IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, V L 43, NO. O.

1, JANUARY 1995

21

A Generalized Diffraction Synthesis Technique for High Performance Reflector Antennas

Dah-Weih Dum, Member, IEEE, and Y h a Rahmat-Samii, Fellow, IEEE ay
Abstract-Stringent requirements on reflector antenna performances in modern apprications such as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) communications,radar systems, and radio astronomy have demanded the development of sophisticated synthesis techniques. Presented in this paper is a generalized diffraction synthesis techniqw for single- and dual-reflector antennas fed by either a single feed or an array feecl. High versatility and accuracy are achieved by combining optimization procedures and diffraction analysis such as physical optics (PO) and physical theory o f diffraction (PTD). With this technique, one may simultaneously shape the refleetor surfaces and adjust the positions, orientations, and excitations of an arbitrarily configured array feed to produce the specified radiation characteristics such as high directivity, contoured patterns, and low sidelobe levels, etc. The shaped reflectorsare representedby a set of orthogonal global expansion tunetions (the Jaeobi-Fourier expansion), and are characterized by smooth surfaces, well-defined (superquadric) circumferences, and Eootirmous surface derivatives. The sample applications of contoured beam antenna designs and reflector surface distortion compensation are given to illustrate the effectiveness of this dmaction synthesis technique.

nas, the shaping problem can be described by a set of partial differential equations [4]. Another formulation of GO-shaping is based on the apparatus of complex coordinates 151, 161. Other variations of these GO-shaping procedures can also be found in the literature [7]-[ll]. A major limitation intrinsic to the GO-based techniques is that diffraction effects are not incorporated in the process of reflector shaping. The ignored diffraction effects include the diffraction from the surface and the edge of the reflectors, the near-field effect between the feed and the reflector, and that between the main and the subreflector. The radiation patterns of a GO-shaped reflector antenna, when evaluated by diffraction analysis techniques, may at times deviate from the desired pattern to the extent that stringent specifications such as very low sidelobe levels are violated. Due to this deficiency, GOshaping techniques are primarily applicable to large antenna systems where ray-tracing is an acceptabIe approximation. For small antenna systems, more accurate synthesis procedures must be used. Another difficulty associated with the GOI. INTRODUCTION shaping techniques is that array and aperture-type feeds (such HE challenging requirements on the radiation perfor- as horns) may not be easily incorporated in the synthesis mance and transmission capability of reflector antennas procedure. Although modifications of the GO-shaping methods for modem apjdications such as direct broadcast satellite have been proposed to overcome this difficulty [ 121, [131, they (DBS) communications, radar systems, and radio astronomy are mainly used as the initial designs for subsequent accurate have called upon the development of sophisticated antenna diffraction synthesis. It is noticed that in GO algorithms one typically synthesizes synthesis techniques. A synthesis technique is deemed useful the aperture field, from which the far-field patterns are inferred. if it can be used to design these high performance antennas in an effective manner. Furthermore, the many choices of antenna This is sometimes referred to as the indirect approach, components and configurations also suggest that a technique in contrast to methods in which the far-field radiations are must be general and flexible enough that the repeated efforts of synthesized directly. The aperture field and the radiated fardeveloping specialized tools can be minimized. In this paper, field can be related by methods such as clased-form formulas a generalized diffraction synthesis technique for single- and in pencil beam designs [14], and optimization algorithms dual-reflector antennas fed by either a single feed or an array in contoured beam designs [15], [16]. A shaped reflector resulted from a GO algorithm is typically characterized by feed is presented. a set of discrete points, which may render a surface that has discontinuities and irregular boundary 1151. The interpolation A. Geometrical Optics Shaping procedure that is required before fabrication may further Many techniques have been devised to solve the problem introduce errors that degrade the radiation pattems. of synthesizing reflector antenna systems. Most of these techniques are based on the principles of geometrical optics (GO). B. Previous DiJcSraction Shaping GO-shaping of circularly symmetric dual-reflector antennas To overcome the limitations of GO shaping, several methwas formulated in terms of simultaneous nonlinear ordinary ods have been attempted. In an early work [17], reflector differential equations [ 13- 131. For offset dual-reflector antenshaping by diffraction synthesis was carried out using the Manuscript received January 6, 1993; revised August 19, 1994. Work was method of spherical wave expansion (SWE). The more general supported in part by Contract SS-274389-K-A03 with Space Systems/Loral. framework of reflector surface expansion and coefficients ih The authors are wt the Department of Electrical Engineering, University optimization was first effectively applied to synthesizing the of California. Los Angeles. CA 90024-1594 USA. IEEE Log Number&O7702. aperture field using a GO method [18], and later employed

0018-926X/95$04.00 0 1995 IEEE

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28

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 43, NO. 1, JANUARY 1995

PENCILBEAMG

CONTOURED BEAnrs

COSECANTSQUARED

m...
fn ),

Fig. I. An overview of the eenerafized diffraction svnthesis techniaue. The unknown coefficients (Cam, D, they antenna system, are to be determined using optimization algOrithms.

wbich characterize

in methods that incorporate both GO algorithm and physical optics (Po)analysis such as [19] and [20] (the INDIRECT method). This concept was further extended to methods that carry out full PO synthesis (shaping) of reflector antennas with circular aperture and single feed, such as the single-reflector contoured beam antennas in [20] (the DIRECT method), and the dual-reflector pencil-beam antennas in [19], [21]. The expansion functions used in these works, such as the Fourier series and polynomials, are usually heuristically chosen. In the PO diffraction synthesis (shaping) method introduced in [22], a set of orthogonal global expansion functions was applied effectively to represent reflectors with circular apertures. This orthogonal representation will be used and generalized in the diffraction synthesis technique presented in this paper.

[23]. The shaped reflectors are characterized by having smooth surfaces, well-defined circumferences, and continuous surface derivaEives. Also unique in our method is that the PO/Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD) technique is used to analyze the antennas. The PTD fringe field [24], [25] is particularly useful when PO analysis is not sufficiently accurate for very stringent requirements on, for example, sidelobe levels at far-angular regions and cross-polarization control. The edge diffraction and near-field effects are included automatically in the course of diffraction synthesis. The generalized diffraction synthesis technique can be applied to produce various radiation patterns such as pencil beams and contoured beams, and t improve the radiation o characteristics of an existing canonical or distorted system. It is believed that the scope of the application of this technique C. The Generalized Difiaction Synthesis embraces the majority of commonly used reflector antenna The primary goal of this paper is to develop a generalized configurations. The formulation and implementation of the diffraction synthesis technique that can be used to synthesize generalized diffraction synthesis technique will be described single- and dual-reflector antennas with a single feed or an in Section 11, and sample applications will be presented in array feed, as shown in Fig. 1. Section III. There are several features that distinguish this technique from others. First of all, the previous notion of reflector U. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE GENERALIZED surface expansion and coefficients optimization has been DIFFRACTION SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUE generalized to antenna system characterization and parameters optimization, in which the reflector surface expansion becomes a portion of the characterization process, and the A. Coordinate Systems and Their Transformations expansion coefficients consist of a subset of the antenna A local coordinate system is erected for each component of parameters to be optimized. This conceptual generalization the antenna system as shown in Fig. 1. Explicitly, they are allows us to solve the problems of i) reflector shaping with the main reflector coordinate system C , = {i,,~,,im}. i , general array feed and ii) simultaneous synthesis of reflectors the subreflector coordinate system C, = { P S IeS, s } the and feeds, which are not addressed in the PO synthesis feed array coordinate system Cf = {Pf,er, i f } , a feed and , element coordinate system Ce,= { k e aye,, &,}, i = 1, . . ,n methods published so far. Another feature that makes the current technique powerful for each of the n elements. These coordinate systems are is that the global surface expansion [22] is used in this paper, chosen such that the geometry and the radiation pattern of and generalized to reflector aperture boundaries that may be the associated component can be described most conveniently. circular (elliptical), square (rectangular), or any intermediate Eulerian angles and translation vectors [26], [27] are used rounded-cornershapes described by the superquadricfunctions to relate these coordinate systems; the vector field quantities

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I
DUAN AND RAHMAT-SAMII DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR.HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS

29

and the position vectors can therefore be transformed in a systematic manner.

B. The Feed Array

The feed array in our implementation may have general configuration in the sense that the position and orientation of the ith feed element is specified independently by choosing a translation vector and a set of Eulerian angles that relate the coordinate system Cet to Cf. The excitation coefficient and the type of radiation (acosq 6 feed [28], a Gaussian point source, a microstrip patch, a sectoral horn [29], or a set of measured data, etc.) may also vary from element to element. The total feed field Ef is the sum of the element fields

way of computing these quantities for various reflectors is formulated in the next section. The PO current (2) provides a good approximation of the actual surface current (except near the edge) when the reflector is rather smooth, and more than a few wavelengths in size. The PO field is known to be very accurate in the main beam and the first few sidelobe regions [28]. It is sufficient in diffraction synthesis to use PO analysis alone if the goal is to improve the antenna gain or suppress the near-in sidelobes levels. For observations made in the far-angular regions or in the prediction of the cross-polarized fields, however, the edge diffracted field may contribute significantly,and hence the PO field must be modified. In this paper, the edge diffraction is taken into account using the PTD, in which the total scattered field consists of the PO field and a fringe field [30], [31] EPTD = Epo + Efr. (9)

where it is assumed that the Ee,s have been properly transformed to the feed array coordinate system Cf. The total radiated power of the feed m a y is obtained by integrating this composite field over a spherical surface in the far-field. N t c that if in (1) one modifies the pattem and excitation oie of each feed element to account for the array environment, mutual coupling effect can be partly taken into consideration.

The PTD fringe field corrects the PO field in an effective manner, and is for the first time implemented for dual-shaped reflector antennas with array feed. In the implementation of PTD, however, care must be exercised to properly handle the aperture-type sources. The details of PTD implementation is not included in this paper due to page limitations. The reader is referred to the literature [30], [31] for the formulation. It must be mentioned that in general other diffraction techniques such as geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD) C . The Difiaction Analysis The diffraction technique of Po is used to analyze the [32], [33] and its uniform versions [34]-[36], the method of radiated fields of the reflectors in this paper. For reflectors moments, and various hybrid techniques can also be used in with perfect electric conducting surfaces, it is assumed in PO diffraction synthesis. A comparative study of these diffraction analysis techniques can be found in 1301. that the current at a point r on the reflector surface is

(2) D.Reflectors With Superquadric Apertures For convenience in evaluating the surface element dC over where f i is the unit vector normal to the reflector and pointing a curved surface E, a reflector is usually represented as a to the feed, and H iis the incident magnetic field. With the convention ejwt for the time-harmonic field, the radiated field function of the parameters defined on the planar aperture A, of the PO current (2) at an observation point r can be written as as shown in Fig. 3. With the aperture parameters t and $ [23], [28], for example, one may write the coordinates of a point r = (x, 2 ) on the reflector as y, EPo(r) = -jk& XI = x(t,?)), y = y(t,$), 2 = Z ( t , $ ) (10) (3)
e-jkR

Jpo

= 2A x

Hz

HPo(r) = -jk
1

93 ( R x Jpo) m
1

(4)

O<t<l, 05?)52?r
and rearrange the integrals in (3) and (4) as

(11)

/ l + - . d C+
3 . 3 (kR)2 1 g3=1-jg2=1--

/L+..

JA(t,$)dtd?)

(12)

kR

(7)

with k the free space wave number and 20 the free space impedance. Equations (3) and (4) are exact radiation integrals for the approximate current Jpo, and are applicable to obseroh vation points b t in the near- and the far-field regions. Notice that to evaluate the radiation integrals in (3) and (4), one has to calculate for each reflector point the position vector r, the unit normal vector A, and the surface element dC. A systematic

where J A ( t , $) i the transformation Jacobian. The paramets ric representation (10) facilitates systematic construction of JA(t,?)) and the unit normal vector A dC JA(t7j) z -(13) &d$ - 1:. $1 ri x r& A=*(14) Ir: x r&l

(15)
(16)

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30

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 43, NO. 1, JANUARY 1995

initial variable set

reffectorsurfaces (OQShaped. conic, ...) *EeedoonfiguraLion ... etc

i
diffraction analysis
Mockageeffect near-field effect -edge&ff 9 allayfeed

I
radiation

produces the most uniform subgridding when the ratio a/b deviates much from unity. Notice that the superquadric boundary is exactly represented by the parametric curve t = 1. This feature is important for PO analysis because the inaccuracy caused by the irregular boundary of a nonexact subgridding scheme is avoided. Furthermore, in PTD and GTD, a wellrepresented reflector boundary is indispensable for effective evaluation of the edge-diffracted fields.

