THE

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A Solar Power Primer For anyone interested in the ABCs of practical solar energy! Solar Mak has released their Solar Pedia under a Creative Commons license - a perfect addition for open courseware or self study. Also great for Educators to use in their classrooms as a student handout. Includes:

Basic Electricity How Solar Power Works Solar Power Planning Solar Mak vs Gasoline Generator

This work, Solar Mak Solar Pedia by John Prim, is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900, Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.

Basic Electricity Introduction

1.1

Since the Industrial Revolution, man has been consuming finite energy sources, and finding ways to distribute or transmit it great distances over large areas. As these sources become more difficult to find and safely extract, the price goes up. With costs continuing to rise, its now up to us to start using renewable energy sources, such as solar power. This section is for gaining knowledge in basic electricity and apply it to solar energy.

Electric Current
Electric current is a controlled and continuous flow of electrons. It requires a conductor, usually copper, allowing electrons to easily flow through it. A copper wire can be thought of as a pipe which electrons flow through. Electron flow in a copper wire is measured in Amperes, or Amps. An Amp is a large number of electrons flowing by each second. Continuous current of electron flow requires that a difference in potential is maintained. To push electrons through a copper wire, there must be more electrons at one end while having fewer electrons at the other end.

Ohms Law
Voltage is the difference in electrical charge between two points. There must be more electrons at one point and fewer at the other point to maintain voltage. Electrons carry a negative charge. When a wire is connected between the two points, electrons flow from the negative to the positive terminal. Insulators are used to safely contain electricity. Plastic is an insulator, because it has high resistance to electron movement. Resistance is measured in Ohms.

Basic Electricity

1.2

The relationship between voltage, current and resistance is explained by Ohms law. OHMS LAW: E = I x R E = Voltage I = Amps R = Ohms If the value of any two is known, then the third can be calculated. To make it easier to remember these relationships, one can use Ohms Triangle:

E is the electromotive force (potential difference) which is moving electrons through the wire. Its measured in Volts. I is the intensity of electron flow (current) moving through the wire. Its measured in Amps. R is resistance of electron flow in the wire. Its measured in Ohms.

Using Ohms Law:

1) Current is directly proportional to voltage. If voltage goes up, so does current. Or if voltage goes down, so does current. 2) Current is inversely proportional to resistance. If resistance increases, then current decreases. And if resistance decreases, then current increases.

By covering the V, the triangle shows: Voltage = Amps x Ohms By covering the A, the triangle shows: Amps = Volts / Ohms By covering the O, the triangle shows: Ohms = Volts / Amps

Basic Electricity Loads

A copper wire can be thought of as a pipe which electrons flow through.

1.3

In the same way, a battery can be thought of as a tank with a pump. It maintains a constant voltage (or pump pressure) no matter if current is flowing or not. A load is a main circuit resistance. It can be thought of as a valve. When electrons move through this valve, voltage is lost because of the resistance of the load. Figure 3 shows all the voltage is lost to the load. This is known as a voltage drop. Its where the resistance of a load in a circuit causes a voltage loss equal to the source voltage.

Power
Power is the rate of energy conversion. For practical purposes, the rate at which an electrical charge is produced or consumed can be found two ways. One way is to determine amp-hours (Ah), and the other way is to determine watt-hours (Wh). Well explore each.

Amp-Hours
To find Amp-hours multiply Amps by hours. The storage capacity of a deep cycle battery is expressed in Amp-hours. For most batteries, the standard means to compare this capacity is by using a 20 hour rate. Looking at Figure 4, the batterys capacity is 100 Amp-hours. To determine the standard load, divide 100 amphours by 20 hours. 100 Ah / 20 hours = 5 amps

Basic Electricity

1.4

This battery can maintain a 5 amp load for 20 hours before being completely discharged. Tip: Never discharge a battery more than 50%, as it shortens the life of the battery. For this circuit, loads shouldnt exceed 5 amps total. A batteries capacity decreases as the load increases. The light bulb has a resistance of 6 Ohms. It consumes 2 amps of power. 12 Volts / 6 Ohms = 2 Amps Over 20 hours, the load will consume 40 Amp-hours of power. 2 Amps x 20 hours = 40 Ah The battery shouldnt be discharged more than half its capacity. 100 Ah x .5 = 50 Ah The light bulb consumes less than 50 Ah over 20 hours. 40 Ah < 50 Ah

