Chapter 2: Plane Waves

2.1 The Wave Equation and Basic Plane Wave Solutions

The Helmholtz Equation Recall the curl equations for harmonic fields in a source free simple medium:

! " !" ! ! " E = # j$ H !" ! ! " ! " H = j$% E

Take the curl of the first:
! " !" ! ! " ! " ! " E = # j$! " H = $ 2 % E

! " ! " ! " ! " Using the identity ! " ! " E = ! ! # E $ ! 2 E and the fact that ! " E = 0 in a source

free region, we obtain the result:

! " ! " !2 E + k 2 E = 0
Here we have defined the wavenumber, k , as k = ! " with units rad m . In an !" ! identical fashion, we may begin with the curl H equation to show that the magnetic field satisfies the equation:

!" ! !" ! !2 H + k 2 H = 0
These well-known equations are the phasor form of the wave equation, and are called vector Helmholtz equations. We begin by solving them in the simplest case in lossless (dielectric) and then lossy (conducting) media. Plane Waves in a Lossless Medium In a lossless region, ! and are real, so the wavenumber k is real. We assume that the electric field is x directed and uniform (with no variation) in the x and y ! " # directions. Then E = xE ( z ) , so ! !x = ! !y = 0 , and the Helmholtz equation reduces to:
x

!2 Ex + k 2 Ex = 0 2 !x
This equation has two independent solutions, which we write in general as:

Ex ( z ) = E + e! jkz + E ! e+ jkz

Here, E + and E ! are arbitrary amplitude coefficients (determined by initial or boundary conditions). Since we are assuming harmonic time variation at frequency ! , we may find the time domain fields in the usual fashion (multiply by e j! t and take the real part). The result is in terms of forward and backward traveling waves:
Ex ( z,t ) = E + cos (! t " kz ) + E " cos (! t + kz )

Here we have assumed that E + and E ! are real constants. The first term in the solution above represents a wave traveling in the + z direction, since to stay on a constant-phase wavefront (i.e., ! t " kz = const ) as time increases requires that location increase at the same time. In a similar fashion, the second term in the solution represents a wave traveling in the ! z , since to stay on a constantphase wavefront as time increases requires that z decrease. The figure below depicts the forward traveling wave at two successive instants of time.

The velocity at which an observer would have to travel in order to remain on a constant-phase wavefront is known as the phase velocity of the wave, denoted v p . Consider the argument of the cosine on such a wavefront: ! t " kz = const . Take the derivative with respect to time:

!"k

dz =0 dt

But dz dt = v p is the phase velocity, so we obtain the relation:

vp = ! k

Substitution of the value of the wavenumber k = ! " gives:

vp = 1

In free space, the phase velocity takes the familiar value v p = 1 0! 0 = c ! 2.998 " 10 8 m s . The wavelength, ! , is the distance between successive constant phase surfaces, such as maxima. The argument of the cosine increases by 2! over this distance:

! t " kz " $! t " k ( z + # ) & = 2( % '

Solving gives the alternative forms:

!=

2" 2" v p v p = = k # f

The magnetic field must be included in a complete solution, but once the electric ! " field is found this is an easy matter to accomplish. By the curl E equation applied to !" ! # 1 #Ex . But ! !z = ! jk , so the result is: ! xEx ( z ) , we have H = !y j" #z

Hy =

1 + " jkz # E e " E " e+ jkz % & !$

Here we have introduced the intrinsic impedance of the medium, ! = " k = # , with units of Ohms. In free space the intrinsic impedance takes the value !0 = 0 " 0 ! 120# ! 377 $ . It represents the ratio of the forward traveling electric to magnetic fields, or the negative of the ratio of the backward traveling electric to magnetic fields. Note that the plane wave solution for the fields that we have found have electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other, and that both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation ( + z here). When we discuss mode classifications later, we will classify plane wave fields as TEM fields: Transverse Electro Magnetic fields. Plane Waves in Lossy Media The Helmholtz equations for a lossy medium (one with non-zero conductivity !" ! ! " 0 ) are obtained as before, but now beginning with the modified curl H equation:
!" ! ! " ! " ! " H = j#$ E + % E

The Helmholtz equation is then:

! " ! " !2 E " # 2 E = 0

In this equation, we have defined the complex propagation constant ! as:

! = " + j # $ j% & 1 ' j ( %&

If we again seek solutions with an electric field that is x directed and uniform (with no variation) in the x and y directions, the Helmholtz equation reduces to

!2 Ex " # 2 Ex = 0 2 !x
We utilize solutions of the form:
E x ( z ) = E + e! " z + E ! e+ " z

In this case, the solutions take the form of traveling, exponentially-decaying waves. To see this, consider the first term of the solution, representing a forward traveling, decaying wave: E + e! " z = E + e!# z e! j $ z . Its corresponding time-varying field is:
E + e!" z cos (# t ! $ z )

This function is plotted below for several successive instants of time. The second term in the solution may be similarly treated.

Note that in this case, the phase velocity is given by v p = ! " , and the wavelength is ! = 2" # = v p f . In the limiting case where the loss is removed ( ! = 0 ),

! = jk , ! = 0 , and ! = k , as expected. Loss may also be incorporated by use of complex permittivity. If we had used the original source free equations with ! = 0 , but had utilized ! = ! '" j! " , with the loss tangent of the material given by tan ! = " " " ' to account for material loss, we would have obtained equivalent results. !" ! # 1 #Ex . In this case, the The magnetic field is obtained as before: H = !y j" #z result looks similar:

Hy =
The intrinsic impedance is given by:

1 + "# z $ E e " E " e+ # z & ' !%

!=

j" #

In the lossy case, the intrinsic impedance is complex, giving rise to a phase shift between the electric and magnetic fields in the time domain. The expression reduces to ! = " in the lossless case, and losses may be incorporated in an alternative fashion by using this expression along with complex permittivity ! = ! '" j! " . Plane Waves in a Good Conductor In many practical cases, we deal with materials that are good conductors. These are characterized by conduction currents that are much larger than their displacement currents, so ! ! "# . Most metals are good conductors (but note that the condition above depends on the frequency of operation). An equivalent condition is ! " ! ! ' . In the case of a good conductor, the propagation constant may be approximated as follows:

! = " + j # ! j$ %

& $& = (1 + j ) j$% 2

The skin depth (depth of penetration) of a material is defined as the distance ! s into the material at which a plane wave has decayed to a fraction e!1 ! 0.368 of its incident amplitude. Using the result just presented, it is:

!s =

1 2 = " #$

For most conductors at microwave frequencies, the skin depth is small, on the order of hundredths of millimeters; the practical consequence of this is that microwave devices need only be plated with conductive coatings to be low loss. The intrinsic impedance of a good conductor follows from the general equation:

!=

j" " 1 ! (1 + j ) = (1 + j ) # 2$ $% s

The phase angle of this impedance is ! 4 = 45 ; for a lossless media it is zero, so the phase angle of any arbitrary material is between these extremes, and the magnetic field lags the electric field in matter for harmonic excitation.

2.2

General Plane Wave Solutions

We now examine the general three-dimensional plane wave solution to the Helmholtz equation. We make use of the technique of separation of variables, which will recur in solution of other problems in chapters to follow. Consider the Helmholtz equation for the electric field in three dimensions:
! " ! " ! " ! " ! "2 E "2 E "2 E " ! " 2 ! E + k E = 2 + 2 + 2 + k2 E = 0 "x "y "z
2

This vector equation holds for each rectangular component Ei of the field:

! 2 Ei ! 2 Ei ! 2 Ei + 2 + 2 + k 2 Ei = 0, i = x, y, z 2 !x !y !z
The technique of separation of variables is a standard method of solution of such partial differential equations. Assume that the electric field component, say, Ex , can be written in the form of a product of three functions, each of one coordinate:
Ex ( x, y, z ) = f ( x ) g ( y ) h ( z )

Substitution into the differential equation and division of the result by fgh gives:

f "( x ) g"( y ) h"( z ) + + + k2 = 0 f ( x) g ( y) h ( z)

Here the double prime denotes the second derivative, as usual. The key step, called the separation argument, is as follows: note that each term in the above equation must be constant, since they vary independently of each other and sum to a constant. In other words, consider the first term: f "( x ) f ( x ) is a function of x only, and the remaining terms in the equation do not depend on x . Therefore, f "( x ) f ( x ) must be itself equal to a constant. A similar argument holds for the second and third terms. We denote the three constants, called the separation constants, as kx , ky , and kz , so that:
2 f "( x ) f ( x ) = !kx 2 g"( y ) g ( y ) = !ky h"( z ) h ( z ) = !kz2

Rewrite these:

2 f "( x ) + k x f ( x ) = 0 2 g"( y ) + ky g ( y ) = 0 h"( z ) + kz2 h ( z ) = 0

The original Helmholtz equation becomes separation equation:

2 2 k x + k y + kz2 = k 2

The original partial differential equation has been transformed into three separate ordinary differential equations, the product of whose solutions forms the solution to the original equation. The ordinary differential equations have as their solutions functions of ! jk y the form e! jkx x , e y , and e! jkz z . These functions represent plane waves traveling in the x direction, y direction, and z direction, respectively. We choose the outward traveling waves (the + solutions in each case) to form the total solution to the original three-dimensional Helmholtz equation:
Ex ( x, y, z ) = Ae
! j kx x+ ky y+ kz z

Here, A is an arbitrary amplitude constant. A more compact form for the solution is ! obtained by defining the vector wavenumber, k :

! " " " k = k x x + k y y + kz z

! This vector has magnitude k = k = ! " and points in the direction of propagation, " " " ! ! " " " k = k k = k k . Moreover, since r = xx + yy + zz , we may write the solution for the
electric field as follows:
!" !" ! !

Ex ( x, y, z ) = Ae! j k "r

The solutions for the other electric field components proceeds in an identical fashion, and yield results of the form:
Ey ( x, y, z ) = Be! j k "r Ez ( x, y, z ) = Ce! j k "r
!" !" ! !

!" !" ! !

The total electric field for a three-dimensional uniform plane wave is obtained as ! " # # # E = xEx + yEy + zEz , giving the result:

! !" ! ! ! ! j!""r " " E = E 0e k

! " ! " # # # Here, E 0 is the constant amplitude vector E 0 = xA + yB + zC . It is useful at this point to ! " apply Gauss law in a source free region, ! " E = 0 , to this solution. We have:
!" !" ! