UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING



Radio-Wave Propagation and Antennae
TTCR3791


2012
Propagation: How radio waves travel from point A to point B; and the events occurring
in the transmission path that affect the communications between the points, stations, or
operators.
When the electrons in a conductor, (antenna wire) are made to oscillate back and forth,
Electromagnetic Waves (EM waves) are produced.
These waves radiate outwards from the source at the speed of light, 300 million meters
per second.

PROPAGATION
The relationship between electric and magnetic field intensities is analogous to the
relation between voltage and current in circuits
An electromagnetic wave propagating through space consists of electric and magnetic
fields, perpendicular both to each other and to the direction of travel of the wave
This relationship is expressed by:
H
E
Z =
Electric Field, E
Magnetic Field, H
Direction of
Propagation
Two types of waves: Transverse and Longitudinal
Transverse waves: vibration is from side to side; that is, at right angles to the
direction in which they travel
A guitar string vibrates with transverse motion. EM waves are always
transverse.
Electromagnetic transmissions move in space as Transverse waves

Waves are characterized by frequency and wavelength:

v = f
Longitudinal waves: Vibration is parallel to the direction of propagation. Sound
and pressure waves are longitudinal and oscillate back and forth as vibrations
are along or parallel to their direction of travel




Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature:
In some cases, it behaves as waves
In other cases, it behaves as particles (photons)
For radio frequencies the wave model is generally more appropriate
EM waves travel in straight lines, unless acted upon by some outside force. They travel
faster through a vacuum than through any other medium.

As EM waves spread out from the point of origin, they decrease in strength in what is
described as an "inverse square relationship".

For example: a signal 2 km from its starting point will be only 1/4 as strong as that 1
km from the source. A signal 3 km from the source will be only 1/9 that at the 1 km
point.

Power density in space is the amount of power that flows through each square
meter of a surface perpendicular to the direction of travel
Z
E
P
D
2
=
Power Density
Radio waves are one form of electromagnetic radiation
Light waves (waves we see)
and
radio waves (waves we hear)
are both EM waves, differing only in
frequency and wavelength.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves can be generated by many means, but all of them involve the
movement of electrical charges
Plane and Spherical Waves

The simplest source of electromagnetic waves would be a point in space, with
waves radiating equally in all directions. This is called an isotropic radiator

A wavefront that has a surface on which all the waves are the same phase would be
a sphere
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field with respect to
the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by
its orientation
Radio waves from a vertical antenna will usually be vertically polarized.
Radio waves from a horizontal antenna are usually horizontally polarized.
Polarization
Circular Polarization
The polarization of a plane wave is simply the direction of its electric field vector
The wave can rotate in either direction - it is called right-handed if it rotates
clockwise
Free-Space Propagation
Radio waves propagate through free space in a straight line with a velocity of the
speed of light (300,000,000 m/s)
There is no loss of energy in free space, but there is attenuation due to the spreading
of the waves
Attenuation of Free Space
An isotropic radiator would produce spherical waves
The power density of an isotropic radiator is simply be the total power divided by
the surface area of the sphere, according to the square-law:

P
D
=
P
t
4tr
2
Transmitting Antenna Gain
In practical communication systems, it is important to know the signal strength at
the receiver input
It depends on the transmitter power and the distance from the transmitter to the
receiver, but also upon the transmitting and receiving antennas
Two important antenna characteristics are:
Gain for the transmitting antenna
Effective area for the receiving antenna
Antennas are said to have gain in those directions in which the most power is
radiated
Receiving Antenna Gain
A receiving antenna absorbs some of the energy from radio waves that pass it
A larger antenna receives more power than a smaller antenna (in relation to
surface area)
Receiving antennas are considered to have gain just as transmitting antennas do
The power extracted from a receiving antenna is a function of its physical size
and its gain
Path Loss
Free-space attenuation is the ratio of received power to transmitted power
The decibel gain between transmitter and receiver is negative (loss) and the loss
found this way is called free-space loss or path loss
Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction
These three properties are shared by light and radio waves
For both reflection and refraction, it is assumed that the surfaces involved are much
larger than the wavelength; if not, diffraction will occur
Reflection
Reflection of waves from a smooth surface (specular reflection) results in the angle
of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence
the abrupt change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two dissimilar
media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated.
Reflecting object is large compared to wavelength.
Other Types of Reflection
Corner reflector Parabolic reflector Diffuse Reflection
Refraction
A transition from one medium to another results in the bending of radio waves, just
as it does with light
Snells Law governs the behavior of electromagnetic waves being refracted:
2 2 1 1
sin sin u u n n =
redirection of a wavefront passing through a medium having a refractive
index that is a continuous function of position (e.g., a graded-index
optical fibre or earth atmosphere) or through a
boundary between two dissimilar media
For two media of different refractive indices, the angle of refraction is
approximated by Snell's Law known from optics
Diffraction
As a result of diffraction, electromagnetic waves can appear to go around
corners
Diffraction is more apparent when the object has sharp edges, that is when the
dimensions are small in comparison to the wavelength
the mechanism the waves spread as they pass barriers in obstructed radio
path (through openings or around barriers)
Diffraction - important when evaluating potential interference between
terrestrial/stations sharing the same frequency.
Scattering
a phenomenon in which the direction (or polarization) of the wave is
changed when the wave encounters propagation medium
discontinuities smaller than the wavelength (e.g. foliage, )
Results in a disordered or random change in the energy distribution
Absorption
the conversion of the transmitted EM energy into another form, usually
thermal.
The conversion takes place as a result of interaction between the
incident energy and the material medium, at the molecular or
atomic level.
One cause of signal attenuation due to walls, precipitations (rain, snow,
sand) and atmospheric gases
Signals in the VHF and higher range are not usually returned to earth by the
ionosphere
Most terrestrial communication at these frequencies uses direct radiation from the
transmitter to the receiver
This type of propagation is referred to as space-wave, line-of-sight, or tropospheric
propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
r t
h h d + = 17 17
m in heights antenna Rx and Tx the are h and h
km in Rx and Tx between ce dis is d
r t
tan
Most of the time, radio waves are not quite in free space
Terrestrial propagation modes include:
Line-of-sight propagation
Space-wave propagation
Ground waves
Sky waves
RADIO WAVES
SPACE GROUND
SKY REFLECTED DIRECT SURFACE
Ground Wave is a Surface Wave that propagates or travels close to the surface of
the Earth.

Line of Sight (Ground Wave or Direct Wave) is propagation of waves travelling in
a straight line. These waves are deviated (reflected) by obstructions and cannot
travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. Most common direct wave occurs with
VHF modes and higher frequencies. At higher frequencies and in lower levels of
the atmosphere, any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving
antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye senses.

Space Waves: travel directly from an antenna to another without reflection on the
ground. Occurs when both antennas are within line of sight of each another,
distance is longer that line of sight because most space waves bend near the ground
and follow practically a curved path. Antennas must display a very low angle of
emission in order that all the power is radiated in direction of the horizon instead of
escaping in the sky. A high gain and horizontally polarized antenna is thus highly
recommended.

Sky Wave (Skip/ Hop/ Ionospheric Wave) is the propagation of radio waves bent
(refracted) back to the Earth's surface by the ionosphere. HF radio communication
(3 and 30 MHz) is a result of sky wave propagation.
LINE OF SIGHT, GROUND WAVE, SKY
WAVE
Ionospheric Propagation
Long-range communication in the high-frequency band is possible because of
refraction in a region of the upper atmosphere called the ionosphere
The ionosphere is divided into three regions known as the D, E, and F layers
Ionization is different at different heights above the earth and is affected by time of
day and solar activity
Propagation in a Mobile/Portable Environment
Multipath propagation creates interference for communication systems
Mobile environments are often so cluttered that the square-law attenuation of free
space does not apply (for example, in a city with many buildings)
Repeaters and Cellular Systems
Because mobile systems have relatively small antenna heights, systems must be in
place to improve signal strength and reception capabilities
Mobile units make use of repeaters that are full-duplex and use resonant cavities
called a duplexer
Cellular systems do not use the horizon as the limit of coverage
Antennas may still be mounted high, but the range is deliberately limited by using
as low a transmitter power as is possible
Control of Fading in Mobile Systems
Fading is a problem with mobile systems and increasing power and typical
frequency diversity are not workable solutions to this problem
Spread-spectrum systems can correct fading through alternative frequency diversity
systems such as CDMA
Using a rake receiver, a CDMA system can receive several data streams at once
Other Propagation Modes
Tropospheric Scatter - makes use of the scattering of radio waves in the troposphere
to propagate signals in the 250 MHz 5 GHz range
Ducting
Under certain conditions, especially over water, a superrefractive layer can form in
the troposphere and return signals to earth
The signals can then propagate over long distances by alternately reflecting from the
earth and refracting from the superrefractive layer
A related condition involves a thin tropospheric layer with a high refractive index,
so that a duct forms
Examples of Ducting
TRANSMISSION LINE




