„ Channel Associated Signalling: Line / Register
Signalling
„ Common Channel Signalling (SS7)
March 2006 SC 46
 Signalling
SIGNALLING

Subscriber
S b ib - Exchange
E h IInter
t Exchange
E h
Signalling Signalling

Control Addressing Channel Common

(DT, RT, BT) (DTMF) Associated Channel
Signalling
g g Signalling
(CAS) (CCS)
• SS7

Line Signalling Register Signalling

•R2 • MF

March 2006 SC 47
 Subscriber Signalling
g g

Exchange
A Hook Off B

Dialling Tone
425 Hz

B Number

Ring Back Tone Ringing Signal

B Answer

Conversation

H kO
Hook On
Hook On

March 2006 SC 48
 P l di
Pulse dialling
lli
Address signalling (Decadic)
„ Digits sent as interruption of DC loop
„ 10 interruptions / sec at the ratio of 1:2 make / break
„ Interdigital pause of 200 ms

0.33 T 0.67 T
Make Break Interdigital gap

for Digit 3 digit 2

March 2006 SC 49
 DTMF Signalling

DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) uses in

in-band
band Signalling.
Signalling
Voice band (0.3 - 3.4 kHz) is used.
Combination of two frequencies: 1209 1336 1477 1633 (Hz)
697 1 2 3 A
40-50 msec - ON 770 4 5 6 B
40 msec - OFF 852 7 8 9 C
941 * 0 # D
DTMF is
i highly
hi hl reliable
li bl and
d ffastt
Speech will rarely produce two frequencies with similar power
DTMF can be employed during conversation - IVRS

March 2006 SC 50
 Signalling Between Exchanges

Exchange Exchange
A Seizure B

Seizure Ack

BN
Number
b Add
Address

Answer

Conversation

Clear Back

Clear Forward

March 2006 SC 51
 Signalling Between Exchanges

Trunks interconnect exchanges & Trunk signalling is carried over

these trunks
Subscriber lines are almost universal while trunks are of many
y types
yp
Subscriber signalling involves only one link at each end
Exchange signalling invariably involves multiple links; setting up a call
i
involves
l many exchanges
h serially
i ll
Link by Link Signalling: Call set up is done by a step by step
method
Compatibility between exchanges from different suppliers & trunk types
critical
complex nature of signalling between exchanges

March 2006 SC 52
 Channel Associated Signalling

Channel

CAS: In band & Out of Band

March 2006 SC 53
 Common Channel Signalling

SS7 Network Components

p

March 2006 SC 54
 Common Channel Signalling

SS7 Network

SCP SCP

SCP STP STP SCP

A Link
B Link

S A Link
S STP STP
P
B Link

S S
S S
P P
S
S
P

March 2006 SC 55
 Outdoor Line connections

Overhead
telephone
Drop
p lines
wire Pillars
Distribution
cable
Subscriber
S b ib
premises
Switch
Primary Secondary
S d
cable cable

Cable Cabinets
chamber
March 2006 SC 56
 Switching

Switch Technology
ƒ Evolution:
ƒ Manual
M l
ƒ Step by Step Electromechanical (Strowger)
ƒ Crossbar
ƒ Electronic Exchanges
ƒStored Program Control (SPC) Digital Exchanges

March 2006 SC 57
 Switching

Switching Systems

Manual Automatic

Electromechanical Stored program control

Strowger Crossbar Space division Time division

March 2006 SC 58
 Strowger switching system

The components are

„ Relays
„ Uniselectors
„ Two motion selectors - Group and Final selectors
The principle of operation
„ operated by subscriber’s dial pulses
„ follows decimal system
„ connection is made at each stage for the caller
„ the last two digits select the called subscriber number
and gives the connection

March 2006 SC 59
 Strowger switching system

Line
Line
relays relays
1stt stage
GS
Final 0
selector
l t 9
0 .
9 . 2nd stage
. GS
. 1 0
9
1 .
.

March 2006 SC 1 60
 C b switching
Crossbar it hi system
t
Works on the principle of XY coordinate matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
B
C
D
E
F

March 2006 SC 61
 SPC Digital Exchange
Space & Time Switching

Memory Switch Memory

Time Slot ‘i’

‘p’ Line

Time Slot ‘j’

‘q’ Line

Computer

March 2006 SC 62
 SPC Digital Exchange

ƒ Switching & Subscriber services controlled by

Computers with special software.
ƒ Time Slot Switching using Memory; Memory stores
input PCM samples and reads them out at different
time slots of different streams.
streams
ƒ Switch matrix puts PCM word occurring in slot ‘i’ of
anyy input
p stream ‘p’
p into slot ‘j’
j of any
y output
p
stream ‘q’.

March 2006 SC 63
 Numbering plan

ƒ International plan: Country code + National number Max = 12

1-3 digits 9-11 digits as per ITU

• Country code : World divided into 9 zones

N. America : 1xx, Africa : 2xx
S. America : 5xx, S. Asia : 9xx etc.
e.g. India : 91, Srilanka : 941
• Dialling Procedure:

⇒ 0 prefix
fi for
f national
i l calls,
ll 00 for
f international
i i l calls
ll
first 0 makes LE route call to TAX, second 0 goes to TAX which routes
calls to International Gateway Exchange
ƒ National number: Access code + Exchange code + Line number

March 2006 SC 64
 Transmission in Telephone Network

Kolkata

Mumbai
New Delhi

T
Transmission
i i link
li k
Transmission network
Trunk automatic exchange Bangalore Chennai
T d
Tandem exchange
h
Local exchange
March 2006 SC 65
 Typical Microwave Transmission Link

Repeater station
Terminal station
A Terminal station
B
Terminal station Terminal station
A B

To Central office Central office

Repeater To
subscribers ( Telephone ( Telephone
station subscribers
exchange ) exchange )

March 2006 SC 66
 Regenerative Repeater

RF

RF
BB IF UP
IF
BB Pulse Modulator converter
Down Demodulator restoration
converter

March 2006 SC 67
 Transmission

Transmission / Reception
ƒ Modulation
„ Technique
q for super-imposing
p p g voice / data / video
message signals on a carrier signal for long distance
communication.
„ Analog / Digital
„ Conversion of Signal forms.
„ Demodulation
ƒ Reverse Process to recover the original signal at the
receiving end.
Modem: Modulator – Demodulator
March 2006 SC 68
 T
Transmission
i i

Modem Types: Line Modem & Radio Modem

ƒ Line Modem Types: Dial-Up Modem, DSL Modem, Cable Modem etc.
Dial Up Modem
Dial-Up Internet

Dial-up
Di l TP PSTN TP Dial-up
Modem Modem
Copper Copper

DCE DCE DTE

DTE
ƒ DTE: Data Terminal Equipment; DCE: Data Communication Equipment
ƒ DCE Standards: ITU ‘V’V Series Standards (Example: V.34,
V 34 V.90
V 90 etc) cover
Type of Modulation, Data rate etc.
March 2006 SC 69
 Modulation

Modulation
Message signal (Baseband signal) is low frequency signal.
Difficult to transmit low frequency signal over long distances.
„ Antenna required is too large, since antenna dimensions are
proportional
ti l tot ¼ wavelength.
l th
„ For 1 KHz, Wavelength = 300 KMs;
¼ Wavelength = 75 KMs
KMs.
Modulation enables frequency shifting of baseband signals to
high carrier frequencies.

March 2006 SC 70
 Modulation

T
Types off Modulation
M d l ti (Analog
(A l & Digital)
Di it l)
For achieving Modulation, the Amplitude or Frequency or
Ph
Phase off the
th carrier
i signal
i l is
i varied
i d proportional
ti l tot the
th message
signal, which can be Analog or Digital.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Vary the amplitude of the Carrier Signal in proportion to the
message signal

March 2006 SC 71
 Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Message Signal, em = Em Sin ωmt
Carrier Signal,
g ec = Ec Sin ωct
AM Signal, eam = (Ec + Em Sin ωmt) Sin ωct
Double Sideband AM (DSB-AM)
ƒ e
Carrier amplitude, Ec is proportional to m.
AM signal envelope is the message signal itself + dc
((which can be filtered out).
)
ƒ AM signal in frequency domain has two Sidebands
(USB & LSB).
ƒ Modulation Index = Em / Ec.
Application: Radio Broadcast.
ƒ AM signal is affected by noise & fading.
March 2006 SC 72
 Modulation

EC
Amplitude Modulation LSB USB

DSB – AM:
„ Typical and Commonly used. fc - f m fc fc+f m
„ Bandwidth = 2* f m, where message bandwidth = f m
„ U
Upper sideband
id b d (USB) & Lower
L sideband
id b d (LSB) duplicate
d li t information.
i f ti
Single Side Band AM (SSB-AM):
„ Balanced Modulator suppresses the carrier; Filter removes one side
band.
„ SSB Bandwidth = f m
„ Requires pilot transmission; coherent detection.
„ Application: FDM; AM Carrier Communication.

March 2006 SC 73
 Modulation

F
Frequency Modulation
M d l ti (FM)
Vary the frequency of carrier signal proportional to message signal.
FM Signal,
g efm = Ec Sin (ωc + Em Sin ωmt)t has infinite sidebands.
Transmission BW ~ 2 (fd+fm), where fd is frequency deviation & fm is the
message frequency; Modulation Index = m = fd / fm.
y for wideband FM,, ‘m’ could be 5 ⇒ BW = 12* fm.
Typically
yp
„ Much higher BW compared to AM (more sidebands than AM).
Demodulation by differentiating received signal (Discrimination detection) or
Coherent detection (using Phase Lock Loop).
Application: FM Radio;TV Sound Broadcast (Picture on AM vestigial sideband
& Sound on FM); FM Carrier Communication of FDM Baseband.
Phase Modulation (PM):
Vary the phase of carrier signal proportional to message signal; similar to FM.
March 2006 SC 74
 Di it l M
Digital d l ti
Modulation

Modulation
Mod lation of carrier signal by
b digital bit stream.
stream
„ Amplitude or Frequency or Phase of the carrier signal is
varied by the binary bits “1”and “0”.
„ Designated respectively as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) or Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
„ Multilevel (M-ary)
y) Modulation: Binary y bits ggrouped
p into
multilevel symbols.
Choice of Digital Modulation Scheme
„ To provide
T id minimum
i i Bandwidth
B d idth ( hihigh
hSSpectral
t l Effi
Efficiency),
i ) llow BER
BER,
good performance in Multipath / Fading conditions, Pulse Shaping, Less
Complexity and Cost effectiveness.
PSK & m-ary PSK popular
l due
d to severall advantages.
d
March 2006 SC 75
 Digital Modulation

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Or On-Off Keying

Baseband Data

1 0 0 1

Carrier Signal

Modulated Carrier
signal

ƒ Affected by noise & fading.

March 2006 SC 76
 Di it l M
Digital Modulation
d l ti
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Baseband Data

1 0 0 1
Carrier Signal (fc )

BFSK Modulated signal

f1 f0 f0 f1
where f0 = A cos(ωc- Δω)t & f1 = A cos(ωc+ Δω)t; fd = 22*Δf
Δf
ƒ M-ary FSK scheme employs multiple frequencies as different states.
March 2006 SC 77
 Di it l M
Digital Modulation
d l ti
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
sin 2πfct
× ×
× ×
decision
boundaries
cos 2πfct
× × × ×

Four modulation symbols with 2 bits per symbol (00, 01, 11 & 10).
Can transmit twice as many bits per symbol : bandwidth efficient
Symbol Rate = Baud Rate = ½ Bit Rate
QPSK has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since 2 bits are
transmitted in a single symbol.
CDMA Mobile System uses QPSK.

March 2006 SC 78
 Digital
g Modulation

RRC = Root Raised Cosine Pulse shaping.

March 2006 SC 79
 Digital Modulation

QPSK

Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

• All Phase shifts limited to 90 degrees,

degrees by just introducing 1 bit delay in Q
channel only before modulation.
March 2006 SC 80
 Digital
g Modulation

Minimum Shift Keying

y g (MSK)
( )
ƒ MSK is a form of FSK with Modulation Index of 0.5, resulting
in minimum frequency separation.
ƒ Half cycle sinusoid pulse shaping results in smooth phase change.
change
Gaussian MSK (GMSK)
ƒ MSK modulation with Gaussian Pulse shaping.
shaping
ƒ GSM & DECT Mobile systems use GMSK.

March 2006 SC 81
 Digital Modulation

8 - PSK 16 - PSK

ƒ Symbol Spacing is reduced

ƒ Used
U d iin EDGE M
Mobile
bil System
S t resulting in low BER

March 2006 SC 82
 Di it l M
Digital Modulation
d l ti
16 QAM (16 - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
Constellation Diagram
Q Four Bits per Symbol
„ Separation one third of the same in
× × × × QPSK for same peak power, P
„ Four bits transmitted per symbol
× × × ×
and hence more bandwidth
I efficient.
× × × × „ Symbol Rate = Baud Rate = ¼ Bit
Decision boundary
for each symbol Rate.
× × × × „ Transmission BW = ½ QPSK BW.

March 2006 SC 83
 Digital Modulation

Pulse Modulation
„ Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
„ Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
„ Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
„ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
„ Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
„ Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM)
„ Delta Modulation (DM)
„ Ad ti Delta
Adaptive D lt Modulation
M d l ti (ADM)
March 2006 SC 84
 Digital Modulation

Pulse Code Modulation

Analog Band Limiting Quantization Digital
Sampling
Signal Filter (4 KHz) and Coding Signal
(64 Kbps)

– Analog to Digital Conversion

– Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Codecs in Electronic Exchanges.

March 2006 SC 85
 Digital Modulation

Pulse Code Modulation Steps

Sample band limited speech signal as per Nyquist theorem (@ twice the max.
signal
i l frequency
f off 4 KHz)
KH ) for
f proper reconstruction
t ti off original
i i l signal
i l att
receiver; Under sampling leads to aliasing and loss of information.
Nonlinear Quantization as per A-Law (European) or µ Law (North
American) Companding; Process introduces Quantization noise.
noise
Encode each sample by 8 bits (256 levels).
4 KHz Band limited speech
p signal
g sampled p @ 8000 samples
p perp second (every
( y
125 µsec) and encoded by 8 bits / sample

⇒ 64 Kbps per voice channel, designated as E0 signal (European) or

Digital Signal 0 (DS0-North
(DS0 North American) Standard.

March 2006 SC 86
 Multiplexing
p g

Multiplexing
Combining multiple signals of a multichannel system to share
the same communication medium.
medium
1 1
1, 2 ...n
2 2
Mux De-Mux
n n

De-Multiplexing
ƒ Reverse Process to recover the original signals at the
receiving end.

March 2006 SC 87
 Multiplexing
p g

Types of Multiplexing
ƒ Analog: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
− different message signals use different Carrier frequencies.

ƒ Digital: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

- different message signals use different Time slots.

March 2006 SC 88
 Multiplexing

Frequency
q y Division Multiplexing
p g ((FDM))
Simultaneous
transmission of 3
signals in 1 channel D
Signal
g E Signal
g
A M M A
U U
L L
T T
Signal I I Signal
P B
B P
L L
E E
X X
Signal E Analog Baseband E Signal
R
C f T
for Transmission
i i R C
Example:
ƒ One Voice channel = 4KHz (300 Hz to 3400 Hz)
ƒ Analog Base band for 12 channel Basic FDM Group = 60 to 108 KHz
(Using SSB-AM); 60 / 300 Channels Super Groups.
March 2006 SC 89
 Analog Radio Link

Voice IF RF RF
Frequency BB Frequency Mixer stage
Data Division Modulator
Video Multiplexer
Local
Oscillator

RF RF
stage

Frequency
q y Voice
BB
IF Frequency
F Division D t
Data
Mixer Demodulator Video
Demultiplexer

Local
Oscillator
March 2006 SC 90
 Di it l M
Digital Multiplexing
lti l i
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Aggregate (interleaved)
Signal A signal over one Signal A
M communications link D
U E
L M
T U
Signal B I L Signal B
P T
L I
E P
X Digital Baseband L
Signal C E for Transmission E Signal C
R X
E
R

ƒ 4 KHz Band limited Voice Signal digitized to 64 Kbps data (E 0 Signal) by

Pulse Code Modulation.
ƒ In PCM Primary Mux,
Mux 30 digitized voice channel samples are byte
interleaved to form E 1 Frame with a Digital Baseband of 2048 Kbps.
March 2006 SC 91
 Digital Multiplexing

PCM Primaryy Mux or E1 Mux ((G703))

ƒ 30 digitized Voice channel samples are interleaved to form the E 1 Frame
with Digital Baseband of 2.048 Mbps (2 Mbps approx); Frame contains 32
Time Slots including Data
Data, Alignment & Signalling information
information.
125 μ sec / 256 bits

Sl
Slot 0 1 2 • • • • • 31

⇒ 256 bits in a frame divided in 32 slots of 8 bits each.

Bit rate = 256 × 8000 = 32 × 64,000 = 2.048 Mbps

ƒ E1 (European I Order) Mux Digital Baseband = 2.048 Mbps.

