Sasha Houston ANTH 2705, Spring 2012 Darwin Assignment

Chapter 1: Variation under Domestication In this chapter Darwin explores variation and selection through domestication. He notices that even individuals in the same group or species that have been exposed to the same conditions (environment) differ from each other. He sees the effects of the environment on variation as less important than the effects of reproduction and inheritance. Using the information collected by other scientists or researchers, such as Heusinger, he knows that certain traits are linked to others and that this correlation means that traits are inherited. Variety in traits cannot be caused by environmental conditions or the use or disuse of certain traits alone. Darwin knew that inheritance was the key but did not know how these traits were passed from parents to offspring. Furthermore, when looking at an entire species it is hard to decide whether they are the descendants of one or multiple parent-species. To observe this, he studied domestic pigeons which he considered to be a well-defined species that descended from one common ancestor. He sees domestication and breeding as a form of selection. Man selects plants and animals with the best characteristics that suit his needs to breed such, as choosing the strongest horse or the plant with the biggest flower or best fruit to breed; this he calls unconscious selection. He believes this process over time has modified and improved species of animals and plants. Chapter 2: Variation under Nature In this chapter Darwin explores variation and selection through nature. He defines individual differences as the slight deviations that occur among individuals of the same species who inhabit the same environment. He focuses on these individual differences and determines that they are the most important to look at because they provide the foundation for natural selection. In other words they provide the material for natural selection to act on. For example an individual difference such as varying beak size among birds of the same species lends itself to natural selection where the birds with the perfect beak size for reaching nectar in the flowers available will most likely have a higher survival rate. To Darwin the terms species and variety almost mean the same thing, in that, species means a set of individuals that resemble each other and variety means fluctuating forms of that species. Darwin believed that closer attention should be paid to these individual differences. He saw the link between the number of variety and survival of genera. The species of genera that have more than the average numbers of varieties are also the genera with higher than average species in any country. Furthermore the most dominant species of the largest genera also had the largest number of varieties, meaning that the most prolific species had the greatest degree of variety. These species are the ones most likely to transform into new and separate species. Chapter 3: Struggle for Existence

Because there rarely are enough resources to support every individual within a species, competition ensues. Competition can also occur between individuals in different species. Adaptation is the key to winning this competition. Within each species we can see physical traits that have been modified to adapt to the environment, such as beak size and shape, body size, body color, and so forth; the list is endless. Because of the struggle to survive, variations, however small, that are advantageous to the individuals of a species (with respect to their environments or other organisms such as predators) will be preserved and most likely be inherited by the offspring so that they may also have a better chance of surviving. The high rate of survival, however, heightens the competition and the struggle for survival. Here Darwin applies the work of Malthus who stated that there is not enough food to feed all the individuals on Earth. Climate also affects the average numbers of a species, especially during seasons of extreme cold or drought where the amount of food available for individuals who eat the same kinds of food is reduced. Predation is also a big factor in determining the average numbers of a species. We see this in humans too with diseases and illnesses. We can clearly see the need for competition between individuals of the same species but cannot say for sure why one species is more successful than the other. We can see, however, how different species are connected in a food chain. Chapter 4: Natural Selection; or the Survival of the Fittest The idea Darwin presents in this chapter is simple: the most fit organisms have a better chance to survive, mate, and reproduce, passing their successful traits to their offspring and future generations. He is essentially exploring the relationship between variation and survival or existence. His theorizes that useful variations occur over the course of many successive generations while simultaneously, traits that offer no advantage in the struggle to survive will eventually be eliminated. This he calls natural selection or the Survival of the Fittest. Nature, unlike man, not only selects based on the external visible characteristics but also the internal ones, therefore it may be fair to say that natures productions are much better adapted and to the most complex conditions in life. He talks about sexual selection, where the struggle is between individuals of one sex, usually males, to court or possess the other sex. It is less severe than natural selection because the consequence is not death to the unsuccessful competitor but less offspring. The winner is successful because of traits gained through selection such as better claws to fight with or more impressive looking feathers. He points out that interbreeding can lead to less vigorous and less fertile offspring. A cross between varieties gives the highest degree of vigor and fertility to the offspring. He also observes that if a species is unable to improve and modify itself at the same level as its competitors it will become endangered or extinct. Chapter 5: Laws of Variation There are two main factors that contribute to variation: the nature of the organism and the conditions of the habitat it occupies. Since Darwin did not have fossils of parent-forms readily available to him, he had to use inference to paint a picture of what the ancestors of these species may have looked like. For example he could infer that the ostrich, incapable of flight, might have looked and acted like a bustard, and that as their weight and body size increased over time, its legs were used more and the use of wings was decreased until they became incapable of flight. Darwin concluded that it is the

steady accumulation of beneficial differences that has given rise to all he most important modifications of structure in relation to the habits of species. Chapters: 6 and 7: Difficulties of the Theory and Miscellaneous Objections In these chapters Darwin addresses a number of objections to his theory. Some of the main objections ask questions like why there arent many transitional forms of species if natural selection is really occurring, or can instincts and behavior be inherited or how we can account for sterility in animals that are the products of crossbreeding and not interbreeding. He suggests that that there are many transitional fossil varieties but extinction of the parent-species and natural selection go hand in hand, meaning that as the new form is being perfected the parent and all transitional varieties are being exterminated. He argues that there are or was in his time, existing transitional form which he believed is evident in the variety that exists among species that cohabitate. When questioned about specialized adaptations and how animals could all of a sudden adapt to a completely different environments, he gives examples like the American mink who preys for fish in the summer but preys on mice and other land animals during the winter, he suggests that this animal is in an intermediate stage of selection and will modify again over time. On how an organ such as the human eye can evolved through gradual changes, Darwin says that variation causes slight changes; generations will multiply these changes over and over again while natural selection pulls out the best traits for skill improvement or color vision in this case. Some species dont see to change at all and that Darwin attributes to little climactic or environmental changes. Chapter 8: Instinct Darwin states that it is not correct to say that instincts have been acquired in one generation and transmitted through inheritance. It is more correct to say that it is simply inherited than to say that it is through habit or formation of a habit that is passed down. Instincts are usually something done for survival such as the building of a honey comb by bees or the capturing of slaves by ants. Without the aid of slave ant the species would become extinct so there is a survival tactic involved in the instinct to capture slaves which is passed down through generations through natural selection.

Compare/Contrast of Chapter 2: Variation under Nature: In the original on the origin of species, Darwin discusses all of the points Keller touches on but in greater detail. It is much clearer in the original that he is debating whether or not variation under nature can be compared to variation under domestication which he discusses in the first chapter. He briefly talks about monstrosities in the original and defines them as variations that are no beneficial, maybe what we may call a harmful mutation today; this is not discussed in the graphic version. He provides a wider and more detailed description about the distinctions between heritable traits and ones caused by changes in the environment like temperature. In the original he elaborates on the problem with determining what a variation or group of variations mean. For example whether a variation exists within a species or if a variation marks the presence of two completely different species. He concludes that

that is no absolute criteria or rubric that can be used to distinguish species and subspecies. He does state however that his criterion is that the amount of difference between species is always greater than the amount of difference among individuals of the same species. This is not completely spelled out in the graphic version. He discusses the presence of dominant species in the same way the Kellers version does, however. Dominant species will exist on a larger scale and will have more variety. The original version gives more detail about what other scientist and theologians believed at the time which was that God created separate species at the same time yet individually. Darwin states that this cannot be true because if it were there would be no difference between dominant groups and lesser groups, and dominant groups would not have a better chance of survival which they clearly did and still do.