A transmission Line consists of conductors separated from each other by a
dielectric.

Two main types of line exist:
- the two wire line
- the coaxial line

The conductors forming a pair have both
resistance (R) and inductance (L) uniformly distributed along their length
capacitance (C) and leakance (G) uniformly distributed between them.

These four quantities are known as primary coefficients of a line.





RESISTANCE: The resistance R of a unit length of line, or loop resistance, is
the sum of the resistances of the two conductors comprising a pair. At zero
frequency the resistance of a line is the dc resistance Rdc given by:



are the resistivities of the two conductors and

are their cross-sectional areas

The a c resistance is proportional to the square root of the frequency
metre per ohms
a a
R
dc
2
2
1
1

+ =
2 , 1

2 , 1
a a
t cons a is k where f k R
ac
tan
1 1
=
Inductance and Capacitance. The loop inductance L, and the shunt capacitance C,
of the line in henry per metre and farads per metre respectively, are both more or less
constant with change in frequency

Leakance. The leakance G, of a line in Siemens per metre represents the leakance of
current between the conductors via the dielectric separating them, and is reciprocal of
insulation resistance. Leakance increases with increase in frequency and at the higher
frequencies it is directly proportional to frequency

t cons a is k f k G tan
2 2
=
SECONDARY COEFFICIENTS OF A LINE
The secondary coefficients of a transmission line are its
characteristic impedance attenuation coefficient
phase-change coefficient velocity of propagation
Characteristic Impedance. The characteristic impedance, Zo , of a transmission line is
the input impedance of an infinite length of that line.
Consider an infinite length of line below,

x
I
x
V
s
I
s
V
0
Z
To infinity
Definition of the characteristic impedance of a line
its input impedance is the ratio of the voltage, Vs, impressed across the sending end terminals to
the current, Is flowing into the line i.e.


Similarly, at any point x, along the line, the ratio is always equal to

Suppose the line is now cut a finite distance from its sending end terminals as shown
The remainder of the line is still of infinite length and so the impedance measured at terminals
2-2 is equal to the characteristic impedance. Thus before the line was cut, terminals 1-1 were
effectively terminated in the impedance

The conditions at the input terminals will not be changed if terminals 1-1 are closed in a
physical impedance equal to and this leads to a more practical definition:






s
I
1
0
Z
s
V
To infinity
1
2
2
ohms
I
V
Z
s
s
=
0
x x
I V
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
s
I
0
Z
s
V
0
Z
The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the input
impedance of a line that is itself terminated in the characteristic
impedance.

A line that is terminated in its characteristic impedance is said to be
correctly terminated.

The characteristic impedance of a line depends upon the values of the
primary coefficients of the line, according to the equation


At higher frequencies where we can write
this always applies to coaxial cable since they
are always operated at frequencies high enough
to make R and G negligible with respect to
ohms
C j G
L j R
Z
e
e
+
+
=
0
G C and R L >> >> e e
ohms
C
L
Z =
0
EXAMPLE
A generator of e.m.f 1V and internal resistance 79 Ohms is applied to a line having
L=0.5mH/m and C=0.08 microfarads/m. If the approximate expression for characteristic
impedance may be assumed, calculate
(a) the sending end current
(b) the sending end voltage.
s
I
O = 79
0
Z
s
V
V 1
O 79
O =

79
10 08 . 0
10 5 . 0
6
3
0
Z
mA A I
s
33 . 6
158
1
79 79
1
~ =
+
=
V I V
s s
5 . 0
158
1 79
79 =

= =
The characteristic impedance for some type of coaxial cables:

For an air-spaced coaxial line, where R is the inner radius of the outer
conductor, and r is the radius of the inner conductor


This lies between 30-100 Ohms. Most practical cables have the value of 50 75
Ohms

For an air-spaced two-wire line, where D is the spacing between the centers of
the two conductors and r is the radius of each conductor.


ohms
r
R
Z
10 0
log 138 =
ohms
r
D
Z
10 0
log 276 =
Attenuation Coefficient. As a current or voltage is propagated along a
line its amplitude is progressively reduced or attenuated because of losses in the
line.
The are two type of loses:
- conductor loses caused by power dissipation in the series resistance
- dielectric losses
If the current, or voltage at the sending-end terminals of the line is
, then the current, or voltage, at unit distance along the line is

where is the attenuation coefficient. In the next unit distance the attenuation is the same, and
thus the current at the end of this distance is
R I
2
s s
V or I ,
o o
= = e V V or e I I
s s 1 1
,
o
2
I
o o 2
1 2

= = e I e I I
s
The general expression for the attenuation coefficient of a line is complex, however
at frequencies were
the expression simplifies to


The attenuation coefficient varies with frequency in accordance with the frequency
dependencies of R and G i.e.




Example
A coaxial cable has loss of 3.5 dB/m at 1 MHz. Calculate its loss at 4 MHz if
(a) The dielectric loss is negligible
(b) The dielectric loss is 10% of the total.

dB Np
m neper f c f c
686 . 8 1
/
2 1
=
+ = o
G C and R L >> >> e e
2 2
0
0
GZ
Z
R
+ = o
Solution:
(a) The dielectric loss is negligible means that the leakance is zero and there is no
variation of G with frequency. This implies that the second term in the expression
for attenuation coefficient is absent i.e.






(b) Dielectric loss at 1 MHz = 0.35dB/m
Conductor loss at 1 MHz = 3.5 0.35 = 3.15 dB/m




f c
1
= o
m dB MHz at loss MHz at Loss / 7 2 5 . 3
10 1
10 4
1 4
6
6
= =

=
m dB MHz at Loss / 7 . 7 2 5 . 3
10 1
10 4
35 . 0
10 1
10 4
15 . 3 4
6
6
6
6
= =

=
Phase change Coefficient. A current or voltage wave travels along a line with
velocity and so the current or voltage at the end of a unit length lags the current or
voltage entering that length. The phase difference between the line currents or
voltages at two points which are unit distance apart is known as the Phase-change
coefficient of the line and it is measured in radians per unit distance.
For a line of length unit distances in length the received current will lag the
sending-end current by

Example. A correctly terminated transmission line has and
and is 3m long. A source, of e.m.f. 2V, is applied to the sending-end terminals of
the line. Calculate
(a) The magnitude of the received current
(b) Its phase relative to the sending-end voltage.

|
l |
l
m dB Z / 1 , 500
0
= O = o
m / 30
0
= |
O 500
Solution.
Since the line is correctly terminated its input impedance is equal to its characteristic
impedance. Therefore


(a) Line loss = 3 x 1 = 3 dB
The load and input impedances are both 500 ohms and so use may be made of the expression


Thus


(b) The phase shift introduced by the line is



mA I
s
2
500 500
2
=
+
=
( ) ratio current dB in n Attenuatio
10
log 20 =
mA I
I
r
r
2
2
log 20 3
10
= =
0 0
90 30 3 =
Phase Velocity of propagation. The phase velocity, , of a line is the velocity which a
sinusoidal wave travels along that line.
Any sinusoidal wave travels with a velocity of one wavelength per cycle. There are
cycles per second and so a wave travels with a velocity of metres per second i.e.


In one wavelength a phase change of 2pi radians occurs, and hence the phase change
per metre is
radians, and is also equal to the phase-change coefficient. Thus


and
meters per second.

p
v
f
f
ond per metres f v
p
sec =

t 2
|
t

t
|
2 2
= = or
|
e
|
t

t
| = = = f v or
p
2 2
ANTENNAE
An antenna is defined according to IEEE standard as a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves.
The antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and the guiding device or
transmission line which may take the form of a coaxial line or a waveguide and it is used to
transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the antenna (transmitting),
or from the antenna (receiving) to the receiver.