E. Global Surface Expansion Using Orthogonal Functions

[
o

variablevalues searchnew no ( m i n i m i z e c i ? w :U

i-

i I

asetof optimized variables

I I

The key role of the diffraction synthesis technique presented in this paper is to describe the shaped reflector surfaces by the following expansion
N M

Fig. 2. Application of OptirniZation techniques t antenna synthesis. o

n=O m=O

where C,, and D,, are the expansion coefficients, and F g ( t ) is the modified Jacobi polynomials defined by (27) in Appendix A. This expansion can be applied to each reflector in terms of the corresponding local coordinate system as shown in Fig. 1. The modified Jacobi polynomials are related to the circle polynomials of Zernike, which were previously studied in the classification of optical aberrations [37]. The relationships between the modified Jacobi polynomials and the circle polynomials of Zemike are studied in Appendix B, and it is found that besides the normalization constant, they differ only in the index schemes. The derivatives of the modified Jacobi polynomials, which are needed in computing the derivative (15), are formulated in Appendix A. Combinations of the modified Jacobi polynomials and the harmonics cos n$, sin n$ consist of a complete set of orthogonal basis functions Fig. 3. Antenna geometry of an offset single-reflectorantenna. in the unit circle region (11) of the t-11,plane [37]. The expansion (21) is global in the sense that each basis The sign in (14) is so chosen that .iL points to the illuminated function acts in the entire domain of (ll), in contrast to a localized function which usually has nonzero (or significant) side of the reflector. values only within a subgridded patch. The formula (21) One very useful class of aperture shapes defined by the ensures that the reflector surface is continuous, and so are superquadric function the derivatives of all orders. Since reflector shaping is carried out by adjusting the expansion coefficients, the synthesized =1 reflectors have smooth surfaces and welldefined circumferences. The fact that the global expansion of (21) provides has been recently employed to describe circular, elliptical, an effective representation for reflector surfaces can be best and rounded-comer aperture boundaries [23]. In (17), a and b manifested by showing that many commonly used reflector are the radii along the z-axis and y-axis (see Fig. 3). The surfaces can be exactly described by only several lowest order superquadric aperture boundary has the feature that with a expansion functions, and the expansion coefficients can be single parameter, v, an elliptical (circular) aperture boundary obtained in closed-form using (42). Several examples are given can be deformed to a rectangular (square) one through the in Appendix C. It is interesting at this point to notice that intermediate rounded-comer shapes in a systematic manner. for a circularly symmetric antenna, it suffices to use the CO, Many of the antennas used in practical applications have coefficients alone in (21) to represent the shaped reflectors. In aperture boundaries fall into this general category. It was found such cases, the number of the expansion coefficientsis reduced [23] that the parametric representation from a two-dimensional (2-D) set to a onedimensional set. The two steps in applying the optimization techniques to d ( t ,111) = a t cos,$ T ( $ ) diffraction synthesis, characterization and optimization, are y ( t , $ ) = b t sin$ T(+) described in the following sections.

[(E)].

I);([

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DUAN AND RAHMAT-SAMII: DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS

31

2",
I

I
I

-1" -2"

1
-3"

w
-2"
-1"

-4"

0 "

1"

2"

3 "

4"

Az
Fig. 4. The CONUS coverage map. A f O 1 degree pointing error is considered. The three gain zones are designed for compensating rain attenuation.

F . Characterization From the mathematical point of view, the unknowns in the problem of reflector shaping are the 2-D functions that describe the reflector surfaces. These 2-D functions are to be determined in continuous regions (over the reflector apertures) instead of on a set of discrete points. An effective approach to solve this difficult problem is to represent a reflector surface by a series of functions such as in (21). In this situation, the shape of the reflector is determined (or, "characterized") by the expansion coefficients, which become the unknowns of the shaping problem. Notice that although theoretically an infinite set of coefficients is needed to represent an arbitrary reflector shape, in practice only a finite number of coefficients can be processed by the computers. The answer to the question of how many coefficients must be used for a particular problem, depends on the size of the antennas, the desired radiation characteristics, and the required design precision. The transformation from an unknown two-variable function to a set of discrete coefficients is part of the characterization of the antenna systems as shown in Fig. 1. The characterization procedure can be extended essentially to any antenna components such as an array feed, for which the excitation coefficients, positions, and orientations of the feed elements may be taken as the unknowns (see Fig. 1). It may also be applied repeatedly, sampling the frequency band of interest. Notice that one may use any combination of the antenna parameters as the unknowns of the synthesis problem. G. Optimization Since the design problems are usually over-specified, there may not be exact solutions. In this situation, one needs a means to search for the "best" (or the "optimum") solution in terms of some criterion. In our approach, the best solution is determined by the optimization techniques as shown in Fig. 2, and the criterion is the minimization of an object (penalty, cost) function. Having different forms for different applications, the object function is designed to reflect the deviation of the performance of the current design to the desired antenna radiation characteristics. Upon the minimization of the object function, the goal of searching for the optimum variable values is deemed accomplished. As shown in Fig. 2, the initial values of the optimization variables can be chosen according to one's best knowledge or

convenience. For example, the surface expansion coefficients can be those obtained from GO-shaping, or those of the conicsection reflectors. The initial excitation coefficients of the feed can be a uniform distribution, or a set of properly tapered excitations. A judicious choice of the initial values leads to, usually within few steps of iterations, a converged solution that is close to the physical limitations. In the loop enclosed in the dashed box of Fig. 2, diffraction analysis is applied to computing the radiation characteristics of interest. The computed and the desired values are compared, and the differences are represented by the object function, which is to be minimized. The iteration ends if the result of comparison is satisfactory. Otherwise, new variable values that produce a smaller object function value are determined by the optimization technique. The updated variables are then used in the next iteration. In view of the optimization science, the problem of diffraction synthesis of reflector antennas can be classified into the category of nonlinear multivariable problems with intermediate scale, and further characterized by that the evaluation of the object function may be time-consuming, and the derivative of the object function is in general not available in closed-form. Based on these considerations, a set of computer programs that perform safeguarded Newton's methods are implemented in this paper. Scaling of the variables, termination criterions, and numerical differentiation are carefully implemented in these programs. A question often raised is whether the searched solution is a local or global minimum. To the best knowledge of the authors, there is no optimization algorithms that generally guarantee the global minimum. Also, the solution space of these multidimensional problems may possess many local minima where the optimizer may be trapped. The optimization programs used in this paper does not exempt from this general problem. There is a distinction between the purely mathematical optimization problem, however, and the antenna synthesis problems that may help alleviate this difficulty. That is, the radiation characteristics of a synthesized antenna system can be compared with the physically ideal situations, based on which the goodness of the solution can be assessed. Furthermore, according to the authors' experiences, the optimization iteration usually converges rapidly toward a satisfactory solution for most of the attempted antenna design problems provided that the initial variable values and the object function are properly chosen. One last comment on optimization is that in practice sometimes it is convenient to perform optimization in steps for different subsets of the variables. This helps reduce the size of the problem, and identify the sensitivity of the antenna performance to each subset of variables. One is also cautioned that optimization in steps is more vulnerable to local minima. In a recent study, the utilization of genetic-based algorithms is also being investigated [38].
111. SAMPLE APPLICATIONS

Two diverse applications of the generalized diffraction synthesis technique are illustrated in this section. In the first application, three types of contoured beam satellite antennas

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32

EL

Az

(a) Initial status.

