Emerson Process Management - CSI

DoctorKnow Application Paper

Title: Source/Author: Product: Technology: Classification: Applications of Triaxial Accelerometers Roger J. Kershaw General, Accessories for Data Collector Vibration

Applications of Triaxial Accelerometers by Roger J. Kershaw Senior Technical Consultant Computational Systems, Inc., Knoxville, Tennessee Introduction There are only 3 ways we can use triaxial accelerometers: for predictive maintenance routine data collection; for machinery diagnostics; for machinery and structural testing. We can get 3 times as much data in the same time or less. All data is acquired under exactly the same process conditions. Life couldn't be simpler, correct? Well, of course, there is more to it than meets the eye. But it is worth taking a few moments to consider the triaxial approach and make a judgment in an even-handed manner. In this paper the three basic uses of triaxial accelerometers will be reviewed, with special emphasis on the diagnostic and testing applications. The pros and cons of the method will be discussed and examples of use of triaxial measurements presented, together with some simple demonstrations of the approach. Applications of Triaxial Accelerometers In a program of Predictive Maintenance (PDM), based on routine vibration measurements, triaxial sensors can allow data to be acquired in axial, horizontal and vertical directions with one sensor position. This may increase the speed of data collection, whether acquiring data simultaneously or sequentially, although mounting will usually be more cumbersome, demanding prepared stud or magnetic mounting points: handheld probes are definitely unsuitable and even magnetic mounting may not be adequate, or prone to errors in sensor orientation. Machinery diagnostics, based on machine vibration spectrum and waveform analysis, Using a triaxial sensor is no different than using a single sensor when you have pre-prepared mounting points, although collecting more data more quickly may be a benefit. However, in the trouble-shooting mode, where you do not have securely attached mounting pads, either pads have to be attached before data is taken, or a magnetic mounting will have to be used, with its own limitations, especially at high frequency. Greater advantages may be had when moving beyond basic diagnostic analysis, when computing phases between points and between directions, e.g. for confirming misalignment or differentiating between rocking and bouncing movements of a machine. If multichannel analysis is available, a triaxial sensor may be even more convenient to set up than individual sensors and provide new types of information and insight into a problem. It is even possible to obtain useful information from "casing orbits" with multiple sensors in a multichannel analyzer, to help visualize the overall movement at a point in all directions over a whole range of frequencies. Operating Deflection Shape analysis is an extension of the use of phase and amplitude analysis, when the movement of a machine component or even a complete machine needs to be investigated. When a lot of points need to be measured in multiple directions, more data may be acquired more quickly with a triaxial sensor, especially if a four channel analyzer is available (one channel for the reference sensor), although single channel or dual channel analyzers with sensor switching capability are also useable. Simultaneous 4-channel capability offers even more benefits for this type of analysis, because there are physically fewer measurements to make. However, there may be a greater overhead to be carried during-processing of triaxial data, in order to ensure correct results. Beyond measuring operating vibrations, there are applications for triaxial sensors in the area of resonance testing and
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structural analysis, including modal analysis. These more advanced techniques are finding increasing use in discovering the underlying causes of failure, which often can be related to resonances in the machine frame or supporting structure, close to operating frequencies, or structural support weakness due to failure or inadequate design. Usually, a machine that is vibrating is able to move in more than one direction at a point, so there is a need to check its response in two or three directions at each point. Triaxial measurements can cut down significantly on measurement time, particularly when a systematic series of many measurements has to be made, which is the case in modal analysis. Once again there are potential pitfalls, but it may be worth the trouble and help to ensure important information is not missed. Triaxial Sensor Equipment Triaxial sensors are typically based on three accelerometers and have characteristics in each channel similar to a single accelerometers would have. This means that sensor power supply requirements are the same, as are considerations of cabling quality and coupling to the analyzer. The construction of a triaxial sensor typically leads to a lower usable frequency range than equivalent single sensors, whether it is an integrated- package or separate sensors attached to a single mounting block. It has greater mass, which limits the frequency range for magnetic mounting as well as the range of applications of any given sensor: it must not load the machine or structure under test to any significant extent, especially in resonance testing and modal analysis. Triaxial sensors are also bulkier than separate sensors, which may limit their mounting positions in unexpected and frustrating ways. Ideally, triaxial sensors should be mounted with a stud type mounting. If it is not possible to grind a flat and drill and tap holes on the machine itself, there are mounting pads, with pre-tapped stud holes, available for gluing or welding to the machine or structure. It is not always practical to use this type of mounting pad and then temporary magnet pads may have to be used, or a mounting magnet without pads. Then the usual considerations of sensor mounting come into play, typically exaggerated by the sensors bulk and weight. Each case needs to be considered separately, but expect to get poor results at high frequencies, especially with phase, even with a strong magnet. However, most problems show up at lower frequencies, so all is not lost! Even ugly multimagnet arrangements may work acceptably well at lower frequencies, although they cannot be recommended. Sources of Sensors Where do you get triaxial accelerometers from ? All the major sensor manufacturers will have one or more triaxial sensors. Some are intended for industrial applications on heavy machinery, 'others for less severe laboratory testing on lightweight structures. As ever, it is important to choose a sensor which does not load the structure to the extent that the structural properties are changed. For example, if you need to make measurements on lightweight blades or panels, a very lightweight sensor is called for. A triaxial sensor may be too heavy in some cases, and sometimes even a tiny single axis sensor is too much, and alternatives, including non-contact sensors will have to be considered. CSI's Triaxial Sensor CSI stocks one industrial model, the 329, also part of the 640-P package for the CSI 2115/2110 Machinery Analyzers and the 2400-P3 package for the CSI 2400 2 or 4 channel Dynamic Signal Analyzer. This particular sensor is an integrated unit, with a special 4-conductor cable (X, Y, Z plus ground), terminating in a 4 pin MIL connector. The packages referred to include adapters to accept this 4-pin connector and connect to the 24-pin D connector on the analyzers. The 2400 adapter incorporates a switch which enables the 3 signals to be connected either to channels A,B,C or channels B,C,D in the 4 -channel 2400 model. The latter setting is the one required for ODS and modal analysis, because it is necessary for channel A to be used as the reference channel. The 2115 triaxial adapter includes a multiplexer which can be controlled by the analyzer to switch each sensor channel in turn into the analyzer's single input channel. However, this can only be used under route control, predefined in MasterTrend - remember to enable channel/group support in the setup! There is also a multiplexer adapter, for the 2115/2110 analyzers, model 642, which has 4 input channels. This could also be used for triaxial inputs, of course, but using separate sensors. Triaxial Sensor Packages Not all triaxial sensors are integrated in the same way as the CSI 329: some are no more than 3 separate sensors attached to a mounting block. Ideally, they should be stud mounted, but sometimes it-is necessary to use adhesive or magnetic
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mounting. For instance, I recently carried out modal tests using a strong 2-pole magnet with 3 sensors magnetically attached to mounting pads glued to 3 sides of the block. This allowed more flexibility than with the dedicated triaxial sensor. Not ideal, in fact very ugly, but for low frequency work it was adequate under the circumstances, as described later in this paper. It is not even necessary to use a mounting block in some cases, but it can be awfully difficult to find good mounting points for 3 sensors close together over a whole machine and repeatability could be a challenge. Sensor Orientation Each channel (axis) of the sensor is inclined at 90 deg to the other two channels (axes), so that the three sensors are aligned with three orthogonal -axes which form a right handed set, often referred to as a triad (figure I).

Conventionally, a right-handed set of axes labelled X, Y, Z are aligned so that if you hold the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right hand at right angles to each other, calling the forefinger direction X, the middle finger direction Y, then the thumb points in direction Z, to form a right-handed set (figure 2).

Of course, the challenge comes when you are free to orient the triad set in any direction you like and the machine or structure shape requires that the sensor be pointed in many different ways in order to effect a solid mounting or gain access in a confined space. It is a little daunting at first to realize that a single triaxial sensor can be placed in 24 different orientations, without violating the right hand rule, while still keeping the three sensor axes parallel with the principal horizontal, vertical and axial directions (figure 3).

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Furthermore, if the structure's shape is not like a flat-sided box, the sensor may have to be oriented in completely different planes to cover the whole structure. There are ways to work around this difficulty, but it means that there needs to be a specially careful attention given to housekeeping when using triaxial measurements, to minimize the chance of error in identifying sensor orientation. Measuring Angles There other questions, related to sensor orientation, which must be answered, such as axe: how do you measure angular movements and what is a positive angle, anyway? For example, measuring on a curved surface, such as a cylindrical motor casing, may require the transducer to be moved to different angular positions and the vibration in the direction of increasing angle measured, such as the tangential direction on the circular surface shown in figure 4. Once again, convention comes to our aid: in a coordinate system based on a right handed set of axes X, Y, Z, a rotation from X to Y is positive, as are rotations from Y to Z and Z to X. In a sense, if we look down on the triad XYZ from a point in the positive XYZ region, a positive angle is a counter-clockwise rotation about the origin (figure 5).

Choosing Axes By choosing a standard set of axes for the machine under investigation, much unnecessary confusion can be avoided. For a typical horizontal machine train, such as a motor-gearbox-pump arrangement, it is often convenient to choose the Z-axis to coincide with the axial direction for the machine, usually taking positive Z to point from the driver towards the driven machine components. In this case, choose the positive X direction to point to the left in the horizontal plane, then the positive Y direction is vertically upwards (figure 6). For a typical vertical machine, like a vertical pump, with the driver on top, choose X and Y to lie in the horizontal plane, then let positive Z point vertically downwards. To ensure a right-handed system, pick a convenient reference point on the machine and stand facing it. Take positive X to point directly towards you, then positive Y must point to your left (figure 7). For more complex machine arrangements other arrangements may be more convenient, but a similar approach should be adopted.
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Emerson Process Management - CSI

Local and Global Coordinate Systems When making measurements for Operating Deflection Shape or Modal analysis, it is frequently necessary to measure on components which are inclined to the horizontal or vertical directions, or both. Then it may not be possible to mount a sensor parallel to the horizontal, vertical or axial directions, without preparing specially shaped mounting blocks, often an impractical solution. In these cases, to keep model' definition and measurements manageable, the machine or structure is divided into -components which are oriented in the same direction and new sets of axes (X',Y',Z'), (X",Y"Z), etc., is chosen for each component which lines up with its principal directions in some convenient way. These axes define local coordinate systems in distinction from the standard set of axes which define a global coordinate system (figure 8). All measurement positions and directions can be described in terms of one of these coordinate systems. During analysis, it is possible to calculate the vibrational deflections in the directions of the global machine axes from those measured in the local axes, usually carried out automatically by the software used in connection with ODS and modal analysis.

Sometimes, to follow the shape of a component, it is preferable to describe measurement positions and directions in terms of circular cylindrical coordinates (R, 0, Z) or spherical coordinates (R, , ) rather than the standard rectangular cartesian coordinate system (XYZ). Because angular vibration measurements are difficult and not many angular vibration sensors are available, angular measurements (corresponding to and , above) are replaced by, translational measurements tangential to the surface in the direction of increasing angle (compare figure 5). This enables standard single axis or triaxial sensors to be used for these measurements. Although the global and local coordinate systems provide a reference framework to which any measurements can be related, it is crucially important to realize that the axes of the triaxial sensor may not line up with any of these axes. Just
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Emerson Process Management - CSI

because the sensor axes are labeled X,Y, and Z, does not mean it knows which way it is oriented! In general the sensor's X, Y and Z axes will coincide with neither the global nor local X, Y and Z axes, or may point in the opposite direction. It is absolutely essential to keep an accurate log of the sensor orientation for each measurement, in order to correctly relate the results back to the global system during result analysis. These remarks apply equally well to single axis sensors, but there is more danger of complacency or sloppiness with a triaxial package and one error will affect the equivalent of three single axis measurements. What is the Difference Between Single Axis and Triaxiai Measurement? A concept that has been followed extensively by CSI, is to make measurements of machine vibration in-line with the shaft of the machine, and as close as it is possible to get to the shaft. One purpose is to be able to minimize the coupling between the vibrations in the 3 different -directions, in order to obtain better discrimination between faults, which often show different characteristics in different directions. Another purpose is to get physically close to the points at which rotor loads are transferred to the beating, to improve the chances of a good vibration transmission path. A large sensor which has special mounting requirements may not be suitable for access to the best measurement points and users may have to make do with more remote, less satisfactory locations. This has proved to be a successful approach in general, although true uncoupling between different directions is unlikely to be perfect and axial measurements are rarely exactly in-line anyway. Perfect uncoupling is unlikely because the movement at any point is a combination of angular and translational movements about the center of gravity (COG) of the whole machine, plus any bending or twisting that takes place under load. An angular movement about one axis causes coupled translational movements in the plane of the other two axes. Only when the measurement point is close to the axis about which the angular movement takes place is there any uncoupling. Figure 9 illustrates some typical machine movements.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

The loads acting on a machine consist of varied forces and couples which act in many different directions and cause both translational and angular vibrational movements about the CoG, as well as bending and twisting vibration. In consequence, the measured vibrations at different points on the machine have both angular and translational components and in that sense are coupled together. Adding the effects of bending and twisting response into this picture, it is not surprising that there is a great degree of coupling between the vibrations in different directions. Fortunately, some of the common faults misalignment do tend to produce dominant forces in a preferred direction when a fault is significant. For example misalignment tends to produce strong axial forces, which produces strong axial vibration, whereas unbalance forces produce predominantly radial forces and vibration. Even though these forces are not applied through the CoG of the machine, the vibration response to axial loads still has a strong axial component, readily measurable near the bearing. Detectability with Triaxial Sensors In predictive maintenance systems a key question is do you lose detection capability with a triaxial sensor? Well the answer is probably not, unless you're doing something stupid. However, setup is likely to be more complicated and there is a potential for more problems in finding good mounting locations. Probably, the change in the style of analysis for diagnostics is the biggest change, because of less discrimination between the directions associated with faults. That could mean having to make more supplementary measurements when problems are detected, to recover some of the lost information, but this may be required with any system. The user must decide if the trade off between complexity of setup, reduced discrimination and the increased speed and efficiency of data collection is worthwhile. Machinery Diagnostics with a Triaxial Sensor Lets look at a couple of examples of triaxial measurement and analysis: modal analysis of a winding machine and vibration and ODS analysis of a centrifugal compressor. Winding Spindle During a study of a winder, a series of impact tests was made to investigate the resonances and mode shapes of the machine at low frequency in the range of the winder spindle turning frequency. Impacts were made with a 5,000 lb force PCB modal (sledge) hammer; vibration response was measured with a "home-made" triaxial sensor consisting of a CSI 906 magnetic base, three CSI 901 mounting pads, three CSI 902 magnets, one CSI 330 and two Wilcoxon 326T accelerometers. Mounting pads were obtained from a 909 AccuTrend mounting pad kit and were attached using the Loctite Depend adhesive from that kit. Time constraints meant that the sensor had to be used within about one hour of attachment - not recommended practice, but adequate for low frequency work in this situation. The hammer and sensors were powered from the 4-channel CSI 2400 analyzer used for the analysis. Figure 10 shows the model set up in the modal analysis software, Star Struct from SMS/GenRad. The numbered points correspond to the measurement points used, a total of 18, for a total of 54 degrees of freedom. The hexagonal shape represents a vertical circular wheel for supporting the spindles: the model does not have to precise for either modal or ODS analysis, because the model dimensions and geometry are not used in any computation of modal properties. Of course, a model needs to be reasonably representative to help interpret the results and explain them to others.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

Triaxial waveform response data at point number 7 due to an impact at point 22 is shown in figure 11; the corresponding linear averaged spectra are shown in figure 12. The magnitude of the frequency response functions at this point appear in figure 13 and represent the amount of vibration per unit of force (here g/lbf), at each frequency across the frequency range. The phase information for these frequency response functions completes the picture of how the structure responds to loads at each frequency. Acquiring data under the same conditions simultaneously can also help raise the quality of the measurement results. There was a second, hidden benefit of triaxial analysis - it prevented a mutiny by the "hammer man", by keeping the number of hits required to a reasonable level. It is apparent from figure 11 that there are several clear resonances below 50 Hz (3000 cpm), but that there is a fairly significant amount of damping in the upper modes and possibly multiple closely-spaced resonances there also.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

The data from the impact testing was used to compute the modal behavior of the winder, using the modal analysis program. As a point of information, for measurements made with the CSI 2400, this process involves first saving the measurement results in a 2400 database file, then transferring the database file to the computer, where a data management utility program is used to convert the data to the modal analysis program's format. This is not a difficult process and has the advantage that the user can review all the data labels for accuracy, or make the changes required tocorrectly align the sensor axes with the local or global coordinate system for each component. The modal behavior of the winder was difficult to analyze, due to the presence of closely coupled, well damped modes and the tendency of parts of the structure to vibrate almost independently near some resonances. This is typical with real world systems, especially stiff massive structures like (some parts of) many machines. The modal program included tools to help in the accurate assessment of the true modes and the use of several sets of data can help confirm the results. An illustration of the first two significant modes at 19.56 Hz (1174 CPM) and 24.13 Hz (1448 CPM) is shown in figure 14.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

Centrifugal Compressor The analysis of a centrifugal compressor was part of an investigation of the underlying reason for persistent problems with this machine, not -experienced with its companion unit. Measurements were made both with the compressor loaded and unloaded. A schematic of the system is shown in figure 15, along with the global coordinate system adopted. Operating Deflection Shape (ODS) analysis was chosen as a principal part of the study, because the machine was suspected of running close to a resonance. An ODS model was created based on measurements at 62 points, using a reference point and direction on the side of the electric motor. Figure 16 shows the "skeleton" model for ODS work formed by drawing lines between the measurement points. With three directions at each point the 62 triaxial measurements represented the equivalent to 186 separate measurements, or 186 degrees of freedom in Modal/ODS terminology. Table I shows the correspondances between the sensor XYZ axes and the global XYZ axes. The frequency range of 0 to 12,000 cpm (200 Hz) chosen for the measurement includes the first three orders of motor speed as well as the two times line frequency component, nominally at 7200 cpm (120 Hz).

In this case, the CSI 329 integral triaxial sensor was used, with a 906 magnet mount. To-accommodate all the points on the model, 12 different orientations (out of the possible 24 mentioned above) were used. All the measurements were made in directions parallel to the global axes for the compressor, but rather than have to re-label each channel separately before saving data for each measurement, a slow process with a high potential for error, the orientation of the sensor was noted and the channel labels were left the same as the sensor axis labels. During the process of transferring the results to the ODS software format, the measurements were adjusted to the correct global axis and direction. Remember,
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Emerson Process Management - CSI

if the sensor's positive axis points in a direction opposite the global axis, the magnitude is unaffected, but the phase is shifted by 180 deg -- i.e. the correct phase is not opposite in sign! A typical frequency spectrum and time waveform of the vibrational velocity at the reference position is shown in figure 17. The high vibration at first and second order of shaft speed and tw6 times line frequency is very evident. The the pronounced modulation in the waveform is mostly the result of beating between the second order and two times line frequency vibrations, although -there is overall modulation indicated by the sideband activity at two times slip frequency at first, second and third order of shaft speed. Figure 18 shows another measurement with all four channels displayed, with the triaxial sensor placed close to the motor shaft. The top plot is channel X, the second channel Y, the third channel Z and the fourth is the reference transducer spectrum. Here the value of taking data simultaneously with the triaxial sensor is that all the channels are measured under the same conditions, which eliminates some variability associated with the change of speed, temperature, etc. over time.

The ODS results are illustrated in figure 19a, b, c, which shows snapshots of the ODS at motor shaft frequency under load, 3570 cpm; at second order of shaft frequency, 7140 cpm and two times line frequency, 7200 cpm nominal. In each case, an extreme position is shown for each frequency.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

The motor clearly moves more than the compressor, as expected. The maximum deflection at first order occurs at the inboard shaft position, but there appears to be excessive -movement in its base at the outboard end. The relative movement across the shaft suggests misalignment, which is supported by the strong second order vibration present, but the presence of the high two times line frequency component and two times slip sidebands tends to indicate a rotor problem (out-of-round or broken bars) or a stator problem (such as airgap eccentricty or frame distortion). All contents copyright 1998 - 2006, Computational Systems, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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