RL is used to represent the conduction and dielectric losses associated with the antenna while Rr, referred to as the
radiation resistance , is used to represent radiation by the antenna
Matching
The losses due to the line, antenna, and the standing waves are undesirable.

The losses due to the line can be minimized by selecting low-loss lines while those of
the antenna can be decreased by reducing the loss resistance represented by RL.

The standing waves can be reduced, and the energy storage of the line minimized, by
matching the impedance of the antenna (load) to the characteristic impedance of the
line.



Current and Voltage Distribution in Resonant Antennae
A resonant antenna is one which is an integral number of wavelengths in length, for example
the half-wavelength dipole shown



To determine the current and voltage distributions in a resonant antenna consider a
transmission line that is one wavelength long with an open circuit output

The open circuit transmission line

Incident and reflected currents at a
quarter wave length intervals along a
loss-free open-circuit line
The r.m.s. value of the total current at
each point
The standing wave obtained above is also obtained if the line is open out through 90 degree to form
a dipole antenna and the r.m.s. current and voltage distributions on a half-wave dipole are shown
Current and voltage distribution on a half wave dipole showing a) r.m.s. values b) peak values
Current distribution on Linear dipole
TYPES OF ANTENNAE
Wire antennae: There are various shapes of wired antenna such as straight wire (dipole), loop,
helix which are shown below
TYPES OF ANTENNAE
Aperture antennae: Some forms of aperture antenna are shown below. Antennae of this type
are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft application because they can be very conveniently
flush-mounted on the skin of the aircraft or spacecraft.
TYPES OF ANTENNAE
Microstrip antennae: They are very popular for spaceborn, government and commercial
applications. They consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate. The metallic patch can
take many different configuration but rectangular and circular patches shown below are more
popular because of ease of analysis and fabrication.
TYPES OF ANTENNAE
Array antennae: There are many applications that requires radiation characteristics that may
not be achievable by a single element. In this case it is possible that an aggregate of radiating
elements in an electrical and geometrical arrangement (an array) will result in the desired
radiation characteristics Typical examples of arrays are shown below.
TYPES OF ANTENNAE
Reflector antennae: There Because of the need to communicate over great distances,
sophisticated forms of antennae. A very common antenna form for such an application is a
parabolic reflector shown below
FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAE

To describe the performance of an antenna, definitions of various parameters are necessary. Some
of the parameters are interrelated and not all of them need be specified for complete description
of the antenna performance.
Some of the parameters are:
Radiation pattern
Radiation power density
Radiation Intensity
Beamwidth
Directivity
Antenna Efficiency
Gain
Beam Efficiency
Bandwidth
Polarization
Input Impedance

An antenna radiation pattern or simply antenna pattern is defined as a mathematical function or graphical
representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space coordinates. It is the angular distribution of
the radiated fields. The radiation pattern is determined in the far field.
Radiation properties includes: Power Flux Density, radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.

Radiation property of most concern is the 2 or 3 dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the
observers position along a path or surface of constant radius
A trace of the received electric or magnetic field at a constant radius is called the amplitude field pattern.

Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum value, yielding normalized field and
power patterns.

Power patterns is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale in dB (desirable because it can accentuate in more details those parts of the
pattern that have very low values(minor lobes) )

Field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of
angular space

Power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as
a function of angular space

Power pattern (in dB ) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field in dB as a function of angular space.
Radiation Pattern.
Radiation Pattern lobes
Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes which may be sub-classified into Major or
Minor, side or back lobes. A radiation lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of
relatively weak radiation intensity.
Radiation lobes and beam width of an antenna Linear plot of power pattern and its associated beamwidth
A major lobe ( also called main beam) is the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation. It is
pointing in the direction of teta = 0

A Minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. Usually represent radiation in undesired directions and should be
minimized.

A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.

