Burma - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union
of Myanmar
_ c: _ : c: _ c: _ : c: _ c: _ : c: _ c: _ : c:
Pyidaunzu Thanmda Myma Pyidaunzu Thanmda Myma Pyidaunzu Thanmda Myma Pyidaunzu Thanmda Myma
Nainngandaw Nainngandaw Nainngandaw Nainngandaw
Flag State seal
Anthem: Anthem: Anthem: Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei
Capital Capital Capital Capital Naypyidaw
1945N 966E
Largest city Largest city Largest city Largest city Yangon (Rangoon)
Official language(s) Official language(s) Official language(s) Official language(s) Burmese
Recognised
regional languages
Jingpho, Kayah, Karen,
Chin, Mon, Rakhine,
Shan
Official scripts Official scripts Official scripts Official scripts Burmese script
Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Burman 68%
Shan 9%
Karen 7%
Rakhine 4%
Chinese 3%
Indian 2%
Mon 2%
other 5%
Demonym Demonym Demonym Demonym Burmese / Myanma
Government Government Government Government Unitary presidential
republic
- President Thein Sein
- Vice President Tin Aung Myint Oo
Sai Mauk Kham
Legislature Legislature Legislature Legislature Pyidaungsu Hluttaw
- Upper house Amyotha Hluttaw
- Lower house Pyithu Hluttaw
Formation Formation Formation Formation
- Pagan Dynasty 23 December 849
- Toungoo Dynasty 16 October 1510
Burma Burma Burma Burma
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Burma Burma Burma Burma
i
/brm/, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar
i
/mjnmr/
(Burmese: _ c: _ : c: , Pyidaunzu Thanmda Myma Nainngandaw,
pronounced [pjdz mda mjm nd]), is a country in South Asia and
Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand.
One-third of Burma's total perimeter of 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) forms an
uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. At 676,578 km
2
(261,227 sq mi), it is the 40th largest country in the world and the second largest
country in Southeast Asia. Burma is also the 24th most populous country in the world
with over 60.28 million people.
[6]
Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of Southeast Asia including the Pyu
and the Mon.
[7]
In the 9th century, the Burmans of the Kingdom of Nanzhao, entered
the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Empire in
the 1050s, the Burmese language and culture slowly became dominant in the country.
During this period, Theravada Buddhism gradually became the predominant religion of
the country. The Pagan Empire fell due to the Mongol invasions (12771301), and
several warring states emerged. In the second half of the 16th century, the country
was reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty which for a brief period was the largest empire
in the history of Southeast Asia.
[8]
The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled
over an area that included modern Burma as well as Manipur and Assam. The country
was colonized by Britain following three Anglo-Burmese Wars (18241885).
British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes to the
once-feudal society. Since independence in 1948, the country has been in one of the
longest running civil wars among the country's myriad ethnic groups that remains
unresolved. From 1962 to 2011, the country was under military rule. The military junta
was dissolved in 2011 following a general election in 2010 and a civilian government
installed.
Burma is a resource rich country. However, since the reformations of 1962, the
Burmese economy has become one of the least developed in the world. Burmas GDP
stands at $42.953 billion and grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually the lowest
rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion.
[9]
Among others, the EU,
United States and Canada have imposed economic sanctions on Burma.
[10]
Burma's
health care system is one of the worst in the world: The World Health Organization
ranked Burma at 190th, the worst performing of all countries.
The United Nations and several other organizations have reported consistent and
systematic human rights violations in the country, including child labour, human
trafficking and a lack of freedom of speech.
Contents Contents Contents Contents
1 Name
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Imperial era (8491885)
2.3 Colonial era (18861948)
2.4 Democratic republic (19481962)
2.5 Military rule (19622011)
2.5.1 The Ne Win years
2.5.2 SPDC rule (19882011)
2.5.2.1 2007 Burmese anti-government protest
2.6 Elections and reforms (2010present)
Location of Burma Burma Burma Burma (green)
in ASEAN (dark grey) [Legend]
Coordinates: 22N 96E
Burma - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 4/26/2012 6:16 PM http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma
1 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
- Konbaung Dynasty 29 February 1752
- Independence
(from United
Kingdom)
4 January 1948
- Coup d'tat 2 March 1962
- New constitution 30 March 2011
Area Area Area Area
- Total
676,578 km
2
(40th)
261,227 sq mi
- Water (%) 3.06
Population Population Population Population
- 2010 estimate
60,280,000
[1]
(24th)
- 1983 census
33,234,000 (
3
)
- Density
73.9/km
2
(119th)
191.5/sq mi
GDP GDP GDP GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate
- Total
$82.679 billion
[2]

- Per capita
$1,324
[2]

GDP GDP GDP GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate
- Total
$51.925 billion
[2]

- Per capita
$832
[2]

HDI HDI HDI HDI (2011)
0.483
[3]
(low) (149th)
Currency Currency Currency Currency kyat (K) (MMK)
Time zone Time zone Time zone Time zone MST (UTC+06:30)
Drives on the Drives on the Drives on the Drives on the
right
[4]
Internet TLD Internet TLD Internet TLD Internet TLD .mm
Calling code Calling code Calling code Calling code 95
Some governments recognise Rangoon as the national
capital.
[5]
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Wildlife
4 Government and politics
5 Human rights
6 Health
7 Administrative divisions (regions and states)
8 Foreign relations and military
9 Economy
9.1 Agriculture
9.2 Natural resources
9.3 Tourism
10 Demographics
10.1 Ethnic groups
11 Culture
11.1 Language
11.2 Religion
11.3 Units of measure
12 Education
13 Media
14 Sport
15 See also
16 Notes
17 References
18 External links
Name Name Name Name
Main article: Names of Burma
Both "Burma" and "Myanmar" are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. "Myanmar" is considered to
be the literary form of the name of the ethnic group, while "Burma" is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the name of the
group. Depending on the register used the pronunciation would be "Bama" (pronounced [bm]), or "Myamah" (pronounced [mjm]). The
name "Burma" has been in use in English since the time of British colonial rule.
In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many colonial-era names; among these changes was
the alteration of the name of the country to "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.
[11]
Many opposition groups and
countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to
rename the country.
[12]
Various non-Burman ethnic groups choose not to recognise the name because of the association of the term
"Myanmar" with the majority ethnic group, the Bamar, rather than with the country.
[13][14][15]
"Burma" continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, including the United States, Australia, Canada and the
United Kingdom. The United Nations uses "Myanmar", as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Germany,
[16]
Norway,
[17]
China, India and Japan.
[18]
There are variations of "Myanmar" when translated to local languages. The Government of Brazil uses
"Mianmar",
[19]
for example.
History History History History
Main article: History of Burma
Early history Early history Early history Early history
1
2 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Neolithic paintings found inside
Padah-Lin Caves, radiocarbon
dated up to 13,000 years ago
Pagodas and temples in
present-day Pagan (Bagan), the
capital of the Pagan Kingdom
Temples at Mrauk U
Main articles: Prehistory of Burma, Pyu city-states, and Mon city-states
Archaeological evidence shows that the homo erectus had lived in the region now known as Burma
as early as 750,000 years ago, and the homo sapiens about 11,000 BCE, in a Stone Age culture
called the Anyathian, when plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools
appeared in Burma.
[20]
The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BCE when people in the region were
turning copper into bronze, growing rice, and domesticating chickens and pigs; they were among
the first people in the world to do so. The Iron Age arrived around 500 BCE when iron-working
settlements had emerged in an area south of present-day Mandalay.
[21]
Evidence also shows rice
growing settlements of large villages and small cities that traded with their surroundings as far as
China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.
[22]
Around the 2nd century BCE, the first known city-states emerged in central Burma. The city-states
were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest
inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.
[23][24]
The Pyu
culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts,
which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization.
[25]
By the 9th century CE, several
city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu states in the central dry zone, Mon states along the southern coastline and
Arakanese states along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu states came under repeated attacks from the
Kingdom of Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century, the Mranma (Burmans/Bamar) of Nanzhao
founded a small settlement at Pagan (Bagan). It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in
authority and grandeur.
[26]
Imperial era (8491885) Imperial era (8491885) Imperial era (8491885) Imperial era (8491885)
Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Toungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty
See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Mrauk U Kingdom, and Shan states
Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s1060s when Anawrahta
founded the Pagan Empire, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In
the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in
mainland Southeast Asia.
[27]
The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the
upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada
Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although Tantric, Mahayana, Brahmanic, and
animist practices remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000
Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (12771301) toppled
the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.
[28]
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th
century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol
invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan states came to dominate the entire northwestern
to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
the late 14th century when two sizable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom,
emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its
stronger neighbors until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in
1437.
Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (13851424) but could never quite reassemble the lost
empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become
a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly
weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan
States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Burma until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronization
continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and
stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.
[29]
Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.
[30]
Many splendid temples of Mrauk
U were built during this period.
Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of one tiny Toungoo (Taungoo), a former vassal state of Ava.
Toungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in 1541. His successor Bayinnaung went on
to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, the Chinese Shan states, Siam, Lan
Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in
1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Siam seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at
3 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580
A British 1825 lithograph of
Shwedagon Pagoda shows British
occupation during the First Anglo-
Burmese War.
The landing of British forces in
Mandalay after the last of the
Anglo-Burmese Wars, which
resulted in the abdication of the
last Burmese monarch, King
Thibaw Min.
Syriam (Thanlyin).
The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a
smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Burma, Upper Burma, Shan states, Lan
Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework
whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced
the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and
greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms
built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was
beset with repeated Manipuri raids into Upper Burma, and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740,
the Mon of Lower Burma founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces
sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.
After the fall of Ava, one resistance group, Alaungpaya's
Konbaung Dynasty defeated Restored Hanthawaddy, and by
1759, had reunited all of Burma (and Manipur), and driven out
the French and the British who had provided arms to
Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765), defeated Siam
(1767), and defeated four invasions by China (17651769).
[31]
With Burma preoccupied by the
Chinese threat, Siam recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.
Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to
Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, King
Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the
second largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British
India.
[32]
The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to
the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (18241826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower
Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon tried to modernize the kingdom, and in
1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indo-China,
annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and
external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley.
The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era
(half of all males and 5% of females).
[33]
Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient
to stem the advance of British colonialism.
Colonial era (18861948) Colonial era (18861948) Colonial era (18861948) Colonial era (18861948)
Main article: British rule in Burma
With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule. Throughout the colonial era, many
Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the
Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the
capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.
Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon on
occasion all the way until the 1930s.
[34]
Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for
Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered
pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an
activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from
wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.
[35]
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the
first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese
self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War
II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan
formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during the Second World War. By March 1942, within months after they entered the
war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration
headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of
offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the
fighting.
4 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
British troops firing a mortar on
the Mawchi road, July 1944.
Protesters gathering in central
Rangoon, 1988
Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic
minorities, also served in the British Burma Army.
[36]
The Burma Independence Army and the
Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the
Allied side in 1945.
Following the World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that
guaranteed the independence of Burma as a unified state. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy
Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political
rivals
[37]
assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.
[38]
Democratic republic (19481962) Democratic republic (19481962) Democratic republic (19481962) Democratic republic (19481962)
Main article: Post-independence Burma, 19481962
On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first
President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a
member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of
Nationalities,
[39]
and multi-party elections were held in 19511952, 1956 and 1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which
consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
[14]
In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime
Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.
[40]
Among the Burmese to work at the
UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi, who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.
Military rule (19622011) Military rule (19622011) Military rule (19622011) Military rule (19622011)
The Ne Win years The Ne Win years The Ne Win years The Ne Win years
Main article: 1962 Burmese coup d'tat
On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'tat and the government has been
under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Burma was ruled by a revolutionary council headed
by the general, and almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control
under the Burmese Way to Socialism
[41]
which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning with the governmental
implementation of superstitious beliefs.
[citation needed]
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted
in 1974, until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling
through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).
[42]
During this period, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished
countries.
[43]
There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7
July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.
[41]
In 1974, the military violently
suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by
overwhelming force.
[42]
SPDC rule (19882011) SPDC rule (19882011) SPDC rule (19882011) SPDC rule (19882011)
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to
widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising.
Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'tat
and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared
martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's
Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.
[44]
SLORC changed the country's official English name from
the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the
National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 489
seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power
[45]
and
continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development
Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.
5 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Protesters in Yangon with a
banner that reads non-violence:
national movement in Burmese.
In the background is Shwedagon
Pagoda.
Cyclone Nargis, 23 May 2008,
devastated southern Burma
On 23 June 1997, Burma was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta,
which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital
Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".
[46]
2007 Burmese anti -government protest 2007 Burmese anti -government protest 2007 Burmese anti -government protest 2007 Burmese anti -government protest
Main article: 2007 Burmese anti-government protests
In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to a series of anti-government
protests that were dealt with harshly by the government.
[47]
The protests then became a
campaign of civil resistance (also called the Saffron Revolution.
[48][49]
)
[50]
led by Buddhist
monks,
[51]
hundreds of whom defied the house arrest of democracy advocate Aung San Suu Kyi to
pay their respects at the gate of her house. The government finally cracked down on them on 26
September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda
and monks killed. However, there were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed
forces, but none was confirmed.
In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming
delta of the Irrawaddy Division.
[52]
It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with
reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, and damage totaled to 10 billion dollars
(USD), and as many as 1 million left homeless.
[53]
In the critical days following this disaster,
Burma's isolationist government hindered recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations
planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.
[54]
In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern
Burma. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han
Chinese,
[55]
Va, and Kachin.
[56][57]
From 812 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as
10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.
[56][57][58]
Elections and reforms (2010present) Elections and reforms (2010present) Elections and reforms (2010present) Elections and reforms (2010present)
Main article: 20112012 Burmese political reforms
The Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008, promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy", was held on 10 May 2008 and the name
of the country was changed from the Union of Myanmar Union of Myanmar Union of Myanmar Union of Myanmar to the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of the Union of Myanmar. General elections were held
under the new constitution in 2010. Observers described the election day of 2010 as mostly peaceful, though there were alleged
irregularities in polling stations and the United Nations and Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.
[59]
The official
turnout was reported as 77%.
[60]
The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory stating that it had won
80% of the votes. That claim was widely disputed by pro-democracy opposition groups, which asserted that the military regime
engaged in rampant fraud to achieve its result.
[60]
Since the elections, the government has embarked on a series of reforms toward liberal democracy, mixed economy, and
reconciliation although the motives of such reforms are still debated. These reforms include the release of pro-democracy leader Aung
San Suu Kyi from house arrest, establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, general amnesties of more than 200 political
prisoners, institution of new labour laws that allow labour unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship and regulations of
currency practices.
[61]
The reforms come as a surprise to many because the election of 2010 was considered fraudulent by the
international community.
[62]
The consequences of the reforms are far-reaching. The ASEAN members have approved Burma's bid for ASEAN chair in 2014. United
States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Burma in December 2011 to encourage further progress, the first visit by a Secretary
of State in more than fifty years. Clinton met with Burmese president Thein Sein as well as opposition leader Daw Aung San Suu
Kyi.
[63]
Domestically, Aung San Suu Kyi's party, National League for Democracy was permitted to participate in the by-election after
the government abolished laws that led to NLD's boycott.
[64]
However, uncertainties exist as more than 1,600 political prisoners are
not yet released and the clashes between Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continue.
The April 1 election was perhaps the most promising moment of reform. Led by Aung San Suu Kyi, the National League for Democracy
won 43 of 45 seats up for grabs. Although only a small fraction of the seats were up for a vote, the previously illegal NLD was
allowed to campaign, run, and win for the first time. Also a first, international election monitors were allowed to monitor the
voting.
[65]
Despite such positive strides, the NLD has reported over 50 instances of voting irregularities on election day as well as a
campaign of fraud and harassment leading up to the election.
[66]
Geography Geography Geography Geography
6 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Topographic map of Burma
Rural landscape of Shan State
Limestone landscape of Mon State
Main article: Geography of Burma
Burma, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi), is the largest country
in mainland Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world. It lies between latitudes 9 and
29N, and longitudes 92 and 102E. As of February 2011, Burma constituted of 14 states and
regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2914 Wards, 14220 village
tracts and 68290 villages.
It is bordered to the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram,
Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India to the northwest. Its north and
northeast border straddles the Tibet and Yunnan regions of China for a Sino-Burman border total
of 2,185 kilometres (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Burma has
1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to
the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.
[9]
In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in
Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma.
[67]
Three
mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within
Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.
[68]
The mountain chains divide
Burma's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung
rivers.
[69]
The Irrawaddy River, Burma's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long,
flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.
[68]
The majority of Burma's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the
Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Climate Climate Climate Climate
Main article: Climate of Burma
Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon
region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual
rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the
Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). Northern regions of
the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 C (70 F). Coastal and delta regions
have an average maximum temperature of 32 C (89.6 F).
[69]
Wildlife Wildlife Wildlife Wildlife
The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its
environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the
country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and michelia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been
introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.
[70]
Heavy logging since the
new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.
[71]
The lands along the coast
support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have
disappeared. In much of central Burma (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards, occur sparsely in Burma. In upper Burma, there are rhinoceros, wild buffalo,
wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber
industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds
is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, herons, and paddybirds. Among reptile species there
are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and
are very important food sources.
[72]
For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Burma.
Government and politics Government and politics Government and politics Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Burma
The constitution of Burma, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The
country is governed as a presidential republic with a bicameral legislature, with a portion of legislatures appointed by the military and
others elected in general elections. The current head of state, inaugurated as President on 30 March 2011, is Thein Sein.
The legislature, called the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, is bicameral and made up of two houses: The 224-seat upper house Amyotha Hluttaw
(House of Nationalities) and the 440-seat lower house Pyithu Hluttaw (House of Representatives). The upper house consists of 224
7 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
member of which 168 are directly elected and 56 are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces while the lower house consists of 440
members of which 330 are directly elected and 110 are appointed by the armed forces. The major political parties are the National
Democratic Force and the two backed by the military: the National Unity Party, and the Union Solidarity and Development Party. The
National League for Democracy, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, was declared illegal before the 2010 elections for failing to register for
the elections.
Burma's army-drafted constitution was approved in a referendum in May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an
official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National league of democracy with reports
of widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.
[73]
The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party and various foreign
observers questioned the fairness of the elections.
[74][75][76]
One criticism of the election was that only government sanctioned
political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popular National League for Democracy was declared illegal and is still barred
from political activities.
[77]
However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy
advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi.
[78]
and her ability to move freely around the country is
considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.
[77]
After unexpected reforms in 2011, NLD senior
leaders have decided to register as a political party and to field candidates in future by-elections.
[79]
Burma rates as a highly corrupt nation on the Corruption Perceptions Index with a rank of 180th out of 183 countries worldwide and a
rating of 1.5 out of 10 (10 being least corrupt and 0 being highly corrupt) as of 2011.
[80]
Human rights Human rights Human rights Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Burma
Further information: Internal conflict in Burma
Human rights in Burma are a long-standing concern for the international community and human rights organizations. Members of the
United Nations and major international human rights organizations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and
systematic human rights violations in Burma. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly
[81]
called on the Burmese Military
Junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution "strongly condemning the ongoing
systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and calling on the Burmese Military Regime "to take urgent
measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law."
[82]
International human rights
organizations including Human Rights Watch,
[83]
Amnesty International
[84]
and the American Association for the Advancement of
Science
[85]
have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations. There is consensus that the military
regime in Burma is one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.
[86][87]
They have claimed that there is no independent
judiciary in Burma. Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are common.
[88]
The military is also notorious for rampant use
of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including allegations of systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the
military. A women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chiang Mai. There is a
growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues.
[89]
The Freedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes that "The military junta has long ruled by decree and controlled all
executive, legislative, and judicial powers; suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity. The
junta carefully rigged the electoral framework surrounding the 2010 national elections, which were neither free nor fair. The countrys
more than 2,100 political prisoners included about 429 members of the NLD, the victors in the 1990 elections."
[90]
Evidence has been
gathered suggesting that the Burmese regime has marked certain ethnic minorities such as the Karen for extermination or
'Burmisation'.
[91]
This, however, has received little attention from the international community since it has been more subtle and
indirect than the mass killings in places like Rwanda.
[92]
The Freedom in the World 2012 report notes improvement due to new reforms. Previously rated as a 7, the lowest rating, for both
civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners and a loosening of restriction has given Burma a 6 for civil liberties in
the most recent Freedom in the World.
[93]
However, since the transition to new government in August 2011, Burma's human rights record has been improving according to the
Crisis Group.
[94]
The government has assembled a National Human Rights Commission consisted of 15 members from various
backgrounds.
[95]
Several activists in exile including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Burma after President Thein
Seins offer to expatriates to return home to work for national development.
[96]
In an address to the United Nations Security Council
in 22 September 2011, Burma's Foreign Minister Wanna Maung Lwin confirmed the release of prisoners in near future.
[97]
The
government also relaxes reporting laws although still highly restrictive.
[98]
In September 2011, several banned websites, including
YouTube, Democratic Voice of Burma and Voice of America, have been unblocked.
[99]
A 2011 report by the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found that while constrained by donor restrictions on contact with the
8 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Myanmar government, international humanitarian Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) see opportunities for effective advocacy
with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, International NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of
how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.
[100]
Health Health Health Health
Main article: Health in Burma
Further information: HIV/AIDS in Burma
The general state of health care in Myanmar health care in Myanmar health care in Myanmar health care in Myanmar (Burma) is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the
country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.
[101][102]
Although health care is nominally free, in
reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic
facilities and equipment.
HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by the Burmese Ministry of Health, is most prevalent among sex workers and
intravenous drug users. In 2005, the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate in Burma was 1.3% (200,000 - 570,000 people), according
to UNAIDS, and early indicators show that the epidemic may be waning in the country, although the epidemic continues to expand.
[103][104][105]
However, the National AIDS Programme Burma found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in
Burma have HIV.
[105]
Burma's government spends the least percentage of its GDP on health care of any country in the world, and international donor
organisations give less to Burma, per capita, than any other country except India.
[106]
According to the report named "Preventable
Fate", published by Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been
prevented by antiretroviral therapy drugs and proper treatment.
[106]
In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery (http://www.unfpa.org
/sowmy/report/home.html) . It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal
mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. This is compared with 219.3 in
2008 and 662 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's
mortality is 47.
Administrative divisions (regions and states) Administrative divisions (regions and states) Administrative divisions (regions and states) Administrative divisions (regions and states)
Main article: Administrative divisions of Burma
The country is divided into seven states (_ ) and seven regions ( .c_.),
formerly called divisions.
[107]
The announcement on the renaming of division to regions
was made on 20 August 2010.
[108]
Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly
inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions which are home
to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into
districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.
Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village Groups and
villages in each divisions and states of Burma as of 31 December 2001:
[109]
No. No. No. No. State/Region State/Region State/Region State/Region Districts Districts Districts Districts Townships Townships Townships Townships Cities/Towns Cities/Towns Cities/Towns Cities/Towns Wards Wards Wards Wards
Village Village Village Village
groups groups groups groups
Villages Villages Villages Villages
1 Kachin State 3 18 20 116 606 2630
2 Kayah State 2 7 7 29 79 624
3 Kayin State 3 7 10 46 376 2092
4 Chin State 2 9 9 29 475 1355
5 Sagaing Region 8 37 37 171 1769 6095
6
Tanintharyi
3 10 10 63 265 1255
9 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
US Secretary of State Hillary
Clinton and Myanmar President
Thein Sein at Naypyidaw
Region
7 Bago Region 4 28 33 246 1424 6498
8 Magway Region 5 25 26 160 1543 4774
9 Mandalay Region 7 31 29 259 1611 5472
10 Mon State 2 10 11 69 381 1199
11 Rakhine State 4 17 17 120 1041 3871
12 Yangon Region 4 45 20 685 634 2119
13 Shan State 11 54 54 336 1626 15513
14
Ayeyarwady
Region
6 26 29 219 1912 11651
Total Total Total Total 63 63 63 63 324 324 324 324 312 312 312 312 2548 2548 2548 2548 13742 13742 13742 13742 65148 65148 65148 65148
Foreign relations and military Foreign relations and military Foreign relations and military Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Burma and Burmese Armed Forces
Though the country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained,
relations have thawed since the reforms following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic
isolation and economic and military sanctions,
[110]
the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid
to Burma in November 2011
[111]
and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13
January 2012
[112]
The European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms
embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of
humanitarian aid.
[113]
U.S. and European government sanctions against the former military
government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the
democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many
European companies.
[114]
On 13 April 2012 British Prime Minister David Cameron called for the
economic sanctions on Burma to be suspended in the wake of the pro-democracy party gaining 43
seats out of a possible 45 in the 2012 by-elections with the party leader, Aung San Suu Kyi
becoming a member of the Burmese parliament.
[115]
Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new
investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several
Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led
sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.
[116][117]
Burma has also received extensive
military aid from India and China in the past.
[118]
According to some estimates, Burma has received more than US$200 million in
military aid from India.
[119]
Under India's Look East policy, fields of cooperation between India and Burma include remote
sensing,
[120]
oil and gas exploration,
[121]
information technology,
[122]
hydro power
[123]
and construction of ports and buildings.
[124]
In 2008, India suspended military aid to Burma over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, although it has preserved
extensive commercial ties which provide the regime with much needed revenue.
[125]
Burma has been a member of ASEAN since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in
2006, it is scheduled to chair the forum and host the summit in 2014.
[126]
In November 2008, Burma's political situation with
neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.
[127]
The
fate of Rohingya refugees also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Burma.
[128]
The country's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and
the Air Force. The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service.
[9]
The military is very influential in
the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by military officers. Official figures for military spending are not available.
Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but military spending is very high.
[129]
The country imports most of its
weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
The country is building a research nuclear reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear
non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had
informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE
10 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
A street market in Yangon
selling produce.
Graphical depiction of
Myanmar's product exports in
28 color coded categories.
Rice cultivation accounts for much
steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.
[130][131]
In 2010 as part of the Wikileaks leaked cables, Burma was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified
Surface-to-Air Missile facility.
[132]
Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Burma by consensus.
[133][133][134][135][136]
But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon
the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights.
[137]
In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft
resolution before the United Nations Security Council
[138]
calling on the government of Burma to respect human rights and begin a
democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.
[139]
Economy Economy Economy Economy
Main article: Economy of Burma
Further information: Agriculture in Burma, Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), Tourism in
Burma, and Transport in Burma
The country is one of the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, suffering
from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. The lack of
an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the
growing problems of the economy.
[140]
The country lacks adequate
infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border, where most
illegal drugs are exported and along the Irrawaddy River. Railways are
old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late
19th century.
[141]
Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major
cities.
[141]
Energy shortages are common throughout the country
including in Yangon.
Under British administration, Burma was the second-wealthiest country in
South-East Asia. It had been the world's largest exporter of rice. Burma also had a wealth of natural
and labour resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak and had a highly literate population.
[12]
The country was believed to be on
the fast track to development.
[12]
During World War II, the British destroyed the major oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from the
Japanese. Burma was bombed extensively by both sides. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu
embarked upon a policy of nationalization and the state was declared the owner of all land. The government also tried to implement a
poorly considered Eight-Year plan. By the 1950s, rice exports had fallen by two thirds and mineral exports by over 96% (as compared
to the pre-World War II period). Plans were partly financed by printing money, which led to inflation.
[142]
The 1962 coup d'tat was
followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of
agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries.
[43]
Burma's admittance to
Least Developed Country status by the UN in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy.
[143]
The national currency is Kyat. Burma has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba.
[144]
The market rate was around two hundred
times below the government-set rate in 2006.
[145]
Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007.
[146]
Inflation is a serious
problem for the economy. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic
benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade
sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma.
[145]
Foreign investment comes primarily from China,
Singapore, The Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.
[147]
The annual import of medicine and medical equipment to Burma during the 2000s was 160 million USD.
[148]
Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture
The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land
area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with
the International Rice Research Institute 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country
between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to
19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands,
including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.
[149]
In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50
million tons.
[150]
11 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
of the agriculture in Burma today.
Apartment building in Naypyidaw.
Naypyidaw is the new capital of
Burma which is nearing
completion.
A block of flats in down-town
Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market.
Much of Yangon's urban
population resides in densely
populated flats.
Burma is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world
production and is a major source of illegal drugs, including amphetamines.
[151]
Opium bans
implemented since 2002 after international pressure have left ex-poppy farmers without sustainable sources of income in the Kokang
and Wa regions. They depend on casual labour for income.
[152]
Natural resources Natural resources Natural resources Natural resources
Burma produces precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come
from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's
"Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (120 mi) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and
blue sapphires.
[153]
Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany, and Cartier, refuse to import these stones
based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the
purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining
activity in the country is government-run.
[154]
The government of Burma controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint
ventures with private owners of mines.
[155]
Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.
Tourism Tourism Tourism Tourism
Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in the country. However, fewer than 750,000
tourists enter the country annually.
[156]
Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism Maj-Gen Saw Lwin
has stated that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector
tourism services.
[157]
Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very
tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma, particularly the border
regions.
[158]
They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and
in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect
tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.
[159]
Demographics Demographics Demographics Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Burma
Burma has a population of about 56 million.
[160]
Population figures are rough estimates because
the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control
of the military junta, was taken in 1983.
[161]
No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in
Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Burma in Thailand,
and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant
workers.
[162]
Burma has a population density of 75 per square kilometre (190 /sq mi), one of the
lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while
several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800
refugees from Burma, with the majority being Karenni, and Kayin and are principally located along
the Thai-Burma border.
[163]
There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Burma
border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care
of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC) (http://www.tbbc.org/) . In FY 2009, the U.S.
resettled 18,275 refugees from Burma.
[164]
There are over 53.42 million Buddhists, over 2.98 million Christians, over 2.27 million Muslims, over
0.3 million Hindus and over 0.79 million of those who believe in other religions in the country, according to an answer by Union
Minister at Myanmar Parliament on 8 Sep 2011.
[165]
Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the
Union of Burma) led to an exodus/expulsion of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.
[166]
They migrated to escape racial discrimination and
wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.
[167]
The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country
or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society.
Hundreds of thousands of Rohingya Muslims fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 200,000 in
1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in Arakan.
[168]
Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Ethnic groups
12 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough
estimate) estimate) estimate) estimate)
ethnic group percent
Bamar 68%
Shan 9%
Karen 7%
Rakhine 3.5%
Chinese 2.5%
Mon 2%
Kachin 1.5%
Chin 1%
Indians 1.25%
Kayah 0.75%
Other groups 4.5%
A girl from the Padaung
minority, one of the many
ethnic groups that make
up Burma's population.
Rama (Yama) and Sita
(Me Thida) in the
Burmese version of the
Ramayana, Yama Zatdaw.
Mohinga, rice noodles in fish
soup, is widely considered to be
Burma's national dish.
Main article: List of ethnic groups in Burma
Burma is home to four major language families:
Sino-Tibetan, TaiKadai, Austro-Asiatic, and
Indo-European.
[169]
Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely
spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and
Chinese. The primary TaiKadai language is Shan. Mon,
Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages
spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages
are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and
English.
[170]
According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Burma's
official literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%.
[171]
Historically,
Burma has had high literacy rates. To qualify for least
developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt
relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to
18.7% in 1987.
[172]
Burma is ethnically diverse. The government recognises 135
distinct ethnic groups. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at
least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizeable populations
of TaiKadai, HmongMien, and Austroasiatic (MonKhmer) peoples.
[173]
The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.
[174]
10% of the population are Shan.
[174]
The Kayin make up 7% of the population.
[174]
The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the
population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.
[174][175]
Burma's ethnic minority groups prefer the term
"ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" as the term "minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often
described as "Burmanisation"--the proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar culture over minority cultures.
Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer.
[174]
Overseas Indians comprise 2%.
[174]
The
remainder are Kachin, Chin, Anglo-Indians and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a
large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and
the U.K.. Today, it is estimated that only 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in the country. There are 110,000 Burmese refugees in Thai
border camps.
[176]
89% of the country's population are Buddhist, according to a report on ABC World News Tonight in May 2008 and the Buddha Dharma
Education Association.
[177]
Culture Culture Culture Culture
Main article: Culture of Burma
A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Burma, the majority culture is primarily Buddhist and
Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in
its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been
influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Burma, the Yama
Zatdaw, an adaptation of India's Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian
versions of the play.
[178]
Buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to
propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.
[179][180]
In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life.
Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation
ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events
for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short period of
time.
[181]
All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a
novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a
monk after the age of twenty. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies
(:.) at the same time.
[181]
Burmese culture is most evident in
villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most
important being the pagoda festival.
[182][183]
Many villages have a
guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Burma. Burma's educational
system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most
13 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Thingyan festival, the Burmese
New Year
Members of the Buddhist
monkhood are venerated
throughout Burma, which
is one of the most
predominantly Theravada
Buddhist countries in the
world.
Religion in Burma Religion in Burma Religion in Burma Religion in Burma
religion percent
Buddhism 89%
Christianity 4%
Islam 4%
Others including
Atheism, Animism
and Chinese folk
religion
2%
Hinduism 1%
evident in major cities such as Yangon.
[184]
Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the
southeast, and the Kachin and Chin (people) who populate the north and north-east, practice
Christianity.
[185]
According to CIA World Factbook, the Burman population is 68%, and the Ethnic
groups comprise of 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organisations claims that Ethnic
population is 40% which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official U.S report).
Language Language Language Language
Main article: Languages of Burma
Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Burma, is related to Tibetan
and to the Chinese languages.
[170]
It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular
letters, which were adapted from the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 8th century. The
earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of
Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with
the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.
[186]
The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of
honorifics and is age-oriented.
[182]
Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular
schooling often takes place in monasteries. Secondary and tertiary education take place at government schools.
Religion Religion Religion Religion
Main articles: Religion in Burma, Buddhism in Burma, Hinduism in Burma, Christianity in Burma, Islam in Burma, and History of the
Jews in Burma
Many religions are practised in Burma. Religious edifices and
orders have been in existence for many years. Festivals can
be held on a grand scale. The Christian and Muslim
populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is
hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or
get government jobs, the main route to success in the
country.
[187]
Such persecution and targeting of civilians is
particularly notable in Eastern Burma, where over 3000
villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.
[188][189][190]
More than 200,000 Rohingya Muslims have
settled in Bangladesh, to escape persecution, over the past
20 years.
[191]
89% of the population embraces Buddhism (mostly
Theravada). Other religions are practiced largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some
ethnic minorities such as the Muslim Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status
denied and therefore do not have access to education, and Christians in Chin State.
[192]
4% of the
population practices Christianity; 4%, Islam; 1%, traditional animistic beliefs; and 2% follow other
religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, East Asian religions and the Bah' Faith.
[193][194][195]
However, according to a U.S. State Department's 2010 international religious freedom report, official
statistics are alleged to underestimate the non-Buddhist population. Independent researchers put the Muslim population at 6 to 10%
of the population. A tiny Jewish community in Rangoon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi to conduct services.
[196]
Units of measure Units of measure Units of measure Units of measure
Main article: Burmese units of measurement
Burma is one of three countries that still predominantly uses a non-metric system of measure, according to the CIA Factbook.
[197]
The common units of measure are unique to Burma, but the government web pages use both imperial units
[198]
and metric units
[199]
and in June 2011, the Burmese government's Ministry of Commerce began discussing proposals to reform the measurement system in
Burma and adopt the metric system used by most of its trading partners.
[200]
Education Education Education Education
Main article: Education in Burma
14 of 24 4/26/2012 6:16 PM
Yangon University of Medicine 1
Students on their way to school,
Hakha, Chin State, Burma
Stilt houses at Lake Inle, Burma
The educational system of Burma is operated by the government agency, the Ministry of
Education. Universities and professional institutes from upper Burma and lower Burma are run by
two separate entities, the Department of Higher Education of Upper Burma and the Department of
Higher Education of Lower Burma. Headquarters are based in Yangon and Mandalay respectively.
The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system, due to nearly a century of British
and Christian presences in Burma. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been
a recent increase in privately funded English language schools. Schooling is compulsory until the
end of elementary school, probably about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or
16 at international level.
There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Burma, a total of 146 higher education institutions.
[201]
There are 10 Technical Training Schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20
midwifery schools.
There are 2047 Basic Education High Schools, 2605 Basic Education Middle Schools, 29944 Basic
Education Primary Schools and 5952 Post Primary Schools. 1692 multimedia classrooms exist within
this system.
There are four international schools which are acknowledged by WASC and College Board The
International School Yangon (ISY), Crane International School Yangon (CISM), Yangon International
School (YIS) and International School of Myanmar (ISM) in Yangon.
Media Media Media Media
Main article: Media of Burma
Due to Burma's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's
population, although a certain number exists. Some are privately owned, but all programming must
meet with the approval of the censorship board.
Burma is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled Chroniques Birmanes by Qubcois
author and animator, Guy Delisle. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title
Burma Chronicles in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese videojournalists called Burma
VJ was released.
[202]
This film was nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 2010
Academy Awards.
[203]
Sport Sport Sport Sport
The Lethwei and Pongyi thaing martial arts are the national sport in Burma.
See also See also See also See also
Outline of Burma
Index of Burma-related articles
Notes Notes Notes Notes
^ ^^ ^ <http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/MYA.pdf>.
Retrieved 8 July 2010.
1.
^
a aa a

b bb b

c cc c

d dd d
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/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=48&pr.y=13&
sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&
c=518&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&
grp=0&a=) . International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org
/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=48&
pr.y=13&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&
ds=.&br=1&c=518&
2.
s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&
grp=0&a=. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
^ ^^ ^ "Human Development Report 2011" (http://hdr.undp.org
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http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf.
Retrieved 5 November 2011.
3.
^ ^^ ^ Road infrastructure is still for driving on the left. 4.
^ ^^ ^ CIA The World Factbook Burma (https://www.cia.gov/library
/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html)
5.
^ ^^ ^ Asian Development Bank Myanmar Fact Sheet, 6.
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^ ^^ ^ Dougald JW O'Reilly (2007). Early civilizations of Southeast
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7.
^ ^^ ^ Lieberman 2003: 152 8.
^
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^
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^ ^^ ^ Myint-U, Thant (2001). The Making of Modern Burma.
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^ ^^ ^ The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar, Mya
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^ ^^ ^ Htin Aung 1967: 6365 28.
^ ^^ ^ Lieberman 2003: 134 29.
^ ^^ ^ Myint-U 2006: 6465 30.
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^ ^^ ^ Burma leaders double fuel prices (http://news.bbc.co.uk
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^ ^^ ^ Booth, Jenny (24 September 2007). "Military junta threatens
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^ ^^ ^ "100,000 Protestors Flood Streets of Rangoon in "Saffron
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^ ^^ ^ Christina Fink, The Moment of the Monks: Burma, 2007, in
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^ ^^ ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (21 October 2010). "U.N. Doubts Fairness of
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External links External links External links External links
Government
myanmar.gov.mm (http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/burma.html)
General information
Burma (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html) entry at The World Factbook
Burma (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/myanmar.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Wikimedia Atlas of Myanmar
Myanmar travel guide from Wikitravel
Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/Myanmar
(http://www.burmalibrary.org/)
Interactive timeline of turning points in Burmese history (http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/eyes-of-the-
storm/turning-points-in-burmese-history/5363/)
Key Development Forecasts for Myanmar (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MM) from International
Futures
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Member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Military dictatorship Republics Southeast Asian countries
States and territories established in 1948 Member states of the United Nations
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