VLC

Visible Light Communications using Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Submitted by: Talha Ahmed Khan 2006-Elect-128
Supervised by: Dr M.Tahir
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
Visible Light Communications using Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Submitted to the faculty of the Electrical Engineering Department of the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore in partial fulllment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical Engineering.
Internal Examiner
External Examiner
Director Undergraduate Studies
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

i
Declaration
I declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own, except where explicitly stated otherwise. In addition this work has not been submitted to obtain another degree or professional qualication. Signed: Date:
ii
Acknowledgments
With the blessings of ALLAH Almighty ,I have succeessfully completed my nal year project. First of all,I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to Dr Muhammad Tahir,my project advisor, for patronizing the project.The technical support and encouragement rendered by Dr Muhammad Tahir was very vital in the completion of this project. I would like to thank my loving parents for their prayers and nancial support. I would like to acknowledge all my friends and my brother for their moral support and valuable suggestions.
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Dedicated to all the people I love
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Contents
Acknowledgments List of Figures Abstract 1 An Introduction to Visible Light Communications 1.1 Visible Light Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 VLC Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Merits and Demerits of VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Merits:VLC vs RF Communication . . . . . . 1.2.2 Merits:VLC vs IR Communication . . . . . . 1.2.3 Demerits of VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Applications of VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Position Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1.1 Position Detection using GPS . . . 1.3.1.2 Position Detection using RF . . . . 1.3.1.3 Position Detection using WiFi . . . 1.3.1.4 Position Detection using QR Codes 1.3.1.5 Position Detection using VLC . . . 1.3.2 Intelligent SuperMart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Image Sensor Communication . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Intelligent Transport System . . . . . . . . . 1.3.5 Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.6 Audio Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.7 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 2.1 WDM: A Fibre-Optics Perspective . . . . . . 2.1.1 Evolution of WDM . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 WDM systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.1 Advantages of WDM systems 2.1.2.2 Types of WDM . . . . . . . 2.2 VLC and WDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v iii viii x 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 10 10 10 11 11 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 16 16
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Contents 2.3.2 2.3.3 Practical Uses . . . . . . . . . White LEDs . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.1 RGB LEDs . . . . . . 2.3.3.2 Phosphor-based LEDs Types of LEDs . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4.1 Miniature LEDs . . . 2.3.4.2 High Power LEDs . . 2.3.4.3 Medium Range LEDs Advantages of LEDs . . . . . . Disadvantages of LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi 16 17 17 18 20 20 20 21 21 22
2.3.4
2.3.5 2.3.6
3 Motivations and Problem Statement 24 3.0.7 LED:Technical Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4 Implementation 4.1 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 LED Modulation Scheme . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing . . . 4.2.3 Demultiplexing using Optical lters . . 4.2.4 Data Reception using Direct Detection . 4.3 Hardware Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1.1 Colored LEDs . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1.2 MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1.3 RS232 line driver . . . . . . . 4.3.1.4 USB to RS232 converter cable 4.3.1.5 Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.1 Optical Receiver . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2 Optical Filters . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.3 Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . 4.3.2.4 RS232 line driver . . . . . . . 4.3.2.5 USB to RS232 converter cable 4.4 Schematic Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 PCB Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 27 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 38 39 39 39 39
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5 Performance Evaluation 5.1 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1.1 Experiment 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents
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5.2
5.1.1.2 Experiment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A MATLAB Codes B Datasheets
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References
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List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Visible Light Communication: A historical perspective [9] . . . . . . . . . 2 A GPS system used for position detection [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 RF-IDs based navigation system for handicapped people [6] . . . . . . . . 7 Pattern generated by QR code captured by a PDA [6] . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Location related information transfer from a trac signal (Prototype made by The Nippon Signal Co., Ltd., JAPAN SHOP 2006 [6]) . . . . . . 8 1.6 (Prototype made by VLCC member companies NEC and Matsushita Electric works) [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.7 A comparison of Position Detection technologies [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.8 Shopping cart and Receiver(Prototype presented by NEC and Matsushita Electric Works) [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.9 Photograph from the succesful experiment conducted by Casio Computers for a transmission distance of 1km [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.10 A digital audio system where each color transmits a dierent sound(Prototype presented by Sony and Agilent technologies [6]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.11 An audio system using red green and blue LEDs [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.12 Yokohama National Exibition:A treat to watch [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.1 2.2 This table shows the available colors with wavelength range,voltage drop and material used [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three colors [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrum of a white LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500700 nm [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dierent types of LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.4 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7
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Price vs Performance curve depicting the technical evolution of LEDs [9] . 25 Block Diagram of project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IRF 520: NMOS transistor IC (source:Fairchild Semiconductors) . . . . . 7805:Voltage Regulator IC (source:) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TORX 173:Fiber optic Receiving Module by TOSHIBA (source:TOSHIBA website) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7805:Voltage Regulator IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic Diagram of Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic Diagram of Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii 27 30 31 32 33 34 35
List of Figures 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2
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PCB layout of Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 PCB layout of Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Average BER vs distance between noise source and receiver . . . . . . . . 40 Average BER vs noise intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Abstract
Solid-state lighting is a rapidly growing area of research and applications,due to the reliability, low power consumption and predicted high eciency of these devices. In Visible Light Communications (VLC), the LED sources that are typically used for general illumination are used for data transmission. In this project, LEDs are used for wireless data transmission between two computers using On-O Keying.Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the same wireless channel.The eects of ambient noise on the performance of wireless link are also studied. On the basis of the empirical results, a performance evaluation of this technique is also presented.
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Overview
In the past few years,an unprecedented demand for wireless technologies has been taking place.Usually,the radio frequency (RF) is used for wireless data transmission, but it has its bandwidth constraints.In some cases where the distance between transmitter and receiver is relatively small, RF technology can be replaced by visible light communication (VLC) to provide high data rates. In addition, this technique not only provides better security than RF communication, but it is also less prone to interference for indoor situations. VLC uses spectral region with corresponding wavelengths lying between 450nm-900nm and oers potentially large bandwidths. High power LEDs used for lighting are simultaneously used to transfer data, over the wireless channel. On the receiver side a photo sensitive device is used for data reception. For dierent data sources, wavelength division multiplexing can be used to transmit data simultaneously over the same channel. In this technique, a dierent color (wavelength) can be reserved for each data stream. The dierent streams are multiplexed and are transmitted by modulating the light source. At the receiver, dierent wavelength lters are used to separate the desired data stream followed by the light sensing device. The received signal from the photo sensing device is then demodulated to recover the transmitted data.
1.1
Visible Light Communications

Visible light Communication (VLC) is a modern communication technology which employs visible solid-state light sources (LEDs) for transmitting data wirelessly as they are used for general illumination at the same time.
Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications
1.1.1
History
Though the research and development of visible light communications systems was started not long ago (2003) ,man has always resorted to some form of communications employing a light source since stone age (Fig1.1). The age-old techniques of optical communication are listed in a chronological order: Heliograph: In bygone times,reecting mirrors were used to deliver information over a large distance.This technique is referred to as Heliograph. Lamps and Fires: Burning kites were used in the battleeld for communication. Similary,lamps were used in lighthouses as well. Ship-to-ship communication: Morse code was used for communication between ships.The message was transmitted in the form of marks and spaces. Photophone: In 1880 Graham Bell devised a wireless communication system called a Photophone in which sunlight was used as the optical source.A vibrating mirror was used to modulate and reect light to the receiver consisting of a parabolic mirror.This system worked for a distance of around 700 ft. Trac Signals: Trac signals also employ visible light communication in principle as three dierent colours are used to communicate three dierent messages to the onlookers.
Figure 1.1: Visible Light Communication: A historical perspective [9]
Visible Light Communication is the most advanced wirelss communication technology using visible light sources for data transmission.Dierent lighting devices can be exploited to incorporate a visible light communications system. For instance,the lighting
used in homes,oces or roads, trac signals, commercial displays, small lamps on electronic home appliances including TVs,etc.The use of LEDs in these devices is getting popular,owing to the improved performance,low power consumption and cleaner light provided by these devices.Similarly,the use of moile phones equipped with cameras is also getting widespread acceptance.These cameras can be used to receive the visible light. By using the visible light for the data transmission, many problems related to radio and infrared communications are solved.
1.1.2
VLC Characteristics
The merits and demerits of this technology become apparent once we go through the charactersitics of visible light communication technology: Human Safety: VLC poses no health hazards to human body.Thus,the transmission power can be kept high if needed. High Data Rates: VLC inherits high data rates from optical communications.Thus,it can be used for very high speed wireless communications. Bandwidth: Visible light communications exploits the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.Thus it oers much larger frequency band ( 300 THz) compared to that available in RF communications ( 300GHz). Ubiquitous Nature: We have a well-established lighting infrastructure throughout the world.In addition to it, LED based lighting devices are getting widespread acceptance round the globe.Since VLC uses the already available visible light sources for wireless communictions,so it is expected to become a ubiquitous technology in near future. Security: As VLC involves line of sight communication,so it is impossible to tap the communication without breaking the link.So it oers a very secure communication and can be used in high security military areas where RF communication is prone to eavesdropping. Visibility: It is aesthetically pleasing to see data being communicated by colored lights.Thus,VLC is also used in many entertainment related activities like silent concerts,decoration systems,etc. Unlicensed Spectrum: As VLC uses the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum,so it is free of cost.Contrary to it,the RF communication band is regulated.
1.2
Merits and Demerits of VLC
Although,RF communications is the most popular wireless technology today but it has its disadvantages as well.VLC can be used for wireless communications in certain areas where RF communications exibits poor performance.As evident from the characteristics of visible light communications,it oers several advantages over existing wireless
communication technologies.A comparison is drawn between VLC and other wireless technologies in following subsections:-
1.2.1
Merits:VLC vs RF Communication
Limited Transmission Power :In RF communications,the electric transmission power cannot be increased beyond a prescribed level as it poses serious health hazards for human body. Regulated Spectrum:Due to the radio wave restriction,there is no room to use more radio frequency.In addition,the use of radio spectrum is regulated. Banned in Sensitive Areas: The radio wave cannot be used in hospitals and space stations becauses it adversely aects the performance of precision instruments.These radio wave problems above are easily solved by use of the visible light communications. Remedy All these problems can be solved using visible light communications.This can be accredited to the high available bandwidth,high data rates,high transmission power,healthfriendly operation and lower implementation costs of this technology.
1.2.2
Merits:VLC vs IR Communication
IR(Infra-red) communications is used in many applications including mobile phone and laptops.Although IR communications oers the same advantages in terms of available bandwidth but it lags behind VLC in certain areas. Limited Data Rates:In IR communications,data rates cannot be increased beyond a prescribed level as it poses serious threat to human eyes.This can be attributed to the high energy density created by IrDA due to invisibility. Remedy The eye safety problem can be solved using visible light communications.As compared to IR communication, the visible light communication is suitable to human eyes in terms of visibility.The system employs LED, which can be transmitted by a few watts, a relatively high energy for the use of lighting. This means that the VLC is capable of transmitting data at higher data rates.
1.2.3
Demerits of VLC
LOS Communication: The greatest disadvantage of visible light communication is that it requires line of sight communication. Short Range: This technology usually works over a short distance range.To increase the transmission distance, the power of the lighting source must be increased.Image
Sensor communication can be used in conjunction with telescope lenses to realize long distance ranges.Unfortunately,this range improvement leads to an appreciable increases in the implementation cost. Prone to Interference: The VLC system is prone to interference from other illuminating devices.
1.3
Applications of VLC
VLC is not meant for replacing existing wireless communication technologies;its sole purpose is to complement the existing wireless technologies.VLC oers a very wide area of research and applications.Some of the major applications are discussed briey: Position Detection Intelligent SuperMart Intelligent Transport System Image Sensor Communications Networking Audio Applications Aesthetics
1.3.1
Position Detection
Dierent wireless technologies are being used for position detection in local and global navigation systems.VLC can also also be used in such systems [6]. Some of the popular technologies are discussed below followed by a comparison chart at the end (Fig 1.7). 1.3.1.1 Position Detection using GPS
In GPS(Global Positioning System),satellites are used to detect the position of a user. The user of GPS can know his/her position by receiving signals from at least 4 satellites(Fig 1.2). Although, it is the technology of choice for car navigation systems but it cannot be used in indoor environments.
Figure 1.2: A GPS system used for position detection [6]
Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications 1.3.1.2 Position Detection using RF
RF-IDs can also be used in certain position detection systems.The communication distance ranges from a few millimeters to several meters depending on the application. In Japan, It is used in navigating handicapped people (Fig 1.3).
Figure 1.3: RF-IDs based navigation system for handicapped people [6]
1.3.1.3
Position Detection using WiFi
In WiFi based position detection systems, radio signal strength from two or more WiFi base stations alongwith the position information of base stations are used for dsetermining users position.Positioning accuracy using WiFi is sometimes better than GPS as shown in the above picture due to non-sucient signal strength and mutlipath eect caused by skyscrapers. 1.3.1.4 Position Detection using QR Codes
Figure 1.4: Pattern generated by QR code captured by a PDA [6]
Figure 1.5: Location related information transfer from a trac signal (Prototype made by The Nippon Signal Co., Ltd., JAPAN SHOP 2006 [6])
In this technique, a two-dimensional code known as QR code is used to encode a URL in order to obtain a pattern which is printed and pasted at all the desired locations. Mobile phones are used to take a snap of the pattern (Fig1.4). It can be used to automatically access the URLs in order to get location related information like longitude and attitude. 1.3.1.5 Position Detection using VLC
In VLC based position detection systems, the position of the user can be detected if the light sources are made to send position related information.It is equally eective indoors as well as outdoors.Several companies have presented protoypes of VLC based position detection systems [6].Some of the application scenarios are discussed below: Trac signal-pedestrian communication The accompanying gure (Fig 1.5) shows a pedestrian receiving location related information from a trac signal using a PDA[16][4]. Global Navigation System VLC has been used to demonstrate a prototype of a global navigation service It accesses the Internet by rst obtaining a code from a visible light source such as LED lights.It then accesses the location server from the cellular phone in order to obtain location-related information [14](Fig 1.6).
Figure 1.6: (Prototype made by VLCC member companies NEC and Matsushita Electric works) [16]
Figure 1.7: A comparison of Position Detection technologies [6]
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1.3.2
Intelligent SuperMart
In an intelligent super mart,VLC is used to transmit merchandise related information[15].The VLC receivers are mounted on the shopping carts (Fig 1.8).
Figure 1.8: Shopping cart and Receiver(Prototype presented by NEC and Matsushita Electric Works) [6]
1.3.3
Image Sensor Communication
A visible light communications system usually employs a photodiode as the receiving device .However, in Image Sensor Communications, the image sensor used in cameras is used to serve the purpose. Although it is more expensive to use an image sensor in place of a photodiode but it has its advantages: An image sensor consists of a large number of pixels and each pixel can be used as an independent receiving channel. Thus, multiple receiving channels are available. As all the pixels are spatially separated, so the eects of interference are eliminated. As each receiving channel has the location information corresponding to the pixel, it can specify the position of the transmitter when receiving. It can be used for long distance communication as well. Though the size of the appearance of the source of light becomes smaller at large distances, but it can still read the information from a far-o transmitter by using telescope lenses (Fig 1.9). Despite all its advantages, this technology is not used at present owing to its high implementation cost. The developers are eying at the widespread popularity and advances made in mobile phone technology. As the modern mobile sets come equipped with high frame rate cameras, it is hoped that these cameras will be used for image sensor communications in future as they become aordable. Thus, this technology may be employed in a host of applications related to mobile devices and PDAs.
1.3.4
Intelligent Transport System
This technology can be used to design an intelligent transport system to ensure road safety. Although red light enforcement cameras are used to catch red light runners but this technique may lead to an increase in rear-end collisions. Nowadays, solid state lighting is widely used in trac signals and vehicle lights. So, these sources can also
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Figure 1.9: Photograph from the succesful experiment conducted by Casio Computers for a transmission distance of 1km [1]
be used for both car-to-car and car-to-trac signal information communication. For instance, it has been proposed that a trac light can be used to transmit the time for which it would remain yellow to the vehicles as far as 50m away. In addition to it, car-to-car communication can be used for data logging at the time of accident. This information can then be used to investigate the nature of the accident [7].
1.3.5
Networking
VLC is used in conjunction with PLC (Power Line Carrier Communications) to convert the illuminating sources in homes and oces into optical hotspots [8]. Thus, the users can enjoy high speed network access where the light sources are used to setup a wireless LAN. Thus, there are no bandwidth bottlenecks owing to the high bandwidth oered by VLC systems.
1.3.6
Audio Applications
VLC is used to send digital audio using colored LEDs namely red, green and blue.It is also used in a silent concert where dierent sounds are transmitted using dierent colors.The users have a choice to listen to the musical instruments they like by switching between the dierent light beams,while the artists are performing in front of them. In this way, it is used to provide entertainment to users as well [10].
Figure 1.10: A digital audio system where each color transmits a dierent sound(Prototype presented by Sony and Agilent technologies [6])
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Figure 1.11: An audio system using red green and blue LEDs [6]
1.3.7
Aesthetics
VLC is also used for for decoration or amusement.In the accompanying picture(Fig 1.12), an analog sound system is shown.Illumination is synchronized with music sounds, which are transmitted through the lights(bottom) by VLC to the audience.
Figure 1.12: Yokohama National Exibition:A treat to watch [6]
Wireless data transport by means of light paves the way for new applications in the home as well as in industry and transportation.It is hoped that VLC systems will be used in the near future in a host of applications.
Chapter 2
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

This chapter presents an overview of wavelength division multiplexing.Since the technique originally belongs to the eld of bre optics,a general introduction is presented from the perspective of optical bres followed by the use of wavelength division multiplexing in visible light communications.
2.1
WDM: A Fibre-Optics Perspective

In ber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes multiple optical carrier signals on a single optical ber by using dierent wavelengths (colours) of laser light to carry dierent signals [2].
This allows for a multiplication in capacity, in addition to enabling bidirectional communications over one strand of ber. This is a form of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) but is commonly called wavelength division multiplexing.The term wavelengthdivision multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier which is typically described by its wavelength; whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier which is more often described by frequency. However, since wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, and since radio and light are both forms of electromagnetic radiation, the two terms are equivalent in this context.[2]
2.1.1
Evolution of WDM
The concept was rst published in 1970, and by 1978 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory.Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy.The rst WDM systems only combined two signals. Modern systems can handle up to 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 10 Gbpss ber system to a theoretical total capacity of over 1.6 Tbps over a single ber pair [2].
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Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing
14
2.1.2
WDM systems
A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together, and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of ber it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical ltering devices used have traditionally been etalons, stable solid-state single-frequency FabryProt interferometers in the form of thin-lm-coated optical glass [2]. Most WDM systems operate on single mode ber optical cables, which have a core diameter of 9 m. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode ber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 m.Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. 2.1.2.1 Advantages of WDM systems
WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more ber. By using WDM and optical ampliers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a given link can be expanded by simply upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end.This is often done by using optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces. 2.1.2.2 Types of WDM
A WDM system cab ne classied into dierent types on the basis of wavelength spacing, number of channels, and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space.WDM systems are divided in dierent wavelength patterns, conventional or coarse and dense WDM. Conventional WDM systems provide up to 16 channels in the 3rd transmission window (C-Band) of silica bers around 1550 nm. DWDM uses the same transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 25 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra dense WDM). New amplication options (Raman amplication) enable the extension of the usable wavelengths to the L-band, more or less doubling these numbers. CWDM in contrast to conventional WDM and DWDM uses increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To again provide 16 channels on a single ber CWDM uses the entire frequency band between second and third transmission window (1310/1550 nm respectively) including both windows (minimum dispersion window and minimum attenuation window) but also the critical area where OH scattering may occur, recommending the use of OH-free silica bers in case the wavelengths between second and third transmission window shall also be used.
15
Avoiding this region, the channels 31, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used [2].
2.2
VLC and WDM
As the demand for ultra broadband wireless access home networks constantly increases, the radio frequency spectrum is becoming extremely congested and thus, attention is drawn towards alternative technologies. The abundance of unregulated bandwidth at the optical frequencies has diverted the attention towards visible light communications systems as a means of delivering high bit-rate services over short distances.Similar to bre optics,wavelength division multiplexing can also be applied to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the same wireless channel. In this technique, a dierent color (wavelength) can be reserved for each data stream. The dierent streams are multiplexed and are transmitted by modulating the colored light source. At the receiver, dierent wavelength lters are used to separate the desired data stream followed by the light sensing device. The received signal from the photo sensing device is then demodulated to recover the transmitted data. In the next section,an overview of LEDs is presented.
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2.3
LED
A light-emitting diode (LED)is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
2.3.1
Physics
Electroluminiscense The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This eect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reection. Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current ows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Chargecarrierselectrons and holesow into the junction from electrodes with dierent voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to nearinfrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate [3].
2.3.2
Practical Uses
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than uorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in trac signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays
17
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
2.3.3
White LEDs
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors[54]-red, green, and blueand then mix all the colors to produce white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a uorescent light bulb works. 2.3.3.1 RGB LEDs
White light can be produced by mixing dierently colored light, the most common method is to use red, green and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-colored white LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because its mechanism is involved with electro-optical devices to control the blending and diusion of dierent colors, this approach is little used to produce white lighting. Nevertheless this method is particularly
Figure 2.1: This table shows the available colors with wavelength range,voltage drop and material used [3]
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interesting in many applications because of the exibility of mixing dierent colors,and, in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum eciency in producing white light [3]. There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di, tri, and tetrachromatic
Figure 2.2: Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three colors [3]
white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these dierent approaches include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous ecacy. Often higher eciency will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade o between the luminous eciency and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous ecacy, but the lowest color rendering capability. Conversely, although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous eciency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous ecacy and fair color rendering capability. What multi-color LEDs oer is not merely another solution of producing white light, but is a whole new technique of producing light of dierent colors. In principle, most perceivable colors can be produced by mixing dierent amounts of three primary colors, and this makes it possible to produce precise dynamic color control as well. As more eort is devoted to investigating this technique, multicolor LEDs should have profound inuence on the fundamental method which we use to produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can truly play a role on the market, several technical problems need to be solved. These certainly include that this type of LEDs emission power decays exponentially with increasing temperature,[12] resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problems are not acceptable for industrial usage. Therefore, many new package designs aimed at solving this problem have been proposed and their results are now being reproduced by researchers and scientists. 2.3.3.2 Phosphor-based LEDs
This method involves coating an LED of one color (mostly blue LED made of InGaN) with phosphor of dierent colors to produce white light, the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based white LEDs [13]. A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the original LED, phosphors of dierent colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers
19
of distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, eectively increasing the color rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED. Phosphor based LEDs have a lower eciency than normal LEDs due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. However, the phosphor method is still the most popular technique for manufacturing high intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light xture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of high intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion. The greatest barrier to high eciency is the seemingly unavoidable Stokes energy loss. However, much eort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the eciency can be increased by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips Lumileds patented conformal coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness, giving the white LEDs a more homogeneous white light.With development ongoing, the eciency of phosphor based LEDs is generally increased with every new product announcement. Technically the phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside of a phosphor coated epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG). White
Figure 2.3: Spectrum of a white LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500700 nm [3]
LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a mixture of high eciency europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulde (ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a method analogous to the way uorescent lamps work. This method is less ecient than the blue LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger and more energy is therefore converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both approaches oer comparable brightness. Another concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
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Figure 2.4: Dierent types of LEDs
2.3.4
Types of LEDs
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color 2.3.4.1 Miniature LEDs
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They are usually simple in design, not requiring any separate cooling body. Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small scale sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for heat sinking. 2.3.4.2 High Power LEDs
High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can produce over a thousand lumens. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds. A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a ashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp. Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009 some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even uorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive. LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The ecacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W [12]. A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009 Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low power dissipation of these LEDs aords them more exibility than the original AC LED design.
Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing 2.3.4.3 Medium Range LEDs
21
Medium power LEDs are often through-hole mounted and used when a output of a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of this is the Superux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.
2.3.5
Advantages of LEDs
The main advantages of LEDs are described as follows: Eciency LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs.Their eciency is not affected by shape and size, unlike Fluorescent light bulbs or tubes. Color LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of the color lters that traditional lighting methods require. This is more ecient and can lower initial costs. Size LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm ) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. On/O time LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond .LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-o cycling, unlike uorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting. Dimming LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Cool light In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing Slow failure
22
LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours [3], depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours. Shock resistance LEDs, being solid state components, are dicult to damage with external shock, unlike uorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and uorescent sources often require an external reector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. Toxicity LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike uorescent lamps.
2.3.6
Disadvantages of LEDs
The disadvantages of LEDs are described below:
High initial price

LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. Temperature dependence LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate. Voltage sensitivity LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies. Light quality Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that dier signicantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived dierently under cool-white LED illumination
23
than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common uorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs [12]. Area light source LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are dicult to use in applications requiring a spherical light eld. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less. Blue hazard There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard [3].
Chapter 3
Motivations and Problem Statement

LED lighting is going to be the general lighting technology of the 21st century.This can be accredited to its low price and ecient performance. .Incidentally,LEDs happen to be very fast switching devices.Thus,these lighting devices can be used as data transmitters for digital data communication while illuminating the suuroundings at the same time.Photodiodes can be used for data reception at the receiver.As the lighting infrastructure is already well established all over the world,so this wireless communication technology carries alot of promise. Forseeing the future market,the leading consumer appliance companies(Toshiba,Samsung,NEC,Siemens,etc.) are in the process of developing and prototyping numerous visible light communications systems.Appreciable research work is underway in leading universities all over the world.Thus,VLC is a rapidly growing eld for research and development.It is for the same reason that i opted for a project in this eld.The following sections disscuss the technical evolution of LEDs and its advantages,providing sound basis of motivation.
3.0.7
LED:Technical Evolution
In recent past,incandescent and uorescent light sources were generally used for lighting.However,with the advent of ecient solid-state lighting devices,the trend is shifting in favour of white LEDs.This change can be attributed to the numerous advantages provided by white LEDs including low power consumption,everdecreasing costs and high brightness.In addition to it,it is environment friendly and poses no health hazards.Thus,in near future,white LEDs will replace existing technologies used for general illumination.The major advantages of LED lighting are listed below: low power consumption high brightness low cost 24
Chapter 3. Motivations and Problem Statement durability minimal heat generation environment friendly operation
25
The accompanying graph (3.1) depicts the true picture of the technical evolution of LEDs.It shows that in a few years,LEDs will outshine all other technologies owing to a small cost/brightness and a large brightness/power ratio.
Figure 3.1: Price vs Performance curve depicting the technical evolution of LEDs [9]
Chapter 3. Motivations and Problem Statement
26
3.1
Problem Statement
I intend to setup a visible light communications system for wireless data transmisssion between two nodes over a short range.Wavelength Division Multiplexing will be used to send multiple data streams from dierent sources simultaneously over the same wireless channel.Light lters will be used to demultiplex the streams at the receiver.Using the results from the hardware setup,a performance analysis of the technique will also be presented.
Chapter 4
Implementation
High power LEDs used for lighting are simultaneously used to transfer data, over the wireless channel. On the receiver side a photo sensitive device is used for data reception. For dierent data sources, wavelength division multiplexing can be used to transmit data simultaneously over the same channel. In this technique, a dierent color (wavelength) can be reserved for each data stream. The dierent streams are multiplexed and are transmitted by modulating the light source. At the receiver, dierent wavelength lters are used to separate the desired data stream followed by the light sensing device. The received signal from the photo sensing device is then demodulated to recover the transmitted data.
4.1
Block Diagram
The block diagram of the project is shown in gure (4.1).
Figure 4.1: Block Diagram of project
27
Chapter 4. Implementation
28
4.2
Methodology
A computer program, written in MATLAB, is used to write the data to be transmitted to the serial port. A USB-to-serial converter cable is used to connect the computer via USB port to a RS232-to-TTL level converter IC (MAX232).The TTL level output of this IC is then fed to the LED driving circuitry, which consists of MOSFETs. Here, On-O Keying (OOK) is used to modulate the LEDs. At the receiving end, the light pulses are ltered and then received using a digital optical receiver (TORX173).The receiver output is fed to MAX232 IC for TTL-to-RS232 level conversion. Another serial to USB converter cable connects the conditioned output to the computer, where a computer program, written in MATLAB, is used to receive the data from serial port.
4.2.1
LED Modulation Scheme
In visible light communications systems intensity modulation is the most popular modulation technique.In this project,OOK (On O Keying) is used as the modulation scheme to modulate the visible light (LED) sources.It is a special type of intensity modulation where only two intensity levels are used to transmit data, namely 1 and 0.The bitstream from the computer is interfaced to the gate of a high speed N-type MOSFET,which drives the LEDs.Thus the data bits are transmitted serially in the form of light pulses.If the bit is high,a light pulse is transmitted and if the bit is low,no pulse is transmitted.
4.2.2
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
In wavelength division multiplexing,separate wavelengths are used to transmit dierent data streams over the same channel.Since,each wavelength corresponds to a specic frequency,the term wavelength division multiplexing used in optical communications rhymes with the term frequency division multiplexing used in telecommunications.In this project,two independent data streams are multiplexed using wavelength division multiplexing and are transmitted over the wireless channel at the same time.A pair of wavelengths belonging to the set Red,Green,Blue can be used to serve the purpose.For example,red LEDs may be used to send one data stream and green to send the other data stream.There is no interference as both the beams correspond to distinct frequency bands which have an inherent guard band between them.
4.2.3
Demultiplexing using Optical lters
At the receiving end,narrowband optical lters are used to demultiplex the two data streams.Each optical lter allows only a specic wavelength,corresponding to a particular color, to pass through it while blocking all others.For example,if a blue lter is used at the receiver,only the blue light manages to reach the receiver.In this way, red,green or blue lights can be selected by using the appropriate lters.
4.2.4
Data Reception using Direct Detection
In visible light communication systems,intensity modulation is used in conjunction with direct detection for modulation and demodulation at transmitter and receiver.In direct
29
detection,a photodiode is usually used to receive the transmitted light pulses.The presence or absence of light pulses switches the photodiode on or o.In this way photo diodes directly detect the transmitted bit stream.In this project,a ber optic receiving module is used to receive the light pulses.Although,this module is designed for ber optic communication but it can also be used for free space communication over a short range.The range of the wireless system can be increased using high power LEDs at the transmitter.
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4.3
Hardware Setup
The hardware setup for the visible light transmitter and receiver are discussed separately in the following section:-
4.3.1
Transmitter
The following components are used at the transmitting side: Colored LEDs Mosfets RS232 line driver IC USB to RS232 coverter cable Voltage Regulator 4.3.1.1 Colored LEDs
An array of Red,Green and Blue LEDs are used at the transmitter end as visible light sources.They are connected as loads in the transistor circuitry.They are high power and emit a focussed beam.Each color is used to carry a dierent data stream. 4.3.1.2 MOSFETs
A high speed N-type power MOSFET IRF 520 (Figure 4.2)is used to modulate the LEDs using OOK(On O Keying).The serial output from the computer is converted into TTL compatible form and is then applied to the gate of the transistor.Thus,it switches the load (LEDs) on and o in accordance with the input data stream.The datasheet is provided in Appendix A.
Figure 4.2: IRF 520: NMOS transistor IC (source:Fairchild Semiconductors)
Chapter 4. Implementation 4.3.1.3 RS232 line driver
31
Since the output of computer is RS232 compatible,a 16 pin RS232 line driver IC MAX 232 is used to make the computer output TTL level compatible to drive the transistor circuit carrying thr LED load.The datasheet is given in Appendix A. 4.3.1.4 USB to RS232 converter cable
In laptops,serial port is not available.Since data is to be transmitted serially between the two computers,a USB to RS232 converter cable is used to interface the serial output from MAX 232 IC to the laptop using the built-in USB port.This cable contains an embedded controller to conform the RS232 compatible data into USB protocol compatible form. 4.3.1.5 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is used to supply constant voltage (5V) to MAX232 IC.A 3 pin 7805 IC is used to serve the purpose.The datasheets are given in Appendix A.
Figure 4.3: 7805:Voltage Regulator IC (source:)
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4.3.2
Receiver
The following components are used at the receiving side: Optical Receiver Optical Filters Voltage Regulator RS232 line driver IC USB to RS232 coverter cable 4.3.2.1 Optical Receiver
A 6 pin ber optic receiving module TORX 173 (Figure 4.4)is used as the light sensing device.On receiving light pulses,it gives a high output wheraes the output goes low in the absence of light.The datasheets are given in Appendix A.The importannt charecteristics of this sensor are listed below:
Minimum Receivable Power = -27 dBm Maximum Receivable Power = -14.5 dBm Maximum Data rate = 6 Mbps Operating Voltage = 5 V
Figure
4.4:
TORX
173:Fiber optic Receiving (source:TOSHIBA website)
Module
by
TOSHIBA
4.3.2.2
Optical Filters
Red,green and blue light lters are used at the receiver to demultiplex the multiple data streams.These are sharp narrowband lters.A red light lter allows the frequency band corresponding to red color to pass through it and blocks all other wavelengths.Thus,when a red light lter is placed in front of the optical receiver,only the data stream carried by the red beam falls at the receiver while the other streams are blocked.Similarly,blue or green light lters can be used to allow the desired data stream to reach the receiver.
Chapter 4. Implementation 4.3.2.3 Voltage Regulator
33
A voltage regulator is used to supply constant voltage (5V) to TORX 173.A 3 pin 7805 IC (Figure 4.5)is used to serve the purpose.The datasheets are given in Appendix A.
Figure 4.5: 7805:Voltage Regulator IC
4.3.2.4
RS232 line driver
Since the output of TORX 173 is TTL level compatible,a 16 pin RS232 line driver IC MAX 232 is used to make the output RS232 compatible so that the receiving module can be interfaced to the computer.The datasheets are given in Appendix A. 4.3.2.5 USB to RS232 converter cable
In laptops,serial port is not available.Since data is to be transmitted serially between the two computers,a USB to RS232 converter cable is used to interface the serial output from MAX 232 IC to the laptop using the built-in USB port.This cable contains an embedded controller to conform the RS232 compatible data into USB protocol compatible form.
34
4.4
4.4.1
Schematic Diagram
Transmitter
Figure 4.6: Schematic Diagram of Transmitter
35
4.4.2
Receiver
Figure 4.7: Schematic Diagram of Receiver
36
4.5
4.5.1
PCB Layout
Transmitter
Figure 4.8: PCB layout of Transmitter
37
4.5.2
Receiver
Figure 4.9: PCB layout of Receiver
38
4.6
Programming
The transmitting computer can send any type of data (audio,picture,text les) to the receiving computer via the serial port.The computer programs for the transmitter as well as receiver are written in MATLAB.The codes are given in Appendix A.
Chapter 5
Performance Analysis
In addition to the hardware implementation of the proposed visible light communications system,a performance analysis of the designed system is also presented.Using the hardware testbed, the eect of introducing a noise source in the vicinity of the transmitter was also studied.In addition,the eect of increasing the distance between transmitter and receiver on system performance was also observed.Using the empirical data,error performance curves of the system were also plotted.
5.1
Experimental Setup
The experiment was conducted using the designed visible light communications system in a normally lit indoor environment.The transmitter and receiver were placed in line at a xed distance from each other.White LEDs were used at the transmitter and only a single data stream was transmitted.
5.1.1
Experimental Procedure
At the transmitter,a computer program was used to transmit data(text) repeatedly for a predetermined number of trials.Another computer program was used at the receiving end to receive the transmitted data.The total number of bit errors were calculated using the output of the two programs.This process was repeated multiple times for a given transmission distance.In this way,average bit error rate was computed for a given distance.In a similar manner, bit errors were computed for dierent transmission distances by moving the transmitter towards the receiver along a xed axis. 5.1.1.1 Experiment 1
A noise source was intoduced in the system by placing another whire LED near the transmitter such that the receiver lyed in its eld of view.The transmitter and receiver were placed along a xed axis at a xed distance.The noise source was placed at dierent points along the xed axis,while the transmitter and receiver distance was kept constant throughout the experiment.The bit errors were computed for each position of the noise source using the experimental procedure as described in an earlier section.The empirical 39
Chapter 5. Performance Evaluation
40
data was used to plot the variations in BER(bit error rate) with distance of noise source drom the receiver. Another curve was obtained by performing the experiment for a dierent value of transmission distance.The MATLAB plots are shown in Fig ??:BER vs distance of noise source from receiver 1 Average BER (Bit Error Rate) 0.8 transmission distance=15cm transmision distance=30cm
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 27
28
29
30 31 32 33 34 distance between noise source & receiver
35
36
Figure 5.1: Average BER vs distance between noise source and receiver
Result As the distance between the noise source and receiver is reduced,the average bit error rate increases.This can be attributed to a derease in the SNR(signal to noise ratio) at the receiver; the noise power at the receiver increases while the signal power remains the same because both the transmission power and the relative positions of the transmitter and receiver do not change. This trend is also depicted in the accompanying plot(Fig 5.1). If the experiment is repeated for a greater transmission distance,a similar trend is obtained.However,there is an increase in the BER for the same noise source position.This is because the received signal power reduces due to an increase in transmission distance while the noise power remains the same.Thus ,the SNR is reduced. 5.1.1.2 Experiment 2
In the rst experiment,the position of noise source was changed relative to the receiver and its eect on BER was observed,for a xed transmission distance.The second experiment was conducted by keeping the noise source at a xed distance from the receiver.The transmitter and receiver are also placed a xed distance apart.The noise intensity is changed by changing the current supplied to the LED cting as the noise source.For a given value of current,average BER is computed as done in the rst experiment.The variation in BER vs noise intensity is shown in Fig 5.2. Furthermore,the curve shows a sharp transition at some points.It can be accredited to the receiver characteristics.The receiver has a minimum receivable power of -27 dBm while a maximum receivable power of -14.5 dBm.As soon as the received power levels
41
cross these thresholds,the receiver malfunctions,leading to a sudden transition in bit error rate.
Average BER (Bit Error Rate) Error Performance Curves 1 BER vs current
0.5
1.1
1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5 current of noise source(A)
1.6
1.7
1.8
Average BER (Bit Error Rate)
1 BER vs noise intensity
0.5
2 3 4 normalized intensity of noise source(dB)
Figure 5.2: Average BER vs noise intensity
Result As the intensity of the noise source is increased,the average bit error rate increases.This can be attributed to a derease in the SNR(signal to noise ratio) at the receiver; the noise power at the receiver increases while the signal power remains the same because both the signal transmission power and the relative positions of the transmitter and receiver do not change. This trend is also depicted in the accompanying plot(Fig 5.2).
42
5.2
Conclusion and Future Work
The use of wavelength division multiplexing was successfully demonstrated by using colored LEDs for transferring multiple data streams simultaneously in a visible light communications system.Since each data stream was transmitted using a dierent color (wavelength), the eect of interference between transmitted data streams was eliminated.The performance of the VLC system was also evaluated using empirical data. The impact of noise intensity on the bit error rate was studied and the results were explained using error performance curves. Wireless data transport by means of light paves the way for new applications in the home as well as in industry and transportation.Researchers have achieved a data transfer rate of up to 500 Mbps over a distance of 5m using a white LED light [5].The researchers were also able to show that a system combining up to ve LEDs is capable of transferring data over longer distances at rates as high as 100 Mbps [5].Such a system could be used to transmit data via ceiling lights to a receiver mounted on a desk located anywhere within a room. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has been working since 2007 to standardize activities in this eld [11]. It is hoped that this work will be completed by the end of 2010 .Keeping the ongoing research in view,it is imperative that visible light communications has a very bright future ahead.
Appendix A
MATLAB Codes
43
%VLC_TX_AUDIO %Program to read two audio files and write the data to two serial ports clc; clear all; %Read two audio files [y1,Fs] = wavread('hohoho.wav','native'); [y2,Fs] = wavread('ak47.wav','native'); [row1 col1] = size(y1); [row2 col2] = size(y2); count1=row1*col1; count2=row2*col2; count=min(count1,count2); %Convert the read audio files into row vectors Y1=reshape(y1,1,count1); Y2=reshape(y2,1,count2); %Output Buffer Size k=8191;%511,1023,2047,4095,8191,16383,32767,65535... %Create serial port objects to open the serial ports s1= serial('COM5','BaudRate',230400,'outputbuffersize',k+1); fopen(s1); s2= serial('COM6','BaudRate',230400,'outputbuffersize',k+1); fopen(s2); %Code to write the audio file data to the serial ports tic limit=(k+1)*floor(count/k+1); trials=25; for j=1:trials for i=1:k+1:limit-k-1 fwrite(s1,Y1(1,i:i+k),'uint8'); fwrite(s2,Y2(1,i:i+k),'uint8'); end end toc %Close the serial ports and delete the serial port objects fclose(s1); fclose(s2); delete(s1); delete(s2);
%VLC_RX_AUDIO %Program for serial port read and audio playback clc; clear all; %Sampling Frequency Fs=11025; %Input Buffer Size k=8191; %511,1023,2047,4095,8191,16383,32767,65535... %Create a serial port object to open the serial port s2= serial('COM6','BaudRate',230400,'inputbuffersize',k+1); fopen(s2); count=31688; limit=(k+1)*floor(count/k+1); trials=10; %code for reading the serial port & audioplayback tic for j=1:trials for i=1:k+1:limit-k-1 out(1,i:i+k) = fread(s2,k+1,'uint8'); buf(1:k+1,1)=reshape(out(1,i:i+k),k+1,1); buf=uint8(buf); wavplay(buf,Fs,'async'); end end toc %Close the Serial port and delete the serial port object fclose(s2); delete(s2);
%VLC_TX_IMAGE %This program reads two images and opens two serial port to send the %files clc; clear; fclose('all'); %Read two image files A=imread('codered.png','png'); B=imread('codegreen.png','png'); A=rgb2gray(A); B=rgb2gray(B); [a1 b1]=size(A); [a2 b2]=size(B); count1=a1*b1; count2=a2*b2; count=min(count1,count2); C1=reshape(A1,1,count1); C2=reshape(A2,1,count2); %Create serial port objects to open the serial ports s1=serial('com6','baudrate',230400,'outputbuffersize',2*count); fopen(s1); s2=serial('com5','baudrate',230400,'inputbuffersize',2*count); fopen(s2); %Serial Port Write Operation tic fwrite(s1,C1(1,1:count1),'uint8'); fwrite(s2,C2(1,1:count2),'uint8'); toc %Display the images imshow(A1); imshow(A2); %Close the serial port and delete the serial port objects fclose(s1); fclose(s2); delete(s1); delete(s2);
%VLC_RX_IMAGE %This program receives the transmitted image and displays it clc; clear; a=55; b=100; count=a*b; D = zeros(1,count); %Create a serial port object to open the serial port s2=serial('com5','baudrate',230400,'inputbuffersize',2*count); fopen(s2); %Serial port read operation tic D(1,1:count) = fread(s2,count,'uint8'); toc D=reshape(D,a,b); D=uint8(D); %Display the received image imshow(D) %Close the serial port and delete the serial port object fclose(s2); delete(s2);
Appendix B
Datasheets
48
TORX173
FIBER OPTIC RECEIVING MODULE
TORX173
FIBER OPTIC RECEIVING MODULE FOR DIGITAL AUDIO EQUIPMENT
l Conform to JEITA Standard CP1201 (For Digital Audio Interfaces including Fiber Optic interconnections). l TTL Interface l ATC (Automatic Threshold Control) Circuit is used for stabilized output at a wide range of optical power level. Unit: mm
1. Maximum Ratings (Ta = 25C)

Characteristics Storage Temperature Operating Temperature Supply Voltage Low Level Output Current High Level Output Current Soldering Temperature Symbol Tstg Topr VCC IOL IOH Tsol Rating 40 to 70 20 to 70 0.5 to 7 20 1 260 (Note 1) Unit C C V mA mA C
Note 1: Soldering time 10 s (More than 1 mm apart from the package).
2. Recommended Operating Conditions

Characteristics Supply Voltage High Level Output Current Low Level Output Current Symbol VCC IOH IOL Min 4.75 Typ. 5.0 Max 5.25 150 1.6 Unit V A mA
2001-08-10
TORX173
3. Electrical and Optical Characteristics (Ta = 25C, VCC = 5 V)
Characteristics Data Rate Transmission Distance Symbol NRZ code TOTX173 Using APF (Note 4) tw Test Condition (Note 2) (Note 3) Min DC 0.2 Typ. Max 6 10 Unit Mb / s m
Pulse Width Distortion Maximum Receivable Power Minimum Receivable Power Rise Time Fall Time Current Consumption High Level Output Voltage Low Level Output Voltage
Pulse width 165 ns Pulse cycle 330 ns, CL = 10 pF Using TOTX173 6 Mb / s, Using APF 6 Mb / s, Using APF CL = 10 pF CL = 10 pF
20
20
ns
(Note 5) (Note 5)
PMAX PMIN tr tf ICC VOH VOL
14.5 2.7
10 5 22
27 30 30 40 0.4
dBm dBm ns ns mA V V
Note 2: For data rate > 3 Mb / s, the duty factor must be such as kept 25 to 75%. High level output when optical flux is received. Low level output when optical flux is not received. Note 3: All Plastic Fiber (970 / 1000 m). Note 4: Between input of a fiber optic transmitting module and output of TORX173. 9 Note 5: BER 10 , rated by peak value.
2001-08-10
TORX173
4. Example of Typical Characteristics (Note 6)
Note 6: There give characteristic examples, and its values are not guaranteed.
2001-08-10
TORX173
5. Application Circuit
6. Applicable optical fiber with fiber optic connectors.

TOCP172B
2001-08-10
TORX173
7. Precautions during use
(1) Maximum rating The maximum ratings are the limit values which must not be exceeded when using the device. Any one of the rating must not be exceeded. If The maximum rating is exceeded, the characteristics may not be recovered. In some extreme cases, the device may be permanently damage. Soldering Optical modules use semiconductor devices internally. However, in principle, optical modules are optical components. At soldering, take care that flux dose not contact the emitting surface or detecting surface. Also take care at flux removal after soldering. Some optical modules come with protective cap. The protective cap is used to avoid malfunction when the optical module is not in use. Not that it is not dust or waterproof. As mentioned before, optical modules are optical component. Thus, in principle, soldering where there may be flux residue or flux removal after soldering is not recommended. Toshiba recommends that soldering be performed without the optical module mounted on the board. Then, after the board is cleaned, solder the optical module manually. Do not perform any further cleaning. If the optical module cannot be soldered manually, use nonhalogen (chlorinefree) flux and make sure, without cleaning, there is no residue such as chlorine. This is one of the ways to eliminate the effects of flux. In such a case, check the reliability. Noise resistance Where the fiber optic receiving module case uses conductive resin, shield by connecting the reinforcing pin at a front end of the module to GND. When using this optical module, connect the pin to SIGNALGND. Where the fiber optic receiving module case has a resistance of several tens of ohms, take care that the case does not contact power line of other circuits. It is believed that the use of optical transfer devices improve the noise resistance. In principle, optical fiber is not affected by noise. However, especially receiving module which handle signals whose level is extremely small, are comparatively more susceptible to noise. TOSLINK improves noise resistance using a conductive case. However, the current of the signal output from the photodiode of the optic receiving module is extremely small. Thus, depending on the usage environment, shielding the case is not sufficient for noise resistance. When using TOSLINK, Toshiba recommends that you test using the actual device and check the noise resistance. Use a simple noise filter on the TOSLINK fiber optic receiving module power line. If the ripple in power supply used is high, further reinforce the filter. When locating the optical module in an area susceptible to radiated noise, increase shielding by covering the optical module and the power line filter using a metallic cover. Vibration and shock This module is resinmolded construction with wire fixed by resin. This structure is relatively sound against vibration or shock, In actual equipment, there are some cases where vibration, shock, and stress is applied to soldered parts or connected parts, resultingin line cut. Attention must be paid to the design of the mechanism for applications which are subject to large amounts of vibration. Fixing fiber optical receiving module Solder the fixed pin (pins 5 and 6) of fiber optic receiving module TORX173 to the printed circuit board to fix the module to the board. Shielding and wiring pattern of fiber optic receiving modules To shield, connect the fixed pins (pins 5 and 6) of fiber optic transceiving module TORX173 to the GND. Where the fiber optic receiving module uses conductive resin, be careful that the case does not touch wiring (including land). To improve noise resistance, shield the optical module and the power line filter using a metallic cover. Solvent When using solvent for flux removal, do not use a high acid or high alkali solvent. Be careful not to pour solvent in the optical connector ports. If solvent is inadvertently poured there, clean with cotton tips. Protective cap When the fiber optic receiving module TORX173 is not in use, use the protective cap.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
2001-08-10
TORX173
(9) Supply voltage Use the supply voltage within the Typ. operating condition (VCC = 5 0.25 V). Make sure that supply voltage does not exceed the maximum rating value of 7 V, even instantaneously. Interface TORX173 has a TTL interface. It can be interfaced with CMOS IC that has compatibility with TTL level. Output When the receiver output is at low level and connected to the power supply, or when the output is at high level and connected to GND, the internal IC may be destroyed. Soldering condition Solder at 260C or less within ten seconds. Precaution on waste When discarding devices and packing materials, follow procedures stipulated by local regulations in order to protect the environment against contamination. Precaution on use Toshiba is continually working to improve the quality and the reliability of its products. Nevertheless, semiconductor devices in general can malfunction or fail due to their inherent electrical sensitivity and vulnerability to physical stress. It is the responsibility of the buyer, when utilizing Toshiba products, to observe standards of safety, and to avoid situations in which a malfunction or failure of a Toshiba product could cause loss of human life, bodily injury or damage to property. In developing your designs, please ensure that Toshiba products are used within specified operating ranges as set forth in the most recent product specifications. Also, please keep in mind the precautions and conditions set forth in the Toshiba Semiconductor Reliability Handbook.
(10)
(11)
(12) (13)
(14)
2001-08-10
TORX173
RESTRICTIONS ON PRODUCT USE
000707EAA
TOSHIBA is continually working to improve the quality and reliability of its products. Nevertheless, semiconductor devices in general can malfunction or fail due to their inherent electrical sensitivity and vulnerability to physical stress. It is the responsibility of the buyer, when utilizing TOSHIBA products, to comply with the standards of safety in making a safe design for the entire system, and to avoid situations in which a malfunction or failure of such TOSHIBA products could cause loss of human life, bodily injury or damage to property. In developing your designs, please ensure that TOSHIBA products are used within specified operating ranges as set forth in the most recent TOSHIBA products specifications. Also, please keep in mind the precautions and conditions set forth in the Handling Guide for Semiconductor Devices, or TOSHIBA Semiconductor Reliability Handbook etc.. The TOSHIBA products listed in this document are intended for usage in general electronics applications (computer, personal equipment, office equipment, measuring equipment, industrial robotics, domestic appliances, etc.). These TOSHIBA products are neither intended nor warranted for usage in equipment that requires extraordinarily high quality and/or reliability or a malfunction or failure of which may cause loss of human life or bodily injury (Unintended Usage). Unintended Usage include atomic energy control instruments, airplane or spaceship instruments, transportation instruments, traffic signal instruments, combustion control instruments, medical instruments, all types of safety devices, etc.. Unintended Usage of TOSHIBA products listed in this document shall be made at the customers own risk. The information contained herein is presented only as a guide for the applications of our products. No responsibility is assumed by TOSHIBA CORPORATION for any infringements of intellectual property or other rights of the third parties which may result from its use. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any intellectual property or other rights of TOSHIBA CORPORATION or others. The information contained herein is subject to change without notice.
2001-08-10
IRF520
Data Sheet January 2002
9.2A, 100V, 0.270 Ohm, N-Channel Power MOSFET

This N-Channel enhancement mode silicon gate power eld effect transistor is an advanced power MOSFET designed, tested, and guaranteed to withstand a specied level of energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of operation. All of these power MOSFETs are designed for applications such as switching regulators, switching convertors, motor drivers, relay drivers, and drivers for high power bipolar switching transistors requiring high speed and low gate drive power. These types can be operated directly from integrated circuits. Formerly developmental type TA09594.
Features
9.2A, 100V rDS(ON) = 0.270 SOA is Power Dissipation Limited Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rated Nanosecond Switching Speeds Linear Transfer Characteristics High Input Impedance Related Literature - TB334 Guidelines for Soldering Surface Mount Components to PC Boards
Ordering Information
PART NUMBER IRF520 PACKAGE TO-220AB BRAND IRF520
Symbol
D
NOTE: When ordering, use the entire part number.

G
Packaging
JEDEC TO-220AB
SOURCE DRAIN GATE
DRAIN (FLANGE)
2002 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation
IRF520 Rev. B
IRF520
Absolute Maximum Ratings
TC = 25oC, Unless Otherwise Specied IRF520 100 100 9.2 6.5 37 20 60 0.4 36 -55 to 175 300 260 UNITS V V A A A V W W/oC mJ oC
oC oC
Drain to Source Breakdown Voltage (Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VDS Drain to Gate Voltage (RGS = 20k) (Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VDGR Continuous Drain Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ID TC = 100oC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ID Pulsed Drain Current (Note 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IDM Gate to Source Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VGS Maximum Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PD Dissipation Derating Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rating (Note 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .EAS Operating and Storage Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TJ, TSTG Maximum Temperature for Soldering Leads at 0.063in (1.6mm) from Case for 10s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TL Package Body for 10s, See Techbrief 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tpkg
CAUTION: Stresses above those listed in Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. This is a stress only rating and operation of the device at these or any other conditions above those indicated in the operational sections of this specication is not implied.
NOTE: 1. TJ = 25oC to 150oC.
Electrical Specications
PARAMETER
TC = 25oC, Unless Otherwise Specied SYMBOL BVDSS VGS(TH) IDSS ID(ON) IGSS rDS(ON) gfs td(ON) tr td(OFF) tf Qg(TOT) Qgs Qgd CISS COSS CRSS LD Measured From the Contact Screw On Tab To Center of Die Measured From the Drain Lead, 6mm (0.25in) From Package to Center of Die Modified MOSFET Symbol Showing the Internal Devices Inductances
D LD G LS S
TEST CONDITIONS ID = 250A, VGS = 0V (Figure 10) VGS = VDS, ID = 250A VDS = 95V, VGS = 0V VDS = 0.8 x Rated BVDSS, VGS = 0V, TJ = 150oC VDS > ID(ON) x rDS(ON)MAX, VGS = 10V (Figure 7) VGS = 20V ID = 5.6A, VGS = 10V (Figure 8, 9) VDS 50V, ID = 5.6A (Figure 12) VDD = 50V, ID 9.2A, RG = 18, RL = 5.5 MOSFET Switching Times are Essentially Independent of Operating Temperature VGS = 10V, ID = 9.2A, VDS = 0.8 x Rated BVDSS, Ig(REF) = 1.5mA (Figure 14) Gate Charge is Essentially Independent of Operating Temperature VDS = 25V, VGS = 0V, f = 1MHz (Figure 11)
MIN 100 2.0 9.2 2.7 -
TYP 0.25 4.1 9 30 18 20 10 2.5 2.5 350 130 25 3.5
MAX 4.0 250 1000 100 0.27 13 63 70 59 30 -
UNITS V V A A A nA S ns ns ns ns nC nC nC pF pF pF nH
Drain to Source Breakdown Voltage Gate to Threshold Voltage Zero Gate Voltage Drain Current
On-State Drain Current (Note 2) Gate to Source Leakage Current Drain to Source On Resistance (Note 2) Forward Transconductance (Note 2) Turn-On Delay Time Rise Time Turn-Off Delay Time Fall Time Total Gate Charge (Gate to Source + Gate to Drain) Gate to Source Charge Gate to Drain Miller Charge Input Capacitance Output Capacitance Reverse Transfer Capacitance Internal Drain Inductance
4.5
nH
Internal Source Inductance
LS
Measured From the Source Lead, 6mm (0.25in) From Header to Source Bonding Pad
7.5
nH
Thermal Resistance Junction to Case Thermal Resistance Junction to Ambient
RJC RJA Free Air Operation
2.5 80
oC/W oC/W
IRF520 Rev. B
IRF520
Source to Drain Diode Specications
PARAMETER Continuous Source to Drain Current Pulse Source to Drain Current (Note 3) SYMBOL ISD ISDM TEST CONDITIONS Modified MOSFET Symbol Showing the Integral Reverse P-N Junction Diode
G D
MIN -
TYP -
MAX 9.2 37
UNITS A A
Source to Drain Diode Voltage (Note 2) Reverse Recovery Time Reverse Recovered Charge NOTES:
VSD trr QRR
TJ = 25oC, ISD = 9.2A, VGS = 0V (Figure 13) TJ = 25oC, ISD = 9.2A, dISD/dt = 100A/s TJ = 25oC, ISD = 9.2A, dISD/dt = 100A/s
5.5 0.17
100 0.5
2.5 240 1.1
V ns C
2. Pulse test: pulse width 300s, duty cycle 2%. 3. Repetitive rating: pulse width limited by Max junction temperature. See Transient Thermal Impedance curve (Figure 3). 4. VDD = 25V, starting TJ = 25oC, L = 640mH, RG = 25, peak IAS = 9.2A.
Typical Performance Curves

1.2 POWER DISSIPATION MULTIPLIER 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 25
Unless Otherwise Specied
10
ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A)
125 50 75 100 TC , CASE TEMPERATURE (oC)
150
175
0 25
50
75
100
125
150
175
TC, CASE TEMPERATURE (oC)
FIGURE 1. NORMALIZED POWER DISSIPATION vs CASE TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 2. MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS DRAIN CURRENT vs CASE TEMPERATURE
10 ZJC, TRANSIENT THERMAL IMPEDANCE (oC/W)
0.5 0.2 0.1 PDM t1 t2 NOTES: DUTY FACTOR: D = t1/t2 PEAK TJ = PDM x ZJC + TC 10-4 0.1 10-3 10-2 t1, RECTANGULAR PULSE DURATION (s) 1 10
0.1
0.05 0.02 0.01 SINGLE PULSE
0.01 10-5
FIGURE 3. MAXIMUM TRANSIENT THERMAL IMPEDANCE
IRF520 Rev. B
IRF520 Typical Performance Curves

100 10s ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A) ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A) 100s 10 1ms OPERATION IN THIS AREA IS LIMITED BY rDS(ON) TC = 25oC TJ = MAX RATED SINGLE PULSE 1 10 100 VDS , DRAIN TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V) 1000 10ms
Unless Otherwise Specied (Continued)

15 PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX VGS = 7V 9 VGS = 6V 6
10V
VGS = 8V
12
VGS = 5V VGS = 4V 0 20 10 40 30 VDS, DRAIN TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V) 50
0.1
FIGURE 4. FORWARD BIAS SAFE OPERATING AREA
FIGURE 5. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
15
VGS = 10V VGS = 8V VGS = 7V
ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A)
12
ID(ON), ON-STATE DRAIN CURRENT (A)
PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX
102
VDS 50V PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX
10
VGS = 6V
175oC
25oC
3 VGS = 5V 0 0 1 2 3 4 VDS, DRAIN TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V) VGS = 4V 5
0.1 0 2 4 6 8 10 VGS , GATE TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V)
FIGURE 6. SATURATION CHARACTERISTICS
FIGURE 7. TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
rDS(ON), DRAIN TO SOURCE ON RESISTANCE
2.5 NORMALIZED ON RESISTANCE PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX 2.0
3.0
2.4
ID = 9.2A, VGS = 10V PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX
1.5 VGS = 10V
1.8
1.0
1.2
0.5 VGS = 20V 0 0 8 24 16 ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A) 32 40
0.6
0 -60 -40 -20
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160 180
TJ, JUNCTION TEMPERATURE (oC)
FIGURE 8. DRAIN TO SOURCE ON RESISTANCE vs GATE VOLTAGE AND DRAIN CURRENT
FIGURE 9. NORMALIZED DRAIN TO SOURCE ON RESISTANCE vs JUNCTION TEMPERATURE
IRF520 Rev. B
IRF520 Typical Performance Curves