March 2006 SC 92
 Digital Multiplexing

E1 (30 Channel) Frame

Slot 0 is the Marker slot
„ Used
U d ffor Frame
F Ali
Alignment.
Slots 1-15 and 17-31 contain the 30 channel samples of 64 Kbps
each.
„ Each channel slot contains a PCM Word of 64 Kbps data.

Slot 16 is meant for Signalling information of 2 Channels per

frame.
Signalling for other channels accommodated in the Multiframe
(16 Frames).
March 2006 SC 93
 Digital Multiplexing

March 2006 SC 94
 Digital Multiplexing

March 2006 SC 95
 Digital Multiplexing

ƒ Higher
Hi h O Order
d M Multiplexing
l i l i forms
f Plesiochronous
Pl i h Digital
Di i l Hierarchy
Hi h (PDH).
(PDH)
European Second Order PDH MUX (E 2 MUX)

E1 >
E1 > E2 4 x 2.048 +++ (overheads)
E1 > MUX ≈ 8.448 Mbps
E1 >
22.048
048 Mb
Mbps = E 2 Base band
each
Four E1 streams bit-multiplexed to form E2 Baseband (second order PDH),
which caters for 120 voice channels
channels.
Tx bit rate higher than 4 x 2.048 Mbps due to addition of Control, stuff and
marker bits.
Each input
p data stream has its own clock;; Each data stream undergoes
g bit-
stuffing to allow for its clock variation (Plesiochronous Operation).
March 2006 SC 96
 Digital Multiplexing

PDH - Third Order Mux (E 3 Mux)

Four second order E2 PDH bit-streams combine to form E3 (third
order PDH) bit-stream.
E3 = 4 E2 = 16 E1 Channels.
E 3 Baseband
B b d = 34.368
34 368 Mbps
Mb (C(Caters
t for
f 480 channels).
h l)
PDH - Fourth Order (E 4) Mux
Four input E3 (34 Mbps) streams combined to form
E4 Baseband = 140 Mbps (139.264 Mbps) output.
E4 = 4 E3 =16 E2 = 64 E1 Channels.

March 2006 SC 97
 Digital Multiplexing

T1 ((24 Channel)) Primaryy Mux

North American / Japanese I Order PDH.
T1 frame is constructed with 24 channel Time Slots (8 Bits each) plus 1
Frame alignment bit added to them.
them
Each Channel Time Slot occupies 64 kbps bandwidth.
Frame length of 125 m Sec contains 193 bits (24*8 + 1).
125 μ sec / 193 bits
Fr.
1 2 • • • • • 24 Slot
Bit
ƒ Signalling information is accommodated in the Channel Time slots of 6th,
12th frame etc in the Multiframe.
ƒ T 1 Baseband = (193 / 125) Mbps = 11.544
544 Mbps
ƒ T 2 = 4 * T 1; T 3 = 7 * T 2
March 2006 SC 98
 Digital Radio Link

Voice PSK or IF RF RF
Time BB Mixer stage
Data Division QAM
Vid
Video M lti l
Multiplexer Modulator
Local
Oscillator

RF RF
stage
Voice
BB
BB Time Division Data
IF PSK or QAM Regenerator Demultiplexer
Mixer Demodulator Video

Local
Oscillator
March 2006 SC 99
 Digital Multiplexing

PDH Limitations

Three Regional
g ((NA,, Europe
p & Japan)
p ) Hierarchies with
different formats, rates & interfaces existing; Interworking
became difficult.

Each Multiplexing section has to add overhead bits

for jjustification;; ((higher
g rate > more overhead))
„ Justification (bit stuffing) spreads data over the frame

March 2006 SC 100

 Digital Multiplexing

PDH Limitations
To Drop / Insert / Cross Connect lower level channels from ,
say,
y, 140 Mbps
p E4 Channel,, the composite
p stream must be
demultiplexed to its constituent streams step by step; The streams
must then be remultiplexed to E4 back ; Hence, PDH is not
flexible and also is expensive.
p
E4 E4 E4
E1s E1s

Step by Step Step by Step

demux / remux demux / remux

Lack of sufficient Network Management functions for

Performance monitoring etc.
March 2006 SC 101
 Digital
g Multiplexing
p g

Synchronous Transmission (SONET / SDH)

Overcomes limitations of PDH Network mentioned earlier
andd introduces
i t d many new features.
f t
All Equipments synchronized to the Network Clock.
ANSI defined Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
for use in US.
ITU standardized on Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) for worldwide usage.
SDH & SONET Traffic Interworking is compatible.

March 2006 SC 102

 Optical
p Networking
g

SDH
Defines G 707 / 708 / 709 standards for Bit Rates, Network
Node Interface & Structure respectively.
Basic Transmission Rate defined as 155.520 Mbps (155
Mbps) and refereed to as STM-1 ( Synchronous Transport
Module 1)
Module-1).
Higher Transmission rates STM-4 (622.080 Mbps), STM-16
(2488.320 Mbps), etc (STM-N) achieved by straightforward
“Byte Interleaving”.
SDH Mux structure defined such that STM-1signal can
accommodate lower PDH data rates (1.5
(1 5 Mbps to 140 Mbps).
Mbps)

March 2006 SC 103

 Optical Networking

SONET
Significant differences between SDH & SONET occur at the
sub STM 1 level.
sub-STM-1 level
First level of SONET hierarchy is referred to as Synchronous
p Signal-1
Transport g ((STS-1 for an electrical signal)
g )
Or
Optical Carrier-1 (OC-1 for an optical signal)
STS-1 / OC-1 corresponds to a bit rate of 51.84 Mbps.
STS-3 / OC-3 signal corresponds to STM-1 (155.52 Mbps).

March 2006 SC 104

 O ti l N
Optical t ki
Networking

Ad
Advantages
t /A
Applications
li ti off SDH
SDH offers higher Transmission rates, which suits
deployment of broadband Fiber Optic Networks.
Networks
Offers more efficient Add / Drop / Cross connect functions.
Incorporates powerful Network Management functions,
which are Software controllable.
„ Network Planning, Configuration Management, Fault
Management, Performance Management, Security
Management & Accounting Management functions.
„ Enables easy identification of link / node failures and
centralized maintenance.
maintenance

March 2006 SC 105

 O ti l N
Optical t ki
Networking

Advantages
Ad antages / Applications of SDH
Wide variety of Interfaces to accommodate PDH / SDH
tributaries as well as signals from other networks such as
ISDN, ATM, LAN / IP etc.
Offers several output Transmission rates and can be duplicated
for protection.
p
Performs Multiplexing and Line Terminating functions.
Allows dynamic allocation of bandwidth.
Vendor independent equipments could be integrated.
SDH is a simplified, reliable and global Network, capable of
y g large
carrying g messageg traffic such as Trunk & Backbone
networks.
March 2006 SC 106
 Optical Networking
9 STM-1 frame
o
STM-1 Frame v
e
r
9 h Payload
e
125 μsec frame a
d
„ 270 x 9 bytes x 64 Kbps = STM 1 270

Pointer
and stuff
byte
Payload floats in SDH frame (envelop).
Pointer byte points to start of payload.
„ can be dropped and inserted easily

March 2006 SC 107

 Optical Networking

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

„ WDM system enables single fiber to carry multiple high speed
data streams with carrier frequencies in the order of 200 THz
((1500 nm)) to 300 THz (1000
( nm).
)
„ By using Fused biconic tapered couplers, multiple
wavelength signals are combined on same fiber.
1 1
Tx Rx
W W
1 N

N
D ... D
N
Tx
T M M Rx

„ Due to fiber attenuation, periodic regeneration was done; New

generation Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) enable high
high-
speed, long distance repeater less transmission.
March 2006 SC 108
 Optical Networking

Wavelength Demultiplexing
Using an optical filter as illustrated in figure

March 2006 SC 109

 Optical Networking

CWDM – Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing

ƒ Number of Wavelengths:
g 4 / 8 / 16
ƒ Channel Spacing: > 200 GHz (corresponds to 1.6 nm over
the usable spectrum)
ƒ Applications: Cost effective Metro Access & Enterprise
networks.

March 2006 SC 110

 Optical Networking

DWDM – Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

As Laser and Optical Filter Technologies improved, more
signal
i l wavelengths
l th could ld be
b combined
bi d on a single
i l fiber.
fib
ITU has specified DWDM Band in the 1525 to 1565 nm range
with su
w suitable
beC Channel
e Sp
Spacing
c g.
Number of Wavelengths: 32 / 40 / 80 / 100
Channel Spacing:
p g 200 / 100 / 50 GHz ((corresponding
p g to 1.6 nm /
0.8 nm / 0.4 nm over the usable spectrum)
Applications: High Capacity long haul (multiple sections of 100
KMs) backbone networks etc.
etc

March 2006 SC 111