Watt-hours
To find watts, multiply volts by amps. Looking at Figure 4, we can find the wattage of the light bulb: 12 Volts x 2 Amps = 24 Watts To determine watt-hours, multiply watts by hours. 24 Watts x 20 Hours = 480 watt hours A more common unit is kilowatt hours, which is 1000 watts multiplied by time. Utility companies use kilowatt hours to determine what to charge customers on their electric bill. If the light bulb is on almost 42 hours, then it consumes 1 Kwh. 1,000 Wh / 24 Watts = 41.6 hours

Which One to Use?

In general, which measure to use is determined by the application, and the load size. For example, most electronic circuits use milliamps (thousandths of an amp). The electronic circuits in your smart phone use milliamps. Individual appliances, from coffee makers and vacuum cleaners to refrigerators and televisions, use Amps. Kilowatts are used as an easier means to compare the consumption of combined appliance loads. Its used by electric utilities to help them better match their production and obtain a standard price rate. With portable solar generators, were mainly concerned with individual appliance use, so well focus on Amps and Amp-hours.

Basic Electricity
Looking at Figure 4 again, we can plug the numbers into Ohms triangle.

1.5

6 Ohms = 12 Volts / 2 Amps 2 Amps = 12 volts / 6 Ohms 12 Volts = 2 Amps x 6 Ohms

Weve determined that the light bulb uses 24 Watts, or 2 Amps. It consumes 40 Ah in 20 hours.

24 Watts = 2 Amps x 12 volts 2 Ah = 2 amps x 1 hour 40 Ah = 2 Amps x 20 hours

So far, weve only looked at Direct Current circuits. But many appliances use Alternating Current.

Basic Electricity .DC & AC

1.6

Figure 5 is a diagram of a Solar Mak iPower Station. Notice most of the wiring is Direct Current. Direct Current is where electrons flow in only one direction. The polarity of the battery is always the same where one terminal is always negative and the other terminal is always positive. Think of it as a pump that only flows in one direction.

Alternating Current produces a voltage that reverses regularly. The polarity of the voltage alternates and the current changes direction. It has a very rapid cycle of increase, decrease, and reversal, creating a sine wave. Alternating Current can be produced electronically with an inverter, which converts DC to AC. All solar generators make use of an inverter for AC loads.

Basic Electricity

1.7

If the value of any two are known, then one can find the other two. Examples:

P=VxI
24 watts = 12 volts x 2 amps 2 amps = 24 watts / 12 volts

P=I2xR
24 watts = (2 x 2) x R 24 watts = 4 x R R = 6 Ohms

E=IxR
12 volts = 2 amps x 6 ohms

P=V2/R
24 watts = (12 x 12) / R R = 144 / 24 R = 6 Ohms The values inside Ohms Triangle apply only to source voltage - whereas the formulas outside the triangle apply to both source and load voltage.

Knowing basic electricity is important for using solar energy. Lets discover how Solar Power works.

How Solar Power Works

2.1

Solar Power Pathway

Most solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have the following components: Solar Panel: Produce direct current and the electricity passes through a charge controller. Charge Controller: It regulates the flow of electricity from the solar panel. Battery: Most batteries for solar power systems are 12 volts. Inverter: Converts DC power from the battery to AC power for use with household appliances. Power Pack: Contains a battery and inverter with DC and AC outlets all in one unit.

As electricity is converted at each point in the power pathway, the available electricity is reduced. In other words, some electricity is lost with each power conversion. Such losses can be minimized by careful use of components.

Component Challenges
There are many solar technology solutions available today. And each technology has its proponents that tend to be a bit too optimistic at times. Luckily, there is a great tool to find how well any given solar technology works in the real world. The tool is called price to performance and we use it for every Solar Mak. Solar Panel The three most common types of solar panels on the market are amorphous, monocrystalline, and polycrystalline. Amorphous are also known as thin-film panels. While their efficiency varies from 6 to 12 percent, they require a larger area than crystalline panels for the same amount of electric output. In most cases, thin films tend to lose up to 20% of their power production capability after the first year in use. Thin film technology is common in many low end 45 and 60 watt kits with 3 to 4 panels. But these panels only carry a 5 year warranty. Few people want to buy another kit after 5 years. On a price to performance basis, these panels should be considered only as a last resort.

