Professional Documents
Culture Documents
472477, 2011
Patient safety
irst do no harm is a central premise of medicine believed to originate from Hippocrates and is the opening statement in many articles relating to patient safety. It focuses the great challenge for current and future practitioners to minimize risk to our patients. Over the last two decades, it has been demonstrated that we do harm to our patients on a regular basis. Evidence has emerged from across the world, which demonstrates the level of harm that patients experience during their journeys through health care systems. Between 10 and 20% of all health care encounters result in harm to patients. A worldwide movement has emerged in response to these figures, which aims to improve safety and includes all involved in health care across primary and secondary care.
The GP curriculum and patient safety This article includes information relevant to the GP curriculum statement 3.2: Patient safety, reinforcing and adding to the original patient safety article written for InnovAiT by Baker (2008). The Foundation Curriculum 200709 included a specific section (1.3) on patient safety in its syllabus and competencies. In the 2010 Foundation Curriculum, patient safety is integrated throughout the syllabus and competencies. In the GP curriculum, patient safety is included as a specific curriculum statement, which identifies the learning outcomes related to patient safety in general practice. These are wide ranging, from competencies relating to individual practice to tools and techniquesthat are used at organizational level. Patient safety is a complex field with many areas included in the curriculum outcomes. The outcomes take a comprehensive overview of patient safety in general practice. This article gives an overview of the components of the curriculum.
O O
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
Structural factors that contribute to unsafe care Processes that contribute to unsafe care
Much of the research into patient safety arises from secondary care. Some of this is applicable to primary care and the evidence discussed in this article is presented in relation to the curriculum outcomes and identifies evidence originating from primary care and how evidence from secondary care might be applicable to general practice. This article will initially examine how patient safety is defined and measured and then it will examine patient safety from three perspectives: the patient, the professional and the system.
Box 1. Definitions This greater scrutiny of harm to patients has led to the emergence of the specialist field of patient safety. Much information has come from high-risk industries such as aviation and oil and expertize has now developed within health care. There is a great variety of research into the different aspects of patient safety. A 2008 publication from the World Alliance for Patient Safety outlined the variety of research already completed and areas for future development. It identified three main categories: O Outcomes of unsafe medical care Patient safetyfreedom from accidental harm to individuals receiving health care Patient safety incident (PSI)an episode when something goes wrong in health care resulting in potential or actual harm to patients Patient safety solutionany system design or intervention that has demonstrated the ability to prevent or mitigate patient harm stemming from the processes of health care Organizational resiliencethe positive side of safety, defined as the systems intrinsic resistance to its organizational risks
472
The Author 2011. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the RCGP. All rights reserved. For permissions please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com
InnovAiT
developed under academic review but the evidence for the validation of the tool has not yet been published.
Safety culture
There is a general consensus that the culture of anorganization will influence its approach to patient safety and its response to PSIs. Assessment tools have been developed to test the patient safety culture within an organization and can help practice development. The Manchester framework includes leadership, teamwork, accountability, understanding, communication, awareness of workload pressures and safety systems.
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
Incident reporting
Incident reporting is a system where when an error is identified, it is reported either centrally across organizations or within an individual organization. The National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) set up the National Reporting and Learning Service (NRLS). Rates of harm can then be calculated and types of PSI identified and categorized. If a specific problem is identified via this system, alerts can be issued which may be of relevance to primary care. These alerts include Rapid Response Reports, Patient Safety Alerts, and Safer Practice Notices. In the past, identification of incidents could be variable between practitioners and different organizations and traditionally incident reporting resulted in lower rates of incidents being reported. This was due to a number of factors, including poor recognition of incidents, fear of consequences and the nature of the process itself. From April 2010, the reporting of all serious PSIs became mandatory. This currently is via the NRLS reporting to the Care Quality Commission. This will change when the NPSA is abolished but it likely that the processes will be preserved but taken over by other organizations. The Threats to Australian Patient Safety study (TAPS) developed and tested a three level taxonomy to describe patient safety events in primary care. This describes in increasing detail the types of event starting with distinguishing between processes and practitioners knowledge and skills.
473
A third area that is being researched is that of patient error. Much focus is on practitioner and systems error but patients are at the centre of all that we do and understanding this dynamic is essential in primary care. Buetow et al. (2010) has suggested a process of reducing patient error from qualitative data, which is shown in Box 2.
is clinical governance. Clinical governance is described by Scally and Donaldson (1998) as A framework through which National Health Service (NHS) organizations are accountable for continually improving the quality of their services and safeguarding high standards of care by creating an environment in which excellence in clinical care will flourish.
Box 2. Process of reducing patient error, Buetow et al. (2010) G row relationships E nable patients and professionals to recognize and manage patient error be Responsive to their shared capacity for change M otivate them to act together for patient safety The National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) runs the please ask campaign which encourages patients to actively participate in making the care they receive safer. The role of communication in PSIs is highlighted repeatedly. Medical malpractice insurers outside the UK often request training in communication skills before being insuring practitioners. In the UK, these insurers support training in communication skills. The Mayo Clinic has developed a conceptual framework of how patients and health care workers interact to reduce risk. Communication and feedback are central to moderating the risks related to health care worker or patient-related factors.