A back lobe is a radiation whose axis makes an angle of approximately 180 degrees with respect to the beam of
an antenna

The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of power density in the lobe in question to that of
the major lobe. This ratio is often termed the side lobe ratio or side lobe level. Side lobe levels of -20 dB
or smaller are usually not desirable in most application.
Attainment of a side lobe level smaller than -30 dB usually requires very careful design and
construction. In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important to minimize false target
indications through the side lobe.
Lobes level
Calculating the Half power (-3 dB) relative to the maximum value of the
pattern
You set the value of the
Field Pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum.
Power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its maximum
Power pattern ( in dB) at -3 dB value of its maximum
Two-dimensional normalized patterns of a 10 element linear
All three patterns yields the same angular separation between the two half-power points, 38,64 degrees.
This is refereed to as HPBW as shown in the figures above.
All three The plus (+) and minus (-) signs in the lobes indicate the relative polarization of the amplitude
between the various lobes which changes alternately as the nulls are crossed
Three and two dimensional power pattern
Types of Pattern
Isotropic radiator: is defined as a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal Radiation in all direction
although it is only an idea and not physically realizable. Often taken as a reference for expressing the
directive properties of actual antennae.

A directional antenna: is one having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic wave more
effectively in some direction than others

Omnidirectional pattern is one having essentially nondirectional pattern in a given plane. It is a special
type of a directional pattern
Radiation Power Intensity
H E W =
W
2
m W
m V
m A
E
H
Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a wireless medium or a guiding
structure, from one point to the other. The quantity used to describe the power associated with an
electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynthing vector defined as


Where
instantaneous Poynthing vector

instantaneous electric field intensity

instantaneous magnetic field intensity
Radiation Intensity (power pattern) in a given direction is defined as the power radiated from
an antenna per unit solid angle.


radiation intensity

radiation density

rad
W r I =
2
I
rad
W
2
m W
angle solid unit W
Total power radiated by an antenna is given by
integrating the radiation intensity U over the entire
solid angle of 4 pi


For an isotropic antenna, radiation intensity will be
independent of teta and phi


0
4 I P
rad
= t
| u u
t
t
d d I
rad
P sin
2
0
0
}
}
=
Beamwidth
Associated with the pattern of an antenna is a parameter designated as beamwidth. The beamwidth of a
pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of the pattern
maximum.

In an antenna pattern, there are a number of beamwidths. One of the most widely used beamwidths is the
Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) which is defined as: In a plane containing the direction of the
maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half
value of the beam

Another important beamwidth is the angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern, and it is
referred to as the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW).

Both HPBW and FNBW are demonstrated


Example
The normalized radiation intensity of an antenna is represented by



The two dimensional plot of this plotted in a linear scale, is given below. Find

a. Half-Power Beamwidth HPBW (in radians and degrees)
b First-Null Beamwidth FNBW (in radians and degrees)




Solution
a Since radiation intensity represents the power pattern, to find the half power beamwidth you
set the function equal to half of its maximum, or



( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
360
0
0 ,
0
90
0
0 , 3
2
cos
2
cos s s s s = | u u u u I
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
=
=
=
h
h
h h
I
h h
u
u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u
3 cos
707 . 0
1
cos
707 . 0 3 cos cos
5 . 0 3
2
cos
2
cos
This is a transcendental function, it can be solve
iteratively and this gives:
0
3725 . 14 251 . 0 = ~ radians
h
u
Since the function for power pattern is symmetrical
about the maximum at teta = 0, then the HPBW is
0
745 . 28 502 . 0 2 = ~ = radians
h
HPBW u
Solution

b To find first null beamwidth (FNBW), you set the power pattern equal to zero, or


This leads to two solutions for teta



( ) ( ) ( )
0 3
2
cos
2
cos =
=
=
=
n
n
I
u u
u u
u u
u
The one with the smallest value leads to the FNBW.




Again because of the symmetry of the pattern
0
30
6
= ~ radians
n
t
u
0
60
3
2 = ~ = radians
n
FNBW
t
u
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 1
0 1
30
6
0 cos
3
1
0 3 cos
90
2
0 cos 0 cos
= = = =
= = = =

radians
radians
n n
n
n
t
u u
t
u u
Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all direction
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided
by 4 pi.
If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation is implied
rad rad
P
I
P
I
I
I
D

= = =
t
t
4
4
0
rad rad
P
I
P
I
I
I
D
max max
0
max
max
4
4
t
t
= = =
) (
) ( int
) ( int max
) ( int
) (dim max
) (dim
0
max
max
W power radiated total P
angle solid unit W source isotropic of ensity radiation I
angle solid unit W ensity radiation I
angle solid unit W ensity radiation I
ensionless y directivit imum D
ensionless y directivit D
rad
Directivity
Example:
Find the maximum directivity of an antenna whose radiation intensity is described as