EL

(b) After 9 iterations.

C

Az

(c) After 30 iterations.

EL

"MblH
6 5 4 3 2

U0

KD

Az

(d) After 60 iterations.

Fig. 5. The initial, intermediate, and optimized contour patterns produced by a shaped,reflector (with 27 expansion coefficients) and a single feed. The crosses indicate cities that outline the three gain zones. Each expansion coefficient is represented by a "tile," in which the sue of the center dark square is proportional to loglo lCnml (or loglo lDnml), normalized in the range loo to

are designed: a shaped single-reflector antenna, a shaped dualreflector antenna with circular main reflector aperture, and a shaped dual-reflector antenna with elliptical main reflector ape-. ne aspects of these designs are the use of a single feed. In the second application, two schemes for compensating reflector surface distortion are studied: compensation using an array feed, and compensation using a shaped subreflector fed by a single feed. These examples by no means exhaust the applications to which the diffraction synthesis technique is applicable. Instead, they are selected to illustrate the nature of the methodology

such as the evolution of optimization and the coefficientscontrolled surfaces, and the variety of solutions that one may assess using this technique. 0 t h design examples may be found in the literature. For instance, simultaneousoptimization Of reflector and feed was demonstrated in [391y and synthesis of dual-offset reflector antenna fed by hom arrays was documented in [40].

A. Contoured Lkam satellite Ant"UZ

Contoured beam antennas find many applications in modem satellite communication systems. These antennas radiate

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DUAN AND RAHMAT-SAMII: DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS

33

1 1
0

deviation from the initial paraboloid

-11
0
0

Fig. 7. Geometry of a Gregorian type dual-offset reflector antenna (with single feed) for CONUS-contouredbeam application. D = 1.524 m, H = 0.838 m, F J D = 0.8, e = 0.333, p = 13-84degrees, inter-foci distance = 0.3995 m.

0
1.o

05 .

00 .

0.5

1 .o

t
Fig. 6. The shaped reflector for CONUS coverage and its deviation to the original paraboloid, (Q = D / 2 is the radius of the reflector aperture).

are separated by about half of the half-power beam width of the pencil beam radiated by a paraboloidal main reflector. i Let N, be the number of observation sites, and D the computed directivity at the ith site modified by gain correction. The object function 3 is constructed as

shaped beams that cover prescribed service regions in which the highest possible antenna gain is required. Contoured beam reflector antennas (CBRA) can have various configurations.A typical CBRA consists of a paraboloidal reflector and a multihom feed. The shaped radiation is produced by adjusting the positions and excitations of the feed horns. Due to the complexity of the beam-forming network (BFN) associated with a large array feed, interest has been recently focused on reducing the number of feeds without degrading the quality of the contoured beam. One is challenged with, in the extreme case, using a single feed to illuminate a reflector. In this situation, the reflector must be shaped to generate the desired contoured beams. If high cross-polarization discrimination is required, one has to consider yet other CBRA configurations such as Gregorian type dual-offset reflector antennas. A discussion on CBRAs configurations for various mission requirements can be found in [41]. For purpose of illustration, we present the design of three types of CBRAs in the following: i) a single-reflector antenna, ii) a dual-reflector antenna with circular main reflector aperture, and iii) a dual-reflector antenna with elliptical main reflector aperture, all with a single feed and the same coverage region. The goal is to produce a contoured beam that covers the contiguous United States (CONUS). To compensate for factors such as rain attenuation, gain corrections are specified in different areas. or sites. This results in a weighted (or, nonuniform) plateau profile. For the current application, the desired contoured beam pattem is depicted in Fig. 4, in which there are three prescribed gain zones in the contoured beam. A f 0 . 1 degrees pointing error has been considered in Fig. 4. The locations of the observation sites (represented by dots in the figure) sample the gain regions in a uniform manner, and

, where D is the average directivity (including gain corrections), SD represents the root-mean-square gain ripple, and 20 is a weighting coefficient with a typical value of unity. The operation frequency is 11.95 GHz. The object function (22) can be further modified for cross-polarization improvements. Single ReJectorlSingle Feed: A circular offset reflector with D = 2a = 1.524 m, F = 1.506 m, H = 1.245 m, and f3f = 42.77 degrees (Fig. 3, with v = 1) is used. The feed is an 2-polarized (cos t9)q source with -12 dB edge taper (q = 14.28). The reflector is represented by 28 terms in the Jacobi-Fourier expansion (2 1). They are chosen according to the index scheme of the circle polynomials of Zemike. (Clearly one could start with the Zemike polynomials as an altemative.) The first (i.e., the constant) coefficient COO 0.849 (meters) = is left intact to keep the shaped reflector in proximity to the original paraboloid, and the other 27 coefficientsare optimized with the initial values derived fim a paraboloid. Samples of the optimization process are depicted in Fig. 5, in which the initial, intermediate, and optimized contour pattems and the corresponding expansion coefficients are displayed. In Fig. 5 each expansion coefficient is represented by a tile, in which the size of the center dark square is proportional to log,, lCnml (or log,, I,I, normalized in the range 10 to D,)

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I
34
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 43, NO. 1, JANUARY 1995

TABLE I CLOSED-FORM JACOBI-FOUIUER EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS TYPICAL FOR REFLECTOR SURFACES ELLIPTICAL WITH APERTURES (a AND b ARE RADIIALONG 2- AND Y-AXIS, THE THE RESPECTIVELY). OTHER ALL COEFFICIENTS ZEROES ARE

reflector offset paraboloid, circular aperture elliptical aperture

CO O

C1 O

Cl0

(720

-- F + - - 1 2H + a

Jz

8d5

F
F

1 2H2

+ (a + b2)/2

8&F (aa ba))/2 8&F

-- a

aH 4F aH 4F

0
aa - ba
8&F

It is observed in Fig. 5 that in the early stages the optimizer spreads out the energy contained in the initial pencil beam, and then polishes the shaped pattem until it precisely delineates the gain regions with minimum gain ripples. Profile of the resultant shaped reflector is depicted in Fig. 6. The deviation from the initial paraboloid is within (-0.4X, 0.6X). Dual Rejector, Single Feed, Circular Aperture: The crosspolarized field of the above single-reflector antenna as shown in Fig. 8(a) is excessively high for stringent requirement on the discrimination level (30 dB,for example). To reduce the crosspolarized field level, we choose a Gregorian type dual-offset reflectoi antenna with optimum tilted angles [42] as shown in Fig. 7 The feed is an x-polarized (cos e)* source with -12 dB . 59) edge taper (q = 2 . 8 . Notice that for purpose of comparison, the same main reflector diameter is used, and the offset height and focal length are reduced to keep the total volume of the antenna similar to that of the single-reflector case. To obtain the CONUS-shaped beam, the main reflector and the subreflector are shaped simultaneously. Each reflector is represented by 28 expansion terms. The optimization starts with parahloid/ellipsoid, and there are totally 54 coefficients (27 for each reflector) to be adjusted. The resultant copolarized and cross-polarizedpattems are compared with those produced by the single-reflector antenna Fig. 8. It is seen that the cross-polarized field is significantly reduced, with the f h integrity o t e CO-polarizedcontours maintained. Dual Rejector, Single Feed, Elliptical Aperture: Reflector antennas with elliptical apertures find many applications in modem satellite communications and radar systems. Utilization of an elliptical aperture is usually motivated by the required radiation pattems, and the reduced weight and cost. It is a challenging task though to redirect the field from a circularly symmetric feed to reflectors with elliptical apertures. This is particularly so when a complex radiation pattern such as a contoured-beamis to be generated. The key to such design problems is reflector shaping. It is observed in Fig. 4 that the CONUS coverage region is elongated in the azimuthal direction. This suggests that an antenna with elongated aperture (in a direction that is perpendicular to that of the contoured pattem) may produce a similar far-field pattem if the reflectors are properly shaped. To justify this concept, we perform diffraction synthesis (shaping) on an elliptical antenna as shown in Fig. 8(c), which has an aspect ratio of 1 :0.75 but otherwise identical to the previous circular antenna. After properly shaping both reflectors, a typical resultant contoured beam is depicted in Fig. 8(c). It is seen that a contoured pattem with similar average gain

C M A I O OF O P RS N

cows ANTENNA DESIGNS

average gain gain ripple maximum 60 cross-pol & I 0.58 dB 12.9 dBi 33.86 dE3i 0.87 dB 0.5 dBi 33.80 dBi 0.74 dB 4.2 dBi 33.89 dBi
~

TABLE I1

I
single-reflector dual-reflector, circular dual-reflector, elliptical

and gain ripple has been produced, with slightly decreased resolution in the azimuthal plane due to the reduced reflector size. The level of the cross-polarized field is raised about 4 dB compared to the circular case shown Fig. 8(b). Table I1 summarizes the three CBRA designs. B . Reflector Su$ace Distortion Compensation Very large reflector antennas have been widely used in modern satellite communications systems because these antennas produce high gaidlow noise radiations and provide enhanced data transmission capacity [43]. For both ground and space antennas, however, large reflectors may suffer from systematic surface distortion due to thermal or gravitational effects. Additionally, for nonrigid reflector surfaces such as those used in unfurlable or inflatable [43], [44] antenna systems, distortion may be resulted from the mechanical construction of the reflector. The distorted reflector surface typically causes aperture phase errors and degraded antenna performance. In this section, the diffraction synthesis technique is employed to investigate different compensating systems: i) array feeds and ii) a shaped subreflector fed by a single feed. For purpose of illustration, we use the example problem depicted in Fig. 9, in which the distorted paraboloidal reflector is modeled

z=-F+

(E

+ H ) 2 + y2 + Fd
4F $ = arctan X

F =0 . 0 1 1 ( ~ ) ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 4 d (meters)
p=

d m ,

where a = 0 / 2 is the radius of the reflector aperture, F is the focal length of the ideal paraboloid, and H is the offset height of the reflector aperture center. The function F as depicted in d Fig. 9 represents a typical slowly varying thermal distortion. It is seen that this distortion has severely deteriorated the farfield patterns, reducing the peak directivity from 42.5 dB to 39.0 dB.

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I
DUAN AND RAHMAT-SAMII: DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS
35

EL

Az

EL
FEED

Az

EL

Az

SUBREFLECTOR

EL

EL

SUBREFLECTOR

EL

Az
Fig. 8. Comparison of the CO-and cross-polarized CONUS pattems using (a) a single-reflector antema, (b) a dual-reflector antenna with circular mam reflector, and (c) a dual-reflector antenna with elliptical main reflector. In all cases, only a single feed is used. The frequency is 11.95 GHz.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATMON, VOL. 43, NO. 1, JANUARY 1995

-6.0 dB
0

D=
0

-9.4 dB -225.30 -9.4 dB

0
0

-10.3 dB -302'80 -2.6 dB -302'80-10.3dB -77*60 -3.1 dB -323.4' -3.1 dB -77.6'

0 0 0 0

-5.5 dB -21.30 0.0 dB -21'30 -5.5 dB 0 0 0 -92*80 -3.9 dB 0.0' -3.9 dB -92.8' 0 0

-12.6 dB

L -

F=1.832m
(a) Fd

- 6 0 -9.2 dB -318.9" -9.2 dB -46.0' 4.'

-301.2" -7.7 dB -301.2" -226.6'
(a)
0

-3.1 dB -'3'40 -12.6 dB

0 0

(frequency = 8.45 GHz)

Fig. 10. Distortion compensation using a 19-element array feed with an interelementspacing of 1.06X. (a) The optimum feed excitations. (b) Far-field pattems. (Solid lines: 4 = 0 degrees, dashed lines: 4 = 90 degrees.)

These variables are initially set to values (1 for real parts and 0 for imaginary parts) that correspond to uniform excitations. The object function is

3=-Do
Fig. 9. A distortedparaboloidal reflector antenna. (a) Antenna geometry. (b) 'zhe surface distortion, F d . (c) The distorted far-field pattems. Ideal pattems refer to those produced by the paraboloid. (Solid lines: d, = 0 degrees, dashed lines: 4 = 90 degrees.)

(25)

where DOis the boresight directivity. The results of optimization is shown Fig. 10(b), in which it is shown that the antenna pattem has been effectively restored, with 41.8 dB boresight directivity (the actual antenna gain may be somewhat lower due to losses in the array). The optimum excitations resulted from the diffraction synthesis technique as shown in Fig. 10(a) Focal Plane Array Feedr: One way of achieving distor- are similar to those obtained by the method of conjugate field tion compensation is to use an array feed with proper exci- matching [45]. tations, which may be obtained by the method of conjugate A Shaped Subrejector and a Single Feed: To avoid the infield matching [45]. In this paper, instead, we use the diffrac- creased complexity, loss, and weight of a BFN, another tion synthesis technique to determine the optimum array compensation scheme that employs a feed system consisting excitations. As an example, let us consider a representative of a shaped subreflector and a single feed may be considered 19element array as depicted in Fig. 10(a). In the design, the [46]. A design is carried out for the distorted paraboloid as optimization variables are the real and imaginary parts of the shown in Fig. 1l(a). The feed is described by a (cos e ) q model excitation coefficients, with reference to the center element. with q1 = q2 = 70. The surface of the deformable subreflector

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DUAN AND RAHMAT-SAMII: DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS

31

is determined by the diffraction synthesis (shaping) technique with the object function
%

3=-Do+w-R

(26)

where w is a weighting coefficient, and R is the root-meansquare ripple of the directivities at, for example, 13 = 1.3 degrees (the -10 dB beamwidth) in the q5 = 0 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, and 270 degree planes. The term w . R is included to control asymmetry in the patterns. As a result of optimization, effective compensation is achieved as shown in Fig. 1l(c), with 41.3 dB boresight directivity. The deviation of shaped subreflector to the original hyperboloid is depicted in Fig. 1l(b). Mechanical structures that facilitate reconfigurable reflector surfaces represented by the Jacobi-Fourierexpansions are recently being investigated.

IV. CONCLUSION A generalized diffraction synthesis technique that can be used to solve the problems of synthesizing array-fed singleand dual-reflector antennas is developed. This technique has the following unique features:
Due to the application of global surface expansion by orthogonal functions, the synthesized reflectors always have smooth surfaces, well-defined circumferences, and continuous surface derivatives. In particular, the resultant reflectors are ready for fabrication (by computerized machining, for example) without requiring interpolation. The diffraction analysis techniques of PO and PTD are applied to take into account the diffraction from the surface and the edge of the reflectors. Antennas of general configurations can be synthesized. For example, there is no limitation on the number of reflectors. The apertures of the reflectors may have boundaries varying from an ellipse (circle) to a rectangle (square) using the superquadric function. The feed system may consist of a single feed or an array of general configuration. Depending on the requirements of the problem, the feed field can be calculated using model formulas, measured data, or sophisticated diffraction analysis programs. Any antenna parameter can be used as an optimization variable. For example, the reflector surfaces expansion coefficients,the positions, orientations, and excitations of the feed elements, and the antenna dimensions can all be optimized simultaneously or separately. Performance of the synthesized antennas is evaluated by diffraction analysis in the course of optimization iterations. Therefore, unlike the GO-related methods, there is no need for a final diffraction analysis. Using properly designed object functions, this diffraction synthesis technique can be applied to optimize the antenna performance over a frequency band and a range of scanning angles, with the CO- and cross-polarized fields properly taken into consideration. It is also capable of synthesizing various types of antennas such as high gain antennas, small-aperture low-noise ground stations, con-

e
(C) Fig. 11. Distortion compensationusing a deformable-shapedsubreflectorand a single feed. (a) Antenna geometry. Subreflector:D, = 0.5 m, H , = 0.363 m, eccentricity = 2.3. Feed: located at 1.415 m from the focal point, Of = 17.58 degrees. (b) Deviation of the shaped subreflector to the original hyperboloid. (c) Far-field pattems. (Solid lines: 9 = 0 degrees, dashed lines: @ = 90 degrees.)

toured beam satellite antennas, and multibeam antennas. Furthermore, it can be used to modify a portion of an existing antenna system for the purpose of distortion compensation or performance upgrade. With this method, limitations associated with the GO-shaping methods are overcome to a large extent. The versatility and accuracy of this method, however, are obtained at the price of more computation time. It is particularly so for very large multiple-reflector antennas due to the time-consuming PO integrations. This hindrance is alleviated to some extent by the thriving growth in computer speed and parallel compu-

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 43, NO. 1, JANUARY 1995

Equation (32) is not convenient for computer program implementation because of the apparent singularities at t = 0, t = f l , n = m = 0, and n 2m - 1 = 0. To overcome this difficulty, a study on (32) for various combinations of the indices m and n is conducted. As a result, it is found that the apparent singularities in (32) can be avoided using the APPENDIX formulas (33H36). These formulas consist of an algorithm which can be directly transformed into computer code. A. The ModiJiedJacobi Polynomials and Their Derivatives When n = 0 and m = 0, Definition of the modified Jacobi polynomials, and formulas d that are convenient for numerical evaluation of the derivatives -FZ(t) = 0 (33) dt dF;(t)/dt are presented in this appendix. The modified Jacobi polynomials, F z ( t ) , are defined as When n = 0 and m = 1,2,3,.-., WI, 1481 d -FZ(t) = F z ( t ) = J2(n 2m 1) P?*)(I - 2t2) tn, tation technology. At the same time, methods leading toward improved computation efficiency are being investigated. These include advanced optimization techniques and algorithms that accelerate the Po field evaluation.

dt

-4-

O<t<l

(27)
When n = 1,2,3,... and m = 0,

where P?) is a Jacobi polynomial. The Jacobi polynomials, generally denoted by Pp((z), are defined as [49]

-Fz(t) = d dt

m .n

tn-l

(35)

Whenn=1,2,3,...andm=1,2,3,..., They can be calculated most efficiently using the recurrence relations

PoP)(z) =1
Ppp(.) = -(a 1 2

(29)

+ p + 2). + s1( a - PI

(30) B. Relationship Between the Modified Jacobi Polynomials and the Circle Polynomials of Zernike
The modified Jacobi polynomials are closely related to the that are defined as [37] circle polynomials of &mike, R,(p),

(37)

In the diffraction analysis of reflector antennas, one typically o has t find the derivatives such as (15). For a reflector that is represented by the modified Jacobi polynomials F z ( t ) as shown in (21), the derivative dFG(t)/dt must be calculated. For this purpose, we use the recurrence relation for the derivatives of the Jacobi polynomials [49] to obtain that of the modified Jacobi polynomials d n m 1 -[FG(t)]= -F2(t) * n 2m t(1- t 2 ) dt t
~

It can be shown that (the right arrows read corresponds to)

F$(t) + ( - l ) - & T T .
if the substitution

R$(p)

(38)

n+m,

m+-

n-m
I

t+P

(39)

is made. Conversely, one may write

as a result o the substitution f n-m m+n, + m , p+t. 2 It is obvious from these equations that, besides the normalization constant, the modified Jacobi polynomials and the circle

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DUAN AND M A T - S A M 1 DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNAS

39

polynomials of Zemke differ only in their index scheme. According to the authors experience, both index schemes can be applied to reflector antenna synthesis. Since the circle polynomials .of Zernike together with sinusoidal harmonics form a complete set of orthogonal basis functions for a circular region, it follows that the surface expansion (21) is also an orthogonal global expansion.

C . Closed-FormExpansion Coefficients For a given reflector surface ~ ( $), the expansion coeffit, cients can be determined by

(43)
Evaluation of these integrals is generally done numerically. For several typical reflector surfaces, however, one can find the closed-form Jacobi-Fourier expansion coefficients,and two examples are given in Table I.

REFERENCES
[I] B. Y. Kinber, On two-reflector antennas, Radio Eng. EIec. Phys., pp.
914-921, June 1962. [2] V. Galiido-Israel, Design of dual-reflector antennas with arbitrary phase and amplitude distributions, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propugat., vol. AP-12, no. 4, pp. 403-408, July 1964. [3] W. F. Williams, High efficiency antenna reflector, Microwave J., vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 79-82, July 1965. [4] V. Galiio-Israel, R. Mima, and A. G. Cha, Aperture amplitude and phase control of offset dual reflectors, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagut., vol. AP-27, no. 2, pp. 154-164, Mar. 1979. [5] B. S. Westcott, F. A. Stevens, and F. Brickell, GO synthesis of offset t dual reflectors,IEEProc., vol. 128, P .H, no. I, pp. 11-18, Feb. 1981. [6] B. S. Westcott, ShapedReflectorAntenna Design. London: Research Studies Press Ltd., 1983. [71 S. von Hoemer, Minimum-noise maximum gain telescopes and relaxation method for shaped asymmetric surfaces, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagat., vol. AP-26, no. 3, pp. 464-471, May 1978. [SI J. J. Lee, L. I. Parad, and R. S. Chu, A shaped offset-fed dualreflector antenna, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propugat., vol. AP-27, no. 2, pp. 165-171, Mar. 1979. [9] M. Mehler, S. Tun, and N. Adatia, Direct far-field GO synthesis of shaped beam reflector antennas, IEE Proc. H, vol. 133, no. 3, pp. 21>2u), June 1986. [IO] B. S. Westcott, F. Brickell, and I. C. Wolton, Crosspolar control in far-field synthesis of dual offset reflectors, IEE Proc. H, vol. 137, no. I, pp. 31-38, Feb. 1990. [I I] P.-S. Kildal, Synthesis of multireflector antennas by kinematic and dynamic ray tracing, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagat., vol. 38, no. IO, pp. 1587-1599, Oct. 1990. [I21 G. Bjantegaard and T. Pettersen, An offset dual-reflector antenna shaped from near-field measurements of the feed hom: Theoretical calculations and measurements, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propugat., vol. AP-31, no. 6, pp. 973-977, Nov. 1983. [I31 B. S. Westcott and F. Brickell, Geometric-optics synthesis of dualreflector antennas with distributed sources, IEE Proc. H, vol. 136, no. 5, pp. 361-366, Oct. 1989. [14] D. W. Duan and Y. Rahmat-Samii, A generalized three-parameter (3P) aperture distribution for antenna applications, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagar., vol. 40,no. 6, pp. 697-713, June 1992. [ 151 A. R. Cherrette, S. W. Lee, and R. J. Acosta, A method for producing a shaped contour radiation pattem using a single shaped reflector and a

single feed, IEEE Trans.Antenn. Propagat., vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 698-706, June 1989. [I61 R. A. Shore and A. D. Yaghjian, Incremental diffraction coefficients for plane conformal strips with application to bistatic scattering from the disk, J. Electromagn. Waves Appl., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 359-396, 1992. [ 171 P. J. Wood, Reflector profiles for the pencil-beam Cassegrain antenna, Marconi. Rev., vol. 35, no. 185, pp. 121-138, 2nd quarter, 1972. [I81 F. Watanabe and Y. Mizugutch, An offset spherical tri-reflector antenna, Trans. IECE Japan, vol. E66,no. 2, pp. 108-115, Feb. 1983. [I91 S. Nomoto and F. Watanabe, Shaped reflector design for small-size t offset dual reflector antennas, Electron. C o m u n . Japan, vol. 72, P . 1, no. 11, pp. 11-18, Nov. 1989. [20] J. Bergmann, R. C. Brown, P. J. B. Clarricoats, and H. Zhou, Synthesis of shaped-beam reflector antenna pattems, IEE Proc. H, vol. 135, no. I, pp. 48-53, Feb. 1988. [21] B. Schlobohm and F. Amdt, Small earth station antenna synthesized by a direct Po method, Space Commun., vol. 7, pp. 621-628, 1990. [22] Y. Rahmat-Samii and J. Mumford, Reflector diffraction synthesis using global coefficients optimization techniques, in IEEE AP-S Intl. Symp., 1989, pp. 1166-1169. [23] D. W. Duan and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Reflector antennas with superquadric aperture boundaries, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagut., vol. 41, no. 8, Aug. 1993. [24] A. Michaeli, Elimination of infinities in equivalent edge currents, part I: Fringe current components, IEEE Trans.Antenn. Propagat., vol. AP-34, no. 7, pp. 912-918, July 1986. [25] P. Y. Ufimtsev, Elementary edge waves and the p diffraction, Electromagn., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 125-160 [26] Y. Rahmat-Samii, Useful coordinate transformations cations, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagat., vol. AP-27, W. 4, July 1979. [27] D. W. Duan and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Novel coordinate system and rotation transformations for antenna applications, Electromagn., Jan. 1995. [28] Y. Rahmat-Samii, Reflector antennas, in Antenna Handbook, Y. T . Lo and S. W. Lee, Eds., Chapter 15. New Y o k Van Nostrand, 1988. [29] C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory Analysis ana Design. New York Harper & Row, 1982. [30] D. W. Duan, Y. Rahmat-Samii, and J. P. Mahon, Scattering from a circular disc: A comparative study of FTD and GTD techniques, IEEE Proc., vol. 79, no. 10, pp. 1472-1480, Oct. 1991. [31] D. W. Duan and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Axial field of a symmetric paraboloidal antenna: a POPTI) solution, in IEEE AP-S Intl. Symp., Seattle, WA, June 1994. f [32] J. B. Keller, Geometrical theory of diffraction,J. Opt. Soc. o America, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 116-130, Feb. 1962. [33] J. B. Keller, Diffraction by an aperture, J . Appl. Phys., vol. 28, pp. 426444, Apr. 1957. [34] R. G. Kouyoumjian and P. H. Pathak, A uniform geometrical theory of diffraction for an edge in a perfectly conducting surface, IEEE Proc., vol. 62, pp. 1448-1461, NOV. 1974. [35] D. S. Ahluwalia, R. M. Lewis, and J. Boersma, Uniform asymptotic theory of diffraction by a plane screen, SIAM J. Appl. Math., vol. 16, pp. 783-807, 1968. [36] S-W Lee and G. A. Deschamps, A uniform asymptotic theory of electromagnetic diffraction by a curved wedge, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propugat., vol. AP-24, no. 1, pp. 25-34, Jan. 1976. [37] M. Bom and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 6th ed. New York: Pergamon Press, 1980. [38] M. Johnson and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Genetic algorithm optimization and its application to antenna design, in IEEE AP-S Intl. Symp., Seattle, WA, June 1994. [39] D. W. Duan and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Reflector/feed(s) synthesis challenges for satellite contour beam applications, in IEEE AP-S Intl. Symp., Chicago, IL, July 1992, pp. 297-300. [40] Y. Rahmat-Samii, D. W. Duan, D. Gin, and L. Libelo, Canonical examples of reflector antennas for high-power microwave applications, IEEE Truns. Electromagn. Compat., vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 197-205, Aug. 1992. [41] R. A. Pearson, Y. Kalatidazeh, B. G. Driscoll, G. Y. Philippou, B. Claydon, and D. J. Brain, Application of contoured beam shaped reflector antennas to mission requirements, in Intl. Conf. Antenn. Propugat., 1993, pp. 9-13. [42] W. V. T. Rusch, Jr. A. Prata, Y. Rahmat-Samii, and R. A. Shore, Derivation and application of the equivalent paraboloid for classical offset Cassegrain and Gregorian antennas, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propugat., vol. 38, no. 8, pp. 1141-1 149, Aug. 1990.

