KL Murty

MAT 450

Tension Test (Ch. 8 sections : 1-3, 5-12)

8.2 True - Curve 8.1 S vs e curve : Definitions and as related to S and e Tensile Strength (Eq. 8-3) True Stress at Pmax (Eq. 8-16) Yield Strength (0.2%) True Fracture Stress lf - l o Ductility : ef = l (depends on lo) True Fracture Strain (Eqs. 8-17,8-18) o True Uniform Strain (Eq. 8-19) Ao - Af True Local Necking Strain (Eq. 8-20) q= A (RA) o q volume constancy ef = 1 - q = eo zero gauge length ductility ---- Eq. 8-7 1 1 so Resilience : modulus of resilience , UR = 2 soeo = 2 E UR if E or So Eq. 8-7 large elastic strain (low E) before yielding with high yield stress Toughness : Energy to Fracture
n+1 f f J = d Sflow ef = K n+1 , {n=u} o
2

True vs : need necking-correction beyond UTS (Pmax) - Bridgmann, etc. (sec 8:3) Ao 1 TS = Su eu (Eq. 8-16); f = ln (1-q ) Eq. 8-18; u = n = ln(A ) u In general, = K n

(plastic stress and strain) but @ = 0, 0 !!! and other relations exist

often Ludwik Relation holds better = o + Kn

In general, strain-hardening exponent varies with strain different values in different strain ranges Instability in Tension : Necking or geometrical softening occurs in tension Au Necking Strain :n=ln( A ); t=u+n f Where does necking start or Instability Criterion : @ Pmax = u and dP=0 since P = A d = d

d or in terms of and e : de = 1+e Consideres Construction Localized vs Diffuse Neck (Fig. 8-9)

Fig. 8-8 Considere's construction for determination of the point of P max

KL Murty

MAT 450

Effect of Strain-Rate (8-6):

Fig. 8-12:

& =

& x & where x is the cross-head speed L

& |T , = C m m = ln & ln T , SRS

Flow Stress vs Strain-Rate:

Refer to Table 8-5 for range of strain-rates & techniques (Creep, Tensile, Dynamic Compression or Tesion, Impact, Shock Wave (Hopkinson-Bar))
m t ( vs n u )

mmax = 1 ---- Newtonian Viscous

In general, m is low (<0.1) for many metals at ambient while it approaches 1 at very high temperatures and very low strain-rates Higher the m value, lower the rate of decrease on the cross-sectional area in the neck --- (Fig. 814) and when m=1, the rate of area decrease becomes independent of the cross-sectional area. For superplastic materials ---- m ~ 0.5 at normal strain-rates and temperatures ---- leads to large (in excess of 1,000% strains) !!! Eq. 8-50

dA P = dt C

1/ m

1 A
1 m / m

m < 1 , &m = C

For m < 1,

dA as A or dt

smaller the A, more rapid is decrease in A

while for m = 1,

dA f ( A) -------- Or, higher m resists smaller A from rapid reduction dt

small equiaxed grains stable grain size ---- examples Conditions for Superplasticity : suppress matrix flow high m --- thus Eutectics and Eutectoids with dominant grain boundary sliding (GBS) exhibit superplasticity --- advantages in superplastic forming ------Effect of Temperature (8-7): (fig. 8-17 ---note fcc vs bcc NDT in bcc)

& f ( , , T )

rate e -Q/RT or e Q/RT

& So that = A n m e Q / RT

& MEOS --- f ( , ,T , ) = 0 (similar to Thermo --- PV=nRT) but while the gas law is pathindependent, the mechanical properties and plastic deformation do depend on the path unless (a) at very low temperatures where there is no recovery at all, and (b) at high temperatures where there is complete recovery such as during high temperature creep

KL Murty

MAT 450

As will be seen later, during HT deformation (or creep),

& | = f ( Z ) = f ( e Q/RT ) where Z is known

as Zener-Holloman Parameter
(K. L. Murty, M.S. Thesis, 1967)

e B at high stresses & In general, = Af ( )e Q / RT where f() = n at low stresses (n = 1/m, m = SRS) Or ----Effect of Test Machine (8-8): Machine Stiffness ----- x = vt =

& = A( SinhB ) n e Q / RT

P + L + pL K E

so that p =

& vt P AE v & & + 1) and applied strain-rate = = p + ( L E KL L E KL

--- difference between Rigid vs Soft Machine (A rigid machine like a screw driven machine gives distinct yield points characteristic of the material) -----Stress Relaxation (8-11):

At P (see Fig. 8-19) = 0 = p+E

& & Or p = E =

& E

(if rigid machine where K is very large)

& In general, p = (

A 1 & + ) (8-80) KL E

By knowing machine stiffness (K), and materials Youngs modulus (E), one can find
& & vs t or during stress relaxation from which one can evaluate: p vs covering a large range of

strain-rates so that the SRS (m) can be evaluated: m =

d ln d ln = . & & d ln d ln

KL Murty

MAT 450

The Hardness Test

(Ch. 9 : all sections) Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to surface penetration scratch hardness - useful to mineralogists and now to thin films in semiconductors dynamic hardness - (rebound) of an indenter dropped on to the surface (impact energy) indentation hardness Recall - Rockwell (depth measurement of a spherical indenter) - arbitrary (DPH) DPH (VHN) - measures size of impression of right diamond with 135o load VHN = surface area of indentation 1.854 P sin(/2) P = 2 d d2 d = mean diagonal of indentation =
d

o 135

Good for research but slow, needs good surface preparation, operator errors in d-measurement Industry uses Rockwell more often KHN (Knoop Hardness) - Variation of VHN d D

( D:d = 7:1)

diamond with one long diagonal - close to plane strain in the deformed region much lower loads microhardness can use to measure hardness in close proximity to each position - advantage in measuring gradient properties (such as in welds, etc.) & close to the surface adaptable to thin layers & brittle materials (since area or depth ~15% of VHN) From Plasticity Analyses (ignoring work-hardening) H = C TS recall (MAT 201)
Hardness

UTS

2 1

KL Murty

MAT 450

Thus, can use H vs T to evaluate (T) : see Fig. 9-5 H is much easier to determine than BHN (Brinell Hardness) - measure indentation diameter of a ball indenter Load BHN = surface area of indentation P (Eq.9-1) - t is depth Dt Eq.9-1not very satisfactory since it does not give the mean pressure over the surface of the indentation = Since d = D sin (see Fig 9-1), P BHN = 2 (1-cos) (Eq.9-2) (/2) D
Fig. 9-1 Basic Parameters in Brinell test

Geometric similitude when 2 is kept constant for nonstandard load(s) or ball diameters Better approach is to use Meyer hardness : use projected area (4 d2) of impression (rather than surface area) 4P (Eq. 9-4) mean pressure (pm) or Meyer Hardness = d2 Meyers law : P = k dn where n n + 2 , n = work-hardening parameter (=Kn) elastic-plastic analysis : mean pressure or Meyer Hardness, pm = C f 3 f f is flow stress (Eq. 9-6) Relation Between Meyer Hardness and flow (-) curve (Fig. 9-3) : d Tabor = 0.2 D and relate pm to () ABI (Automated Ball Indentation)
1