Error
Error is central to patient safety. The field of error has emerged from different disciplines from both inside and outside of health care. Psychologists from behavioural sciences and high-risk industries have been involved in shaping current understanding. Reason (2000) has described the Swiss cheese model of error in systems. In this section, errors in individual practice are explored. A framework outlining the complexity of behaviour within individual practice has been described by Reason. It describes skill-based, rule-based and cognitive behaviours. Errors can occur in each of these behaviours. One of the main authors who have explored cognitive errors in clinical practice is Croskerry (2003) who has written extensively on the subject. He has written about how we reach diagnoses and make decisions about management in clinical practice and how errors can occur from these processes. He identifies two ways of thinking: using intuitive rules of thumb also called heuristics and metacognition, which is an analytical process different to heuristics. The process of metacognition, incorporating analytical thinking, is described as reducing the risk of cognitive errors. Over 30 cognitive errors are described which can occur in decision making. Understanding these and how cognitive forcing strategies can reduce the risk of error are vital for practitioners who make rapid decisions in settings, such as general practice.
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
474
InnovAiT
to illustrate the potential harm that can occur from a series of failures within a system. Therefore, reporting and learning from PSIs allows both individuals and systems to learn and prevent further occurrences of error. All the tools that measure harm and identify how harm occurs such as SEA can allow practices to learn about patient safety within the practice system. The interface between primary and secondary care is an important aspect of systems, which is important to understand in general practice. Harm can often occur to patients within systems or at points of transfer between systems. Therefore, any activity that helps team members to understand the system they work and look after patients in, alongside the potential risks in these systems, can promote patient safety. guideline 47 for feverish illness in children has a risk matrix within it which works in the same way. In primary care, there are a range of risk matrices, which are used to asses risk for patients but also at organizational level and individual level. At individual level, risk assessments can be completed via keeping a log of a surgery and identifying possible PSIs and how these could be avoided in future.
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
Transitions of care
One example of the role of communication at transitions of care is that of medicines reconciliation. This refers to the process of ensuring that on admission into or discharge from hospital, patients medications are accurate and validated at the primary/secondary care interface. The intention is to reduce medication error at the points of transfer across the patient journey. Delate et al. (2008) has shown that this process can result in a significant reduction in mortality. This shows the role of the multidisciplinary team in patient safety across a health care system. Handover is a key aspect of transitions of care. This is widely accepted across all health care disciplines. There is a variety of reported work in this area, which reflects practitioners and patients views on communication and handover and describes the processes involved. The negative impact of poor communication during handover is frequently identified in PSIs.
Risk matrices
Risk matrices are used across medicine in both primary and secondary care. In the acute sector, many will have had experience of early warning scores, which are examples of using a risk matrix. These have been shown to improve the recognition of the acutely unwell patient in secondary care and to improve patient outcomes. The NICE (2007) clinical
475
Promote reporting
Promoting reporting encourages a change in patient safety culture and can enable learning in your practice and more widely. This could involve cascading the learning from SEA to your local primary care organizations and reporting to the National Reporting and Learning Service (NRLS). Recording events and learning and including them in a practice report show a commitment to reporting and learning about patient safety.
Conclusions
The curriculum outcomes set out all the elements required to take a comprehensive approach to patient safety. The outcomes fit the seven steps to patient safety and this is an ideal approach to patient safety in general practice.
Key points
O O O
O O O
Patients are at risk in health care Measuring patient safety will help you understand the risks for patients in your practice Communicating with patients and members of the health care team is a vital element in the prevention and management of PSIs Understanding error and risk management are vital Use SEA to learn from PSIs Follow the seven steps to patient safety in general practice
