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CONTENTS Page No: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 14. HISTORY INTRODUCTION OPERATION ACCUMULATING ENERGY MECHANISM MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION MATERIALS SENSORS DEVICES AMBIENT RADIATION SOURCES TYPES OF HARVESTING APPLICATIONS REFERENCES 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 12. 14. 15. 16. 18. 19. 20.
13. CONCLUSION
History
The pyroelectric effect, by which a material generates an electric potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid18th century. Drawing on this knowledge, both Ren Just Hay and Antoine Csar Becquerel posited a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge; however, experiments by both proved inconclusive. The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie. They combined their knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying crystal structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity. The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect. The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[4] The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect, and went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electro-elasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals. For the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained something of a laboratory curiosity. More work was done to explore and define the crystal structures that exhibited piezoelectricity. This culminated in 1910 with the publication of Woldemar Voigt's Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik (textbook on crystal physics), which described the 20 natural crystal classes capable of piezoelectricity, and rigorously defined the piezoelectric constants using tensor analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Operation
Energy harvesting devices converting ambient energy into electrical energy have attracted much interest in both the military and commercial sectors. Some systems convert motion, such as that of ocean waves, into electricity to be used by oceanographic monitoring sensors for autonomous operation. Future applications may include high power output devices (or arrays of such devices) deployed at remote locations to serve as reliable power stations for large systems. Another application is in wearable electronics, where energy harvesting devices can power or recharge cellphones, mobile computers, radio communication equipment, etc. All of these devices must be sufficiently robust to endure long-term exposure to hostile environments and have a broad range of dynamic sensitivity to exploit the entire spectrum of wave motions. The piezoelectric effect converts mechanical strain into electric current or voltage. This strain can come from many different sources. Human motion, low-frequency seismic vibrations, and acoustic noise are everyday examples. Except in rare instances the piezoelectric effect operates in AC requiring time-varying inputs at mechanical resonance to be efficiency.
Accumulating energy
Energy can also be harvested to power small autonomous sensors such as those developed using MEMS technology. These systems are often very small and require little power, but their applications are limited by the reliance on battery power. Scavenging energy from ambient vibrations, wind, heat or light could enable smart sensors to be functional indefinitely. Dept of EEE College, Bellary Several
Mechanism
Piezoelectric plate used to convert audio signal to sound waves The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization (dimensionality [Cm/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic unit cell.[5] As every dipole is a vector, the dipole density P is also a vector or a directed quantity. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned using the process of poling (not the same as magnetic poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated temperatures. Not all piezoelectric materials can be poled. [6]
Mathematical description
Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the electrical behavior of the material: where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric displacement), is permittivity and E is electric field strength, and Hooke's Law: where S is strain, s is compliance and T is stress. These may be combined into so-called coupled equations, of which the strain-charge form is: , where is the matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect and is the matrix for the converse piezoelectric effect. The superscript E indicates a zero, or constant, electric field; the superscript T indicates a zero, or constant, stress field; and the superscript t stands for transposition of a matrix. Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 8
where the first equation represents the relationship for the converse piezoelectric effect and the latter for the direct piezoelectric effect.[8] Although the above equations are the most used form in literature, some comments about the notation are necessary. Generally D and E are vectors, that is, Cartesian tensor of rank-1; and permittivity is Cartesian tensor of rank 2. Strain and stress are, in principle, also rank-2 tensors. But conventionally, because strain and stress are all symmetric tensors, the subscript of strain and stress can be re-labeled in the following fashion: 11 1; 22 2; 33 3; 23 4; 13 5; 12 6. (Different convention may be used by different authors in literature. Say, some use 12 4; 23 5; 31 6 instead.) That is why S and T appear to have the "vector form" of 6 components. Consequently, s appears to be a 6 by 6 matrix instead of rank-4 tensor. Such a relabeled notation is often called Voigt notation. In total, there are 4 piezoelectric coefficients, , , , and defined as follows:
where the first set of 4 terms correspond to the direct piezoelectric effect and the second set of 4 terms correspond to the converse piezoelectric effect.[9] A formalism has been worked out for those piezoelectric crystals, for which the polarization is of the crystalfield induced type, that allows for the calculation of piezoelectrical coefficients from electrostatic lattice constants or higher-order Madelung constants.[5]
Crystal classes
Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. In a piezoelectric device,
Materials
Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit piezoelectricity: [edit]Naturally occurring crystals Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz Sucrose (table sugar) Quartz Rochelle salt Topaz Tourmaline-group minerals The action of piezoelectricity in Topaz can probably be attributed to ordering of the (F,OH) in its lattice, which is otherwise centrosymmetric: Orthorhombic Bipyramidal (mmm). Topaz has anomalous optical properties which are attributed to such ordering. [10] Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 10
Sensors
Many rocket-propelled grenades used a piezoelectric fuze. For example: RPG-7[23] Main article: Piezoelectric sensor The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical dimension, transformed into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the sensing element. Depending on the design of a sensor, different "modes" to load the piezoelectric element can be used: longitudinal, transversal and shear.