How Solar Power Works

2.2

Monocrystalline panels are the most efficient, but also the most expensive to manufacture. On a per panel basis, polycrystalline are only slightly less efficient. On a price to performance basis, mono panels are best utilized for very large stationary arrays. The slight increase in efficiency per panel can add up to a significant increase in general power production. However, the return on investment will take longer due to the increased cost of the panel. This leaves polycrystalline panels, which also happens to be the panel of choice for all Solar Mak portable generators. Like many mono panels, they carry a 25 year power warranty. They are almost as efficient as mono panels, but at a much lower cost resulting in a faster return on investment. Last, polycrystalline panels tend to produce decent power even in low light conditions. Between the three panel choices, polycrystalline panels tend to offer the best price to performance all around.

How Solar Power Works

Charge Controllers

2.3

Charge controllers are necessary to safely charge a battery with a solar panel. There are two types of charge controllers available, multipoint power tracking (MPPT) and pulse width modulation (PWM). MPPT controllers are claimed to increase production 30 percent. Here, we need to step back from utopia and examine real world use. Generally, they can increase power production up to 20 or 25 percent, as long as the solar panel remains cool. As the panel warms up from the sun, the MPPT advantage quickly disappears. MPPT controllers tend to cost more than pulse width controllers. On a price to performance basis, they are best used on larger solar arrays in areas that have cooler fall and winter seasons. PWM controllers have been the standard for a long time in solar power. They offer bullet proof operation at a reasonable price with consistent power production. Solar Mak Work Pods use a PWM controller with a 99 percent efficiency, backed by a 10 year power warranty. It even provides limited lightening protection, which is rarely seen in most controllers.

Battery Three technologies are currently used for power storage of solar energy. They are Flooded Cell, Lithium, and Absorbed Glass Matt. Flooded Cell has been around for over a century and used in many applications, from automobiles to industrial tow motors and more. This lead acid technologys best feature is its almost 100 percent recyclable. However, constant maintenance is necessary, from topping off the acid bath to desulfating the internal grid plates. Lithium has become common in electronics and portable power tools. Its more expensive than lead acid and its recycling infrastructure barely exists. While it has been used in very small solar applications, it becomes much more difficult to manage and control as power storage increases. Absorbed Glass Matt is also a lead acid technology, but state of the art. It was originally developed for military use. Its spill proof, freeze proof, and maintenance free. Like its flooded cell cousin, its completely recyclable. AGM batteries are more expensive than flooded cell. But AGM has none of the disadvantages of flooded cell. For solar power storage, AGMs offer the best price to performance.

How Solar Power Works

Component Placement

2.4

How components are placed in a solar power system is just as important as the components themselves. Component placement is known as balance of system (BOS) in stationary solar arrays. Weve seen some odd component configurations in portable solar, which well briefly review: The Long Cord. There are some portable systems that use a very long power cord from the solar panel to the power pack. Such cords are oversized in an attempt to limit DC voltage drop over such a long distance. Voltage drop can greatly reduce solar charging. In a truly portable solar generator, such long power cords are unnecessary. The Lock Box. Some portable systems have the charge controller permanently attached to a power pack. The result is a portable solar generator which is unable to charge any other power pack. In another case, a solar generator has propriety power cords that fit only one single power pack. Such Lock Box strategies tend to greatly diminish the flexibility and usefulness of a portable solar power system. The Blanket. This is where thin film cells are sewn into a fabric, such as a tent or tarp and fold into a compact square. Theyre very expensive and produce much less power than crystalline panels covering the same amount of area. Its mainly used in military applications. And its absolutely fantastic if one is a Navy Seal jumping out of a high altitude plane to parachute into enemy territory. Its highly unlikely anyone else is going to jump out of a perfectly good plane with a solar generator strapped to their back. For price to performance, its a poor choice for most homeowners and businesses. Solar Mak portable generators have the optimum configuration to meet a wide variety of purposes. Its our attention to the details which matter most is why we can offer solar generators at unmatched prices with such high performance. With Solar Mak, there is no long cord, ensuring every available electron of solar electric production is captured for ready use. Solar Mak can charge any power pack with a 12 volt outlet, which includes almost every portable pack on the market today. With a simple adapter, it can charge any 12 volt battery. One is no longer tied to a single lock box. And while the blanket is a good system to meet a very narrow purpose, its not the optimum choice to meet the power needs of most homeowners and businesses. Solar Mak portable power systems are also eligible for the federal solar tax credit (limitations apply). Even without the 30% savings from the tax credit, Solar Mak still delivers the best price to performance. All these reasons are why Solar Mak works. Now for a closer look at solar power planning.

Solar Power Planning Solar Power Planning

There are seven keys to solar power planning. They are: 1. Determine a main purpose the solar generator must meet. 2. Determine the power load of appliances / tools. 3. Choose a power pack that can meet the load requirement. 4. Match solar production to the power pack. 5. Consider other uses of the solar generator 6. Consider future expansion of the solar generator. 7. Estimate the return on the solar investment.

3.1

Solar power planning is all about asking the right questions in order to reach the best answer. The seven keys listed above help in asking the right questions. Well apply the seven keys In the example that follows. 1. Main Purpose What is the one main purpose for the solar generator? One answer is emergency power, and thats a good start. But it should be more specific. What do I need emergency power for? I need emergency power to run my refrigerator during a utility outage. The main purpose is to power the refrigerator. 2. Power Load The following tables estimate the wattage of various appliances. A refrigerator requires 600 watts of power. Most refrigerators cycle on and off. It turns on only to maintain a set cold temperature, then turns off. Its known as an intermittent load. On average, a refrigerator only runs 10 minutes out of every hour. 600 watts / 6 = 100 watts per hour From the section on basic electricity, we can determine how many amps it draws: 100 watts / 110 volts = about 1 amp (.90 amps) We need to know the amp draw as most batteries are rated in Amp hours.

Solar Power Planning

3.2

3. Power Pack When converting AC to DC amps, there is a power factor of 10. In other words, for every 1 amp draw of Alternating Current through an inverter, there is a 10 amp draw in Direct Current from the battery (at 12 Volts). The refrigerator will draw 10 Amps of Direct Current from the battery running ten minutes* every hour. (*Note: Appliances that do not run continuously are called intermittent loads.) The question to ask now is how long is the utility down? It averages any where from 4 to 48 hours. At first, it appears one needs a minimum battery size of 48 Ah. (48 hours x 10 amps = 48 Amp hours). But most batteries shouldnt be discharge more than 50%, so we need to double the Amp hour rating to almost 100 Amp hours. The Solar Mak power pack closest to 100 Amp hours is the iPower Station 85. It has a 1200 watt inverter with a 75 Amp hour battery. At 50%, its only 37.5 Amp hours. A refrigerator is designed to hold the cold in for a long period of time. In most cases, it can remain cold for up to 24 hours without power if the door is kept closed. The strategy is to plug in the refrigerator every six hours to keep the food chilled. Over 24 hours, the fridge is plugged in 4 times. During the day, the pack is constantly being solar charged, with an AC extension cord from the inverter to power the refrigerator. (There is very little voltage drop with an AC power cord compared to a DC power cord.) Generally, the iPower Station 85 can provide emergency power to a refrigerator almost indefinitely using this simple strategy. But we still need to determine solar power production. Appliance LED light bulb DVD Player Stereo Clock Radio Satellite dish Vacuum cleaner Washing machine 25" Television Video Game (X-Box) Furnace Fan (1/3hp) Watts 7 - 14 35 30 - 100 50 30+ 300 - 1100 900 300 100 1200* Toaster Coffee Grinder Blender Hot plate Frying pan Toaster Oven Computer Laptop Desktop Computer Printer Refrigerator/Freezer 800 - 1500 100 300 1200 1200 1200 75 400 75 600* Appliance Coffee pot (10 cup) Watts 1200

Solar Power Planning

3.3

4. Solar Production The iPower Station 85 includes an 85 watt solar generator rated at about 5 amps production every hour. To determine average daily production, we need to find the sun hours for our area. The following chart shows sun hour ratings for the United States. A large portion of the United States averages 5 sun hours. The average daily production of the solar generator is then 25 Amps (5 sun hours x 5 amps = 25 Amps)

Average Sun Hours

3 to 4 4 to 5 5 to 6 6 to 7

5. Other Uses The main purpose has been planned for. Other than emergency power, what else can it be used for? Looking at the appliance chart again, a few options stand out. It can be used to power a small home office. Or it can be used to power an entertainment system in the man cave for the big game.

Solar Power Planning

3.4

6. Future Expansion There are two ways to expand the iPower Station 85. On the one hand, the solar generator can charge any power pack with a 12 volt outlet. A sound investment in one or two more smaller power packs can expand emergency power to other rooms and appliances. On the other hand, the iPower Pack is expandable with an additional solar panel. Another 85 watt solar generator can be added to increase power production up to 50 amps per day ( 5 sun hours x 10 amps = 50 Amps). 7. ROI What is the return on investment for the iPower Station? How soon does it begin paying me? The iPower Station 85 is $1,495.00. If its for home use only, then the 30% percent federal tax credit would reduce the final price to $1,047.00 Most Americans have about $350.00 in the refrigerator every month. If power outages occur twice a year, then the solar generator saves $700.00 worth of food every year. Based on food savings alone, the iPower Station pays for itself in about 1 and a half years. After which, its paying you with free, clean energy for 20 + years.

Solar Mak versus Gasoline Generator

4.1

This is a comparison between a 3 hp gasoline generator rated at 1400 Watts versus the iPower Station 85 rated at 1200 Watts. Keep in mind these general rules regarding gas generators: Most are built for intermittent use only. Its almost guaranteed to self destruct when used for prolonged periods (even with moderate load). Most are optimistic in their rating. Many are over rated in both the wattage and run times they can provide. For example, some gas generators are marketed at their peak wattage (higher rpm) rather than its standard wattage. There is much more wear at higher rpm, translating into a much shorter product life. The gas generator in this comparison is rated at 1400 watts with a peak of 2000 watts. Fuel The gas generator consumes about 1.5 gallons of fuel in 9 hours at 50% load. Generally, if the appliance draw doesnt exceed 700 watts, then it can provide 9 hours of power. At full load fuel consumption is increased, and run time is cut in half. This means the gas generator will be out of fuel in 4.5 hours at standard wattage (1400 watts). The biggest advantage of the solar iPower Station 85 is free fuel - the sun. There are no moving parts resulting in a very long product life. Theres no need to keep cans of gas nearby for refueling. It can provide reliable backup power during extended electric outages. By following a simple strategy, it can provide emergency power to a refrigerator for 48 hours or longer.

Solar Mak versus Gasoline Generator

4.2

Noise Gas generators can reach 85 to 90 decibels (about as load as a gas lawnmower) when in operation. Prolonged exposure to noise above 90 decibels results in gradual hearing loss. There is no peace of mind when a gas generator is making noise over a long period of time during a power outage. Solar power is almost noiseless. Other than the whisper of a fan on the inverter, there is no noise. One will never hear the neighbors complain with an iPower Station for backup power. Its also a much better solution for mobile office, vendors and recreation.

Cost A gas generator appears to have the advantage on initial purchase price compared to a solar generator. This advantage quickly disappears when operation and maintenance costs are taken into account. A gas generator will always rely on fuel purchased at the pump. Gasoline prices have been increasing, and will continue to increase with each passing year. Maintenance of a gas generator is a continuous cost. From regular oil and filter changes, to replacing parts such as spark plugs, such costs can add up quickly. A Solar Mak iPower Station has almost no operation or maintenance cost. The only regular maintenance is wiping dust off the solar panel once in a while in order to maximize solar power production. One can realize a sizable financial gain over time, as these costs have been eliminated.

Emergency Power Keep in mind during a power outage, theres no electricity to operate the pumps at the gas station. So if you run out of gas on hand, one will be unable to purchase more when the grid is down. With Solar Mak, one has power when its needed the most. An iPower Station for home use or a Work Pod for industrial solar power isnt only the better choice - its the best choice. Its also great in the classroom. Increase your energy independence with Solar Mak.