Solution


The radiation intensity is given by
The maximum radiation intensity occurs in the direction along

2
0
sin
r
A
W
rad
u
=
u sin
0
2
A W r I
rad
= =
0 max
A I =
2 t u =
rad
P
I
D
max
max
4
=
t
} } } }
= = =
t t t t
t | u u | u u
2
0 0
2
0 0
0
2 2
0
sin sin A d d A d d I P
rad
27 . 1
4 4
0
2
0
max
= =

=
t t
t
A
A
D
Antenna Efficiency
R I
2
Antenna efficiency takes into account the looses at the input terminals and within the structure of the
antenna. Such losses may be due to
Reflections because of mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna
The losses

In general the overall efficiency e can be written as



Radiation efficiency

Reflection efficiency








cd
e
r
e
2
1
r
e =
cd
e
r
e
d
e
c
e
r
e = = e
Antenna Gain
Is the ratio of the intensity , in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically



The total radiated power is related to the input power through the radiation efficiency
according to the equation




If an antenna is lossless then the radiation efficiency is equal to 1, and the Gain is the same
as the directivity.
A loss which is not taken into account in the gain is that due to mismatch or reflection
between antenna and transmission line which when taken into account we introduce
absolute Gain
( )
in
P
I
power accepted input total
ensity radiation
Gain
| u
t t
,
4
) (
int
4 = =
in cd rad
P e P =
( )
( )
( ) ( ) | u | u
| u
t | u , ,
,
4 , D e G
P
I
e G
cd
rad
cd
=
(

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | u | u | u | u , , , , G e G e e G e G
cd r r abs
= = =
Example
A lossless resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna, with input impedance of 73 Ohms, is
connected to a transmission line whose characteristic impedance is 50 Ohms. Assuming that
the pattern of the antenna is given approximately by

Find the maximum absolute gain of this antenna.

Solution:




u
3
0
sin B I =
rad
P
I
D
max
max
4t =
( )
|
.
|

\
|
= = = =
} } }
4
3
sin 2 sin ,
2
0
0
4
0
2
0 0
0 max
t
u t | u u | u
t t t
B B d d I P B I
rad
697 . 1
3
16
4
max
max
= = =
t
t
rad
P
I
D
( )
( ) ( ) 297 . 2 697 . 1 log 10
697 . 1 1
10 max
max max
= =
= =
dB G
D e G
cd
max max max
G e e G e G
cd r o obs
= =
( )
cd cd r o
e e e e I = =
2
1
( )
965 . 0 1
50 73
50 73
1
1
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
I =
cd o
e e
( ) 6376 . 1 697 . 1 965 . 0
max max
= = = G e G
o obs
( ) ( ) 142 . 2 6376 . 1 log 10
10 max
= = dB G
obs
BANDWIDTH: The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within
which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a
specified standard.

INPUT IMPEDANCE: The input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an
antenna at its terminals. This is made off the resistive part and the reactive part.

The resistive part also made of
The radiation resistance is the property of the antenna which characterizes the conversion of
electrical energy into radio wave instead of heat.
The loss resistance of the antenna is the property of the antenna which characterizes the
conversion of electrical energy into heat.


For maximum power transfer to the antenna of input impedance and a
transmission line with impedance

A A A
jX R Z + =
L r A
R R R + =
A A A
jX R Z + =
L L L
jX R Z + =
L A
g L r
X X
R R R
=
= +
The Friis Transmission Equation relates the power received to the power transmitted
between two antenna separated by a distance
Where D is the largest dimension of either antenna.