1.25 ID = 250A NORMALIZED DRAIN TO SOURCE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE 1.15 800
Unless Otherwise Specied (Continued)
1000
1.05
C, CAPACITANCE (pF)
VGS = 0V, f = 1MHz CISS = CGS + CGD CRSS = CGD COSS CDS + CGD
600
0.95
400
CISS COSS CRSS
0.85
200
0.75 -60
60
120
180
10 VDS, DRAIN TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V)
102
TJ, JUNCTION TEMPERATURE (oC)
FIGURE 10. NORMALIZED DRAIN TO SOURCE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE vs JUNCTION TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 11. CAPACITANCE vs DRAIN TO SOURCE VOLTAGE
5 ISD, SOURCE TO DRAIN CURRENT (A) gfs, TRANSCONDUCTANCE (S)
100 TJ = 25oC
PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX
10
TJ = 175oC
TJ = 175oC
TJ = 25oC
0 0 3
VDS 50 PULSE DURATION = 80s DUTY CYCLE = 0.5% MAX 6 9 ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A) 12 15
0.1 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 VSD, SOURCE TO DRAIN VOLTAGE (V)
FIGURE 12. TRANSCONDUCTANCE vs DRAIN CURRENT
FIGURE 13. SOURCE TO DRAIN DIODE VOLTAGE
20 VGS, GATE TO SOURCE VOLTAGE (V) ID = 9.2A 16 VDS = 20V VDS = 50V VDS = 80V
12
0 0 3 6 9 12 15 Qg, GATE CHARGE (nC)
FIGURE 14. GATE TO SOURCE VOLTAGE vs GATE CHARGE
IRF520 Rev. B
IRF520 Test Circuits and Waveforms

VDS BVDSS L VARY tP TO OBTAIN REQUIRED PEAK IAS VGS DUT tP RG IAS VDD tP VDS VDD
0V
IAS 0.01
0 tAV
FIGURE 15. UNCLAMPED ENERGY TEST CIRCUIT
FIGURE 16. UNCLAMPED ENERGY WAVEFORMS
tON td(ON) tr RL VDS

+
tOFF td(OFF) tf 90%
90%
RG DUT
VDD 0
10% 90%
10%
VGS VGS 0 10%
50% PULSE WIDTH
50%
FIGURE 17. SWITCHING TIME TEST CIRCUIT
FIGURE 18. RESISTIVE SWITCHING WAVEFORMS
CURRENT REGULATOR
VDS (ISOLATED SUPPLY) VDD SAME TYPE AS DUT Qg(TOT) Qgd Qgs D VDS VGS
12V BATTERY
0.2F
50k 0.3F
DUT 0
Ig(REF) 0 IG CURRENT SAMPLING RESISTOR
S VDS ID CURRENT SAMPLING RESISTOR IG(REF) 0
FIGURE 19. GATE CHARGE TEST CIRCUIT

FIGURE 20. GATE CHARGE WAVEFORMS

IRF520 Rev. B
TRADEMARKS
The following are registered and unregistered trademarks Fairchild Semiconductor owns or is authorized to use and is not intended to be an exhaustive list of all such trademarks.
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OPTOLOGIC OPTOPLANAR PACMAN POP Power247 PowerTrench QFET QS QT Optoelectronics Quiet Series SILENT SWITCHER
SMART START STAR*POWER Stealth SuperSOT-3 SuperSOT-6 SuperSOT-8 SyncFET TinyLogic TruTranslation UHC UltraFET
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STAR*POWER is used under license
FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR RESERVES THE RIGHT TO MAKE CHANGES WITHOUT FURTHER NOTICE TO ANY PRODUCTS HEREIN TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY, FUNCTION OR DESIGN. FAIRCHILD DOES NOT ASSUME ANY LIABILITY ARISING OUT OF THE APPLICATION OR USE OF ANY PRODUCT OR CIRCUIT DESCRIBED HEREIN; NEITHER DOES IT CONVEY ANY LICENSE UNDER ITS PATENT RIGHTS, NOR THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS.
LIFE SUPPORT POLICY FAIRCHILDS PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR CORPORATION. As used herein: 1. Life support devices or systems are devices or 2. A critical component is any component of a life systems which, (a) are intended for surgical implant into support device or system whose failure to perform can the body, or (b) support or sustain life, or (c) whose be reasonably expected to cause the failure of the life failure to perform when properly used in accordance support device or system, or to affect its safety or with instructions for use provided in the labeling, can be effectiveness. reasonably expected to result in significant injury to the user. PRODUCT STATUS DEFINITIONS Definition of Terms Datasheet Identification Advance Information Product Status Formative or In Design Definition This datasheet contains the design specifications for product development. Specifications may change in any manner without notice. This datasheet contains preliminary data, and supplementary data will be published at a later date. Fairchild Semiconductor reserves the right to make changes at any time without notice in order to improve design. This datasheet contains final specifications. Fairchild Semiconductor reserves the right to make changes at any time without notice in order to improve design.
Preliminary
First Production
No Identification Needed
Full Production
Obsolete
Not In Production
This datasheet contains specifications on a product that has been discontinued by Fairchild semiconductor. The datasheet is printed for reference information only.
Rev. H4
MAX232, MAX232I DUAL EIA-232 DRIVERS/RECEIVERS

SLLS047I FEBRUARY 1989 REVISED OCTOBER 2002
D D D D D D D D D
Meet or Exceed TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU Recommendation V.28 Operate With Single 5-V Power Supply Operate Up to 120 kbit/s Two Drivers and Two Receivers 30-V Input Levels Low Supply Current . . . 8 mA Typical Designed to be Interchangeable With Maxim MAX232 ESD Protection Exceeds JESD 22 2000-V Human-Body Model (A114-A) Applications TIA/EIA-232-F Battery-Powered Systems Terminals Modems Computers
MAX232 . . . D, DW, N, OR NS PACKAGE MAX232I . . . D, DW, OR N PACKAGE (TOP VIEW)
C1+ VS+ C1 C2+ C2 VS T2OUT R2IN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
VCC GND T1OUT R1IN R1OUT T1IN T2IN R2OUT
description/ordering information
The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply EIA-232 voltage levels from a single 5-V supply. Each receiver converts EIA-232 inputs to 5-V TTL/CMOS levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V, and can accept 30-V inputs. Each driver converts TTL/CMOS input levels into EIA-232 levels. The driver, receiver, and voltage-generator functions are available as cells in the Texas Instruments LinASIC library. ORDERING INFORMATION
TA PDIP (N) SOIC (D) 0C to 70C SOIC (DW) SOP (NS) PDIP (N) 40C to 85C SOIC (D) SOIC (DW) PACKAGE Tube Tube Tape and reel Tube Tape and reel Tape and reel Tube Tube Tape and reel Tube Tape and reel ORDERABLE PART NUMBER MAX232N MAX232D MAX232DR MAX232DW MAX232DWR MAX232NSR MAX232IN MAX232ID MAX232IDR MAX232IDW MAX232IDWR TOP-SIDE MARKING MAX232N MAX232 MAX232 MAX232 MAX232IN MAX232I MAX232I
Package drawings, standard packing quantities, thermal data, symbolization, and PCB design guidelines are available at www.ti.com/sc/package.
Please be aware that an important notice concerning availability, standard warranty, and use in critical applications of Texas Instruments semiconductor products and disclaimers thereto appears at the end of this data sheet. LinASIC is a trademark of Texas Instruments.
PRODUCTION DATA information is current as of publication date. Products conform to specifications per the terms of Texas Instruments standard warranty. Production processing does not necessarily include testing of all parameters.
Copyright 2002, Texas Instruments Incorporated
POST OFFICE BOX 655303
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

Function Tables
EACH DRIVER INPUT TIN L H OUTPUT TOUT H L
H = high level, L = low level EACH RECEIVER INPUT RIN L H OUTPUT ROUT H L
H = high level, L = low level
logic diagram (positive logic)

11 T1IN 10 T2IN 12 R1OUT 9 R2OUT 8 R2IN 13 R1IN 7 T2OUT 14 T1OUT
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

absolute maximum ratings over operating free-air temperature range (unless otherwise noted)
Input supply voltage range, VCC (see Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V to 6 V Positive output supply voltage range, VS+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VCC 0.3 V to 15 V Negative output supply voltage range, VS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V to 15 V Input voltage range, VI: Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V to VCC + 0.3 V Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 V Output voltage range, VO: T1OUT, T2OUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VS 0.3 V to VS+ + 0.3 V R1OUT, R2OUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V to VCC + 0.3 V Short-circuit duration: T1OUT, T2OUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unlimited Package thermal impedance, JA (see Note 2): D package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73C/W DW package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57C/W N package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67C/W NS package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64C/W Lead temperature 1,6 mm (1/16 inch) from case for 10 seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260C Storage temperature range, Tstg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65C to 150C
Stresses beyond those listed under absolute maximum ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only, and functional operation of the device at these or any other conditions beyond those indicated under recommended operating conditions is not implied. Exposure to absolute-maximum-rated conditions for extended periods may affect device reliability. NOTE 1: All voltage values are with respect to network ground terminal. 2. The package thermal impedance is calculated in accordance with JESD 51-7.
recommended operating conditions

MIN VCC VIH VIL R1IN, R2IN TA Supply voltage High-level input voltage (T1IN,T2IN) Low-level input voltage (T1IN, T2IN) Receiver input voltage Operating free air temperature free-air MAX232 MAX232I 0 40 4.5 2 0.8 30 70 85 NOM 5 MAX 5.5 UNIT V V V V C
electrical characteristics over recommended ranges of supply voltage and operating free-air temperature (unless otherwise noted) (see Note 3 and Figure 4)
PARAMETER ICC Supply current TEST CONDITIONS VCC = 5.5 V, TA = 25C All outputs open, MIN TYP 8 MAX 10 UNIT mA
All typical values are at VCC = 5 V and TA = 25C. NOTE 3: Test conditions are C1C4 = 1 F at VCC = 5 V 0.5 V.
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

DRIVER SECTION electrical characteristics over recommended ranges of supply voltage and operating free-air temperature range (see Note 3)
PARAMETER VOH VOL ro High-level output voltage Low-level output voltage T1OUT, T2OUT T1OUT, T2OUT TEST CONDITIONS RL = 3 k to GND RL = 3 k to GND MIN 5 TYP 7 7 5 MAX UNIT V V
Output resistance T1OUT, T2OUT VS+ = VS = 0, VO = 2 V 300 IOS Short-circuit output current T1OUT, T2OUT VCC = 5.5 V, VO = 0 10 mA IIS Short-circuit input current T1IN, T2IN VI = 0 200 A All typical values are at VCC = 5 V, TA = 25C. The algebraic convention, in which the least positive (most negative) value is designated minimum, is used in this data sheet for logic voltage levels only. Not more than one output should be shorted at a time. NOTE 3: Test conditions are C1C4 = 1 F at VCC = 5 V 0.5 V.
switching characteristics, VCC = 5 V, TA = 25C (see Note 3)

PARAMETER SR SR(t) Driver slew rate Driver transition region slew rate Data rate NOTE 3: Test conditions are C1C4 = 1 F at VCC = 5 V 0.5 V. TEST CONDITIONS RL = 3 k to 7 k, See Figure 2 See Figure 3 One TOUT switching 3 120 MIN TYP MAX 30 UNIT V/s V/s kbit/s
RECEIVER SECTION electrical characteristics over recommended ranges of supply voltage and operating free-air temperature range (see Note 3)
PARAMETER VOH VOL VIT+ VIT High-level output voltage Low-level output voltage Receiver positive-going input threshold voltage Receiver negative-going input threshold voltage R1OUT, R2OUT R1OUT, R2OUT R1IN, R2IN R1IN, R2IN TEST CONDITIONS IOH = 1 mA IOL = 3.2 mA VCC = 5 V, VCC = 5 V, TA = 25C TA = 25C 0.8 1.7 1.2 MIN 3.5 0.4 2.4 TYP MAX UNIT V V V V
Vhys Input hysteresis voltage R1IN, R2IN VCC = 5 V 0.2 0.5 1 V ri Receiver input resistance R1IN, R2IN VCC = 5, TA = 25C 3 5 7 k All typical values are at VCC = 5 V, TA = 25C. The algebraic convention, in which the least positive (most negative) value is designated minimum, is used in this data sheet for logic voltage levels only. NOTE 3: Test conditions are C1C4 = 1 F at VCC = 5 V 0.5 V.
switching characteristics, VCC = 5 V, TA = 25C (see Note 3 and Figure 1)

PARAMETER tPLH(R) tPHL(R) Receiver propagation delay time, low- to high-level output Receiver propagation delay time, high- to low-level output TYP 500 500 UNIT ns ns
NOTE 3: Test conditions are C1C4 = 1 F at VCC = 5 V 0.5 V.
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

PARAMETER MEASUREMENT INFORMATION

VCC
Pulse Generator (see Note A)
R1IN or R2IN
R1OUT or R2OUT
RL = 1.3 k See Note C
CL = 50 pF (see Note B) TEST CIRCUIT 10 ns 90% 50% 90% 50% 10 ns 3V 10% tPLH VOH Output 1.5 V 1.5 V WAVEFORMS NOTES: A. The pulse generator has the following characteristics: ZO = 50 , duty cycle 50%. B. CL includes probe and jig capacitance. C. All diodes are 1N3064 or equivalent. VOL 0V
Input
10%
500 ns tPHL
Figure 1. Receiver Test Circuit and Waveforms for tPHL and tPLH Measurements
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

PARAMETER MEASUREMENT INFORMATION

Pulse Generator (see Note A) T1IN or T2IN T1OUT or T2OUT EIA-232 Output RL CL = 10 pF (see Note B)
TEST CIRCUIT 10 ns Input 10% 90% 50% 5 s tPHL 90% Output tTHL SR 10% 10% tTLH 0.8 (V V ) 0.8 (V V ) OH OL OL OH or t t TLH THL WAVEFORMS NOTES: A. The pulse generator has the following characteristics: ZO = 50 , duty cycle 50%. B. CL includes probe and jig capacitance. tPLH VOH VOL 90% 50% 10 ns 3V 10% 0V
90%
Figure 2. Driver Test Circuit and Waveforms for tPHL and tPLH Measurements (5-s Input)
Pulse Generator (see Note A) 3 k EIA-232 Output CL = 2.5 nF
TEST CIRCUIT 10 ns Input 10% 90% 1.5 V 90% 1.5 V 10% tTLH 3V 3 V SR VOH VOL 10 ns
20 s tTHL Output 3V 3 V
+t
THL
6 V or t
TLH
WAVEFORMS NOTE A: The pulse generator has the following characteristics: ZO = 50 , duty cycle 50%.
Figure 3. Test Circuit and Waveforms for tTHL and tTLH Measurements (20-s Input)
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265

APPLICATION INFORMATION
5V CBYPASS = 1 F + 16 1 C1 1 F 3 4 C2 1 F 5 11 From CMOS or TTL 10 12 To CMOS or TTL 9 0V 15 GND C3 can be connected to VCC or GND. VCC C1+ C1 C2+ C2 VS VS+ 6 C4 + 14 7 13 8 1 F C3 2 8.5 V 8.5 V 1 F
EIA-232 Output EIA-232 Output EIA-232 Input EIA-232 Input
Figure 4. Typical Operating Circuit
DALLAS, TEXAS 75265
References
[1] Image Sensor Communications, 2008. www.vlcc.net. [2] Wavelength Division Multiplexing, 2008. www.wikipedia.org. [3] Light-emitting Diode, 2009. www.wikipedia.org. [4] S. Arai, S. Mase, T. Yamazato, T. Endo, T. Fujii, M. Tanimoto, K. Kidono, Y. Kimura, and Y. Ninomiya. Experimental on Hierarchical Transmission Scheme for Visible Light Communication using LED Trac Light and High-Speed Camera. In 2007 IEEE 66th Vehicular Technology Conference, 2007. VTC-2007 Fall, pages 21742178, 2007. [5] J. Grubor, K. Langer, J. Walewski, and S. Randel. High-speed wireless indoor communication via visible light. ITG FACHBERICHT, 198:203, 2007. [6] S. Haruyama, V. Chairman, and J. Yokohama. Japans Visible Light Communications Consortium and its standardization activities. Presentation at IEEE, 802, 2008. [7] S. Kitano, S. Haruyama, and M. Nakagawa. LED road illumination communications system. In 2003 IEEE 58th Vehicular Technology Conference, 2003. VTC 2003-Fall, volume 5, 2003. [8] T. Komine and M. Nakagawa. Integrated system of white LED visible-light communication and power-line communication. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 49(1), 2003. [9] Dominic OBrien. Visible Light Communications : A Tutorial, 2008. [10] G. Pang, K.L. Ho, T. Kwan, and E. Yang. Visible light communication for audio systems. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 45(4):11121118, 1999. [11] J.O. PLENARY. IEEE Cover. AGENDA, 1:1. [12] E.F. Schubert and J.K. Kim. Solid-state light sources getting smart. Science, 308 (5726):1274, 2005.
70
References
71
[13] S. Tanabe, S. Fujita, S. Yoshihara, A. Sakamoto, and S. Yamamoto. YAG glassceramic phosphor for white LED (II): luminescence characteristics. In Proc. of SPIE Vol, volume 5941, pages 11. [14] Y. Tanaka, T. Komine, S. Haruyama, and M. Nakagawa. Indoor visible light data transmission system utilizing white LED lights. IEICE Transactions on Communications, 86(8):24402454, 2003. [15] J. Vucic, C. Kottke, A. Paraskevopoulos, S. Nerreter, JW Walewski, and K.D. Langer. High-Speed Optical-Wireless Communications for Indoor Applications. ITG-Fachberichte-Breitbandversorgung in Deutschland, 2010. [16] H.B.C. Wook, T. KOMINE, S. HARUYAMA, and M. NAKAGAWA. Visible light communication with LED-based trac lights using 2-dimensional image sensor.

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Visible Light Communications using Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Submitted by: Talha Ahmed Khan 2006-Elect-128

Supervised by: Dr M.Tahir

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

Visible Light Communications using Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Director Undergraduate Studies

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

Dedicated to all the people I love

5.1.1.2 Experiment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A MATLAB Codes B Datasheets

2.4 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

List of Figures 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2

An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Visible Light Communications

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Figure 1.1: Visible Light Communication: A historical perspective [9]

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Merits and Demerits of VLC

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Figure 1.2: A GPS system used for position detection [6]

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications 1.3.1.2 Position Detection using RF

Position Detection using WiFi

Figure 1.4: Pattern generated by QR code captured by a PDA [6]

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Figure 1.7: A comparison of Position Detection technologies [6]

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Image Sensor Communication

Intelligent Transport System

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Visible Light Communications

Figure 1.12: Yokohama National Exibition:A treat to watch [6]

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM: A Fibre-Optics Perspective

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

VLC and WDM

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Figure 2.4: Dierent types of LEDs

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing 2.3.4.3 Medium Range LEDs

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing Slow failure

The disadvantages of LEDs are described below:

High initial price

Chapter 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Motivations and Problem Statement

Chapter 3. Motivations and Problem Statement

The block diagram of the project is shown in gure (4.1).

Figure 4.1: Block Diagram of project

LED Modulation Scheme

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Demultiplexing using Optical lters

Data Reception using Direct Detection

Figure 4.2: IRF 520: NMOS transistor IC (source:Fairchild Semiconductors)

Chapter 4. Implementation 4.3.1.3 RS232 line driver

Figure 4.3: 7805:Voltage Regulator IC (source:)

173:Fiber optic Receiving (source:TOSHIBA website)

Chapter 4. Implementation 4.3.2.3 Voltage Regulator