Australian Medical Association. Clinical handover guidesafe handover: safe patients. Accessed via ama.com.au/node/4604 [date last accessed 12.01.2011] Baker, M. Patient safety in general practice. InnovAiT (2008) 1 (6): p. 4317 Buetow, S., Kiata, L., Liew, T., Kenealy, T., Dovey, S., Elwyn, G. Approaches to reducing the most important patient errors in primary health-care: patient and professional perspectives. Health and Social Care in the Community (2010) 18 (3): p. 296303 Croskerry, P. Cognitive forcing strategies in clinical decisionmaking. Annals of Emergency Medicine (2003) 41: p. 111021 Croskerry, P. The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimise them. Academic Medicine (2003) 78 (8): p. 77580 Delate, T., Chester, E.A., Stubbings, T.W., Barnes, C.A. Clinical outcomes of a home-based medication reconciliation program after discharge from a skilled nursing facility. Pharmacotherapy (2008) 28 (4): p. 44452 Department of Health. Safety first (2006) Accessed via www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_ digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset /dh_064159.pdf [date last accessed 18.01.2011] Kirk, S., Parker, D., Claridge, T., Esmail, A., Marshall, M. Patient safety culture in primary care: developing a theoretical framework for practical use. Quality and Safety in Health Care (2007) 16: p. 31320 Kohn, L.T. Corrigan, J.M., Donaldson, M.S. To err is human: building a safer health system (2000) The National Academies Press ISBN: 0-309-06837-1 Leape, L.L. Error in medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association (1994) 272 (23): p. 18517 Leape, L.L., Brennan, T.A., Laird, N.M. et al. The nature of adverse events in hospitalised patients: results from the Harvard Medical Practice Study. II. The New England Journal of Medicine (1991) 324: p. 37784 Longtin, Y., Sax, H., Leape, L., Sheridan, S., Donaldson, L., Pittet, D. Patient participation: current knowledge and applicability to patient safety. Mayo Clinic Proceedings (2010) 85 (1): p. 5362 Makeham, M.A.B., Stromer, S., Bridges-Webb, C. et al. Patient safety events reported in general practice: a taxonomy. Quality and Safety in Health Care (2008) 17: p. 537 McCulloch, P., Mishra, A., Handa, A., Date, T., Hirst, G., Catchpole, K. The effects of aviation style nontechnical skills training on technical performance and outcome in the operating theatre. Quality and Safety in Health Care (2009) 18: p. 10915
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
476
InnovAiT
Medical Protection Society. GP registrar. Communication skills (2009) Accessed via www.medicalprotection.org /adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=23868, 19047,127, 9698,22,11, Documents&MediaID=6691 &Filename=GPRaut09+WEB.pdf&l=English.pdf [date last accessed 18.01.2011] Morey, J.C., Simon, R., Jay, G.D. et al. Error reduction and performance improvement in the emergency department through formal teamwork training: evaluation results of the MedTeams project. Health Services Research (2002) 37 (6): p. 155381 National Patient Safety Agency. NRLS. Significant event audit. Guidance for primary care teams (2008) Accessed via www.nrls.npsa.nhs.uk/resources/?entryid45 =61500 [date last accessed 18.01.2011] National Patient Safety Agency. Being open (2009a) NPSA/2009/PSA003. Accessed via www.nrls.npsa.nhs .uk/resources/?entryid45=65077 [date last accessed 18.01.2011] National Patient Safety Agency. NRLS. Seven steps to patient safety in general practice (2009b) Accessed via www.nrls.npsa.nhs.uk/resources/collections/sevensteps-to-patient-safety/?entryid45=61598 [date last accessed 18.01.2011] National Patient Safety Agency. Please ask. Accessed via www.npsa.nhs.uk/pleaseask/ [date last accessed 18.01.2011] NHS Institute for Innovation and Improvement Primary care trigger tool. Accessed via www.institute.nhs.uk /safer_care/primary_care_2/introductiontoprimary caretriggertool.html [date last accessed 18.01.2011] NICE. Feverish illness in children. Clinical guideline 47 (2007) Accessed via guidance.nice.org.uk/nicemedia /live/11010/30523/30523.pdf [date last accessed 18.01.2011] RCGP Curriculum statement 3.2: Patient safety. Accessed via www.rcgp-curriculum.org.uk/pdf/curr_ 3_2_Patient_safety.pdf [date last accessed 30.09.2010]
Reason, J. Human error: models and management. British Medical Journal (2000) 320: p. 76870 Reason, J. The human contribution: unsafe acts, accidents and heroic recoveries (2008) Ashgate Publishing Limited ISBN: 978-0-7546-7402-3 Sandars, J., Esmail, A. The frequency and nature of medical error in primary care: understanding the diversity across studies. Family Practice (2003) 20: 317: p. 2316 Scally, G., Donaldson, L. Clinical governance and the drive for quality improvement in the new NHS in England. British Medical Journal (1998) 317: p. 6165 The Foundation Programme. Curriculum statement. Accessed via www.foundationprogramme.nhs.uk/pages /home/key-documents#curriculum [date last accessed 18.01.2011] Vincent, C., Neale, G., Woloshynowych, M. Adverse events in British hospitals: preliminary retrospective record review. British Medical Journal (2001) 322: p. 5179 Vincent, C.A., Coulter, A. Patient safety: what about the patient? Quality and Safety in Health Care (2002) 11: p. 7680 Vincent, C.A., Pincus, T., Scurr, J.H. Patients experience of surgical accidents. Quality and Safety in Health Care (1993) 2: p. 7782 Vira, T., Colquhoun, M., Etchells, E. Reconcilable differences: correcting medication errors at hospital admission and discharge. Quality and Safety in Health Care (2006) 15: p. 1226 Wilson, R.M., Runciman, W.B., Gibberd, R.W., Harrison, B.T., Newby, L., Hamilton, J.D. The quality in Australian health care study. The Medical Journal of Australia (1995) 163: p. 45871 World Alliance for Patient Safety. Summary of the evidence on patient safety: Implications for Research (2008) World Health Organisation. Accessed via whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241596541_ eng.pdf [date last accessed 18.01.2011]
Downloaded from http://rcgp-innovait.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serial AcquisitionsEdith Cowan University, Library - Level 2 on April 27, 2012
Dr Lucy Ambrose General Practitioner and Director of Clinical, Communication and Information Management Skills, Keele University E-mail: l.j.ambrose@hfac.keele.ac.uk
477