If the transmitted power is ,
Then the isotropic power density at a distance from the antenna is


For a non-isotropic transmission antenna power density in the direction we
can write


Since the effective area of the receiving antenna is related to its efficiency and the
directivity by

The power collected by the receiver

2
2D R >
0
W
t
P
Friis Transmission Equation
R
2
0
4 R
P
e W
t
rad
t
=
t t
| u ,
( ) ( )
2 2
4
,
4
,
R
D P
e
R
G P
W
t r t t
rad
t r t t
t
t
| u
t
| u
= =
rec
e
r
D
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t

| u
4
,
2
r r r rec r
D e A
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2
. , ,
4
1 1
4
,
r t r r r t t t t t cdr cdt t r r rec r
D D
R
e e W D e P | u | u
t

| u |
.
|

\
|
I I =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The above formula takes into account the conduction-dielectric losses(radiation efficiency) of the transmitting and receiving
antennae, reflection losses (reflection efficiency) and polarization losses (polarization loss factor or polarization efficiency).
The radar cross section (RCS) or echo area of a target (scattering object) is define as the
ratio of power density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power
density of the radio wave incident upon the scattereing object and has units of square
meters.

The radar range equation relates the power delivered to the receiver load to the input power
transmitted by an antenna, after it has been scattered by a target with a radar cross section



The above formula takes into account the conduction-dielectric losses(radiation efficiency)
of the transmitting and receiving antennae, reflection losses (reflection efficiency) and
polarization losses (polarization loss factor or polarization efficiency).




o
Radar Range Equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 1
2 2
.
4 4
, ,
1 1
r s
r r r t t t t
t t cdr cdt r
R R
D D P
e e P
t

t
| u | u
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
I I =
Example:
Two lossless antennae in the band (8.2 12.4 GHz) are separated by a distance of 100
lamda. The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting and receiving antennae
are 0.1 and 0.2 respectively. The maximum directivities of the transmitting and receiving
antennae are 16 dBi and 20 dBi respectively. Assuming that the input power in the lossless
transmission line connected to the transmitting antenna is 2W, and the antennae are aligned
for maximum radiation between them and polarization-matched, find the power delivered to
the receiver.
We assume the excitation as a time-harmonic signal
at the frequency e, which results in a time-
harmonic radiation.
The length of the antenna L is assumed to be much
less than the wavelength:
L << . Typically: L < /50.
The antenna is also assumed as very thin:
r
a
<< .
The current along the antenna is assumed as
uniform:
Electric dipole antenna
A reasonable approximation for the current distribution is
( )
( ) sin 2
m
I z I k L z
(
=

( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
cos cos cos
2 2
cos cos cos
2 2
sin
sin
sin
a
kL kL
F F
L k
F
k L
u
u u u
u
u
u
u
| | | |

| |
\ .
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
\ .
=
=
Where F(u) is the radiation pattern:
k is the wave number.
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
cos cos cos
2 2
cos cos cos
2 2
sin
sin
sin
a
kL kL
F F
L k
F
k L
u
u u u
u
u
u
u
| | | |

| |
\ .
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
\ .
=
=
The radiation patter F(u) is :
k is the wave number.
The first term, F
1
(u) is the radiation characteristics of one of the elements used to make up the complete
antenna the element factor. The second term, F
a
(u) is the array (or space) factor the result of adding all
the radiation contributions of the various elements that form the antenna array as well as their interactions.
L = /2 L = L = 3/2 L = 2
The E-plane radiation patterns for dipoles of different lengths.
If the dipole length exceeds wavelength, the location of the maximum shifts.
Loop antenna
A loop antenna consists of a small
conductive loop with a current
circulating through it.
We have previously discussed that a
loop carrying a current can generate
a magnetic dipole moment. Thus, we
may consider this antenna as
equivalent to a magnetic dipole
antenna.
If the loops circumference C < /10
The antenna is called electrically small. If C is in order of or larger, the antenna
is electrically large. Commonly, these antennas are used in a frequency band from
about 3 MHz to about 3 GHz. Another application of loop antennas is in magnetic
field probes.
Antenna parameters
In addition to the radiation pattern, other parameters can be used to characterize
antennas. Antenna connected to a transmission line can be considered as its load,
leading to:
1. Radiation resistance.
We consider the antenna to be a load impedance Z
L
of a
transmission line of length L with the characteristic
impedance Z
c
. To compute the load impedance, we use
the Poynting vector
If we construct a large imaginary sphere of radius r
(corresponding to the far region) surrounding the
radiating antenna, the power that radiates from the
antenna will pass trough the sphere. The spheres radius
can be approximated as r ~ L
2
/2.
Small values of radiation resistance suggest that this antenna is
not very efficient.