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[43] A. G. Roederer and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Unfurlahle satellite antennas: a review, Annales des Telecommunications, vol. 44, no. 9-10, pp. 475-488, Nov. 1989. [44]R. E. Freeland and G. Bilyeu. IN-STEP inflatable antenna experiment, in 43rd Congress Intl. Astronautical Federation, 1992. [45] Y. Rahmat-Samii, Array feeds for reflector surface distortion compensation: concepts and implementation, IEEE AP-S Magazine, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 2C26, Aug. 1990. [46] S. von Hoerner, The design of correcting secondary reflectors, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagat., vol. AP-24, no. 3, pp. 336340, May 1976. [47] V. Galindo-Israel and R. Mittra, A new series representation for the radiation integral with application to reflector antennas, IEEE Trans. Antenn. Propagat., vol. AP-25, no. 5, pp. 631-641, Sept. 1977. [48] Y. Rahmat-Samii et al., Computation of Fresnel and Fraunhofer fields of planar aperture and reflector antenna by Jacohi-Bessel series-A review, Electromagnetics, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 155-185, Apr.-June 1981. [49] G. Szego, Orthogonal Olynomials, American Mathematical Society, 1959.

Dah-Weih Duan (S88-M92) was born in Taipei, Taiwan on September 11, 1962. He received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering in 1985 from National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from University of Califomia, Los Angeles (UCLA), in 1988 and 1992, respectively. He joined International Business Machines Corp., Thomas J. Watson Research Center, New York, in 1993, where he has worked on the research and development of wireless systems for future applications. His current research interests are in antenna designs with a mobile system perspective, antenna-device interactions, and computational electromagnetics. Dr. Duan is a member of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society. He has authored and co-authored over 25 journal and symposium papers. He has made contributions to the theory and design of reflector antenna systems, high frequency diffraction techniques, general aperture distributions, and high power microwave antennas. In 1993, he received the Outstanding Ph.D. Award from the School of Engineering and Applied Science, UCLA.

Yahya Rahmat-Samii (S73-M75-SM79-F85) received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electncal engineering from the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana. He is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Los Angeles. He has been a Senior Research Scientist at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology since 1978, where he contributed to antenna technology for space programs. He was a Guest Professor at the Technical University of Denmark (TUD) in the summer of 1986. He has also been a consultant to many aerospace companies. Dr. Rahmat-Samiis research interests include developments in near-field plane-polar and hi-polar antenna measurements, microwave holographic diagnostics, mobile satellite communication antennas, reflector surface compensation, multireflector antenna diffraction analysis and synthesis, scattering and radiation form complex objects, RCS computations, singularity in dyadic Greens function, high power microwave (HPM) antennas, EMP and aperture penetration, the spectral theory of diffraction (STD) and GTD. For these contnbutions, he has received numerous NASA Certificates of Recognition and recently earned the JPL Team NASAs Distinguished Group Achievement Award. He is a Fellow of IAE (1986) and was the 1984 recipient of the Henry Booker Award of URSI. He was appointed an IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Distinguished Lecturer and presented lectures internationally. He was an elected IEEE AP-S AdCom member for the second term and ON has been an Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION the societys magazine. He IS currently the elected and President of IEEE AP-S. He was the Chairman of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society of Los Angeles from 1987-1989. In 1989, his chapter received the Antennas and Propagation Best Chapter Award from the AP Society. He is one of the three Intemational Editors of the IEE book series on Electromagnetics and Antennas. He is also one of the Editors of the OF WAVES He JOURNAL ELECTROMAGNETIC AND APPLICATIONS. is one of the Directors of Antenna Measurements Technique Association (AMGA) and the Electromagnetics Society. He is listed in Whos Who in America, Whos Who in Frontiers of Science and Technology, and Whos Who in Engineering. Dr. Rahmat-Samii has authored or co-authored over 300 technical journal articles and conference papers and has written chapters in 13 books. In 1992, he was the recipient of the Best Application Paper Award (Wheeler Award) for a paper published in the Transactions in 1991. In 1993 and 1994, two of his Ph.D. students were named the Most Outstanding Ph.D. Student at UCLAs School of Engineering and Applied Science and another received the Best Student Paper Award at the 1993 IEEE AP-S Symposium. He is a member of Commissions A, B, and J of USNCKJRSI, Sigma Xi, Eta Kappa Nu, and the Electromagnetics Academy.

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