Crystal
As very high electric fields correspond to only tiny changes in the width of the crystal, this width can be changed with better-than-m precision, making piezo crystals the most important tool for positioning objects with extreme accuracy thus their use in actuators. Multilayer ceramics, using layers thinner than 100 m, allow reaching high Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 13
DEVICES
Ambient-radiation sources
A possible source of energy comes from ubiquitous radio transmitters. Historically, either a large collection area or close proximity to the radiating wireless energy source Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 15
Photovoltaic harvesting
Photovoltaic [PV] energy harvesting wireless technology offers significant advantages over wired or solely battery-powered sensor solutions: virtually inexhaustible sources of power with little or no adverse environmental effects. Indoor PV harvesting solutions have to date been powered by specially tuned amorphous silicon (aSi)a technology most used in Solar Calculators. In recent years new PV technologies have come to the forefront in Energy Harvesting such as Dye Sensitized Solar Cells DSSC. The dyes absorbs light much like chlorophyll does in plants. Electrons released on impact escape to the layer of TiO2 and from there diffuse, through the electrolyte, as the dye can be tuned to the visible spectrum much higher power can be produced. At 200 lux DSSC can provide over 15 micro watts per cm2
THERMOELECTRICS In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that a thermal gradient formed between two dissimilar conductors produces a voltage. At the heart of the thermoelectric effect is the fact that a temperature gradient in a conducting material results in heat flow; this results in the diffusion of charge carriers. The flow of charge carriers between the hot and cold regions in turn creates a voltage difference. In 1834, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier discovered that running an electric current through the junction of two dissimilar conductors could, depending on the direction of the current, cause it to act as a heater or cooler. The heat absorbed or produced is proportional to the current, and the proportionality constant is known as the Peltier coefficient. Today, due to knowledge of the Seebeck and Peltier effects, thermoelectric materials can be used as heaters, coolers and generators (TEGs). Ideal thermoelectric materials have a high Seebeck coefficient, high electrical conductivity, and low thermal conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is necessary to maintain a high thermal gradient at the junction. Standard thermoelectric modules manufactured today consist of P- and N-doped bismuth-telluride semiconductors sandwiched between two metallized ceramic plates. The ceramic plates add rigidity and electrical insulation to the system. The semiconductors are connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Miniature thermocouples have been developed that convert body heat into electricity and generate 40W at 3V with a 5 degree temperature gradient, while on the other end of the scale, large thermocouples are used in nuclear RTG batteries. Practical examples are the finger-heartratemeter by the Holst Centre and the thermogenerators by the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft.[24][25] Advantages to thermoelectrics:
Applications
Currently, industrial and manufacturing is the largest application market for piezoelectric devices, followed by the automotive industry. Strong demand also comes from medical instruments as well as information and telecommunications. The global demand for piezoelectric devices was valued at approximately US$14.8 billion in 2010. The largest material group for piezoelectric devices is piezocrystal , and piezopolymer is experiencing the fastest growth due to its light weight and small size.[17] Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways: Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 18
Piezoelectric motors
. Types of piezoelectric motor include: The traveling-wave motor used for auto-focus in reflex cameras Inchworm motors for linear motion Rectangular four-quadrant motors with high power density (2.5 watt/cm3) and speed ranging from 10 nm/s to 800 mm/s. Stepping piezo motor, using stick-slip effect. All these motors, except the stepping stick-slip motor work on the same principle. Driven by dual orthogonal vibration modes with a phase difference of 90, the contact point between two surfaces vibrates in an elliptical path, producing a frictional force between the surfaces. Usually, one surface is fixed causing the other to move. In most piezoelectric motors the piezoelectric crystal is excited by a sine wave signal at the resonant frequency of the motor. Using the resonance effect, a much lower voltage can be used to produce a high vibration amplitude.
Future directions
Electroactive polymers (EAPs) have been proposed for harvesting energy. These polymers have a large strain, elastic energy density, and high energy conversion efficiency. The total weight of systems based on EAPs is proposed to be significantly lower than those based on piezoelectric materials. Nanogenerators, such as the one made by Georgia Tech, could provide a new way for powering devices without batteries.[31] As of 2008, it only generates some dozen nanowatts, which is too low for any practical application. Dept of EEE College, Bellary Rao Bahadur. Y. Mahabaleshwarappa Engineering Page 20
CONCLUSION
. Energy harvesters provide a very small amount of power for low-energy electronics. While the input fuel to some large-scale generation costs money (oil, coal, etc.), the energy source for energy harvesters is present as ambient background and is free. For example, temperature gradients exist from the operation of a combustion engine and in urban areas, there is a large amount of electromagnetic energy in the environment because of radio and television broadcasting.
REFERENCES
"Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-05-25. "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-17. "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-25. Exergy (available energy) Flow Charts 2.7 YJ solar energy each year for two billion years vs. 1.4 YJ non-renewable resources available once. http://www.solarenergybyzip.com a b Philibert, Cdric (2005). "The Present and Future use of Solar Thermal Energy as a Primary Source of Energy". IEA. Archived from the original on 2011-12-12. "Darmstadt University of Technology solar decathlon home design". Darmstadt University of Technology. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-25. Rosenfeld, Arthur; Romm, Joseph; Akbari, Hashem; Lloyd, Alan. "Painting the Town White -- and Green". Heat Island Group. Archived from the original on 2007-07-14. Retrieved 2007-09-29. Jeffrey C. Silvertooth. "Row Spacing, Plant Population, and Yield Relationships". University of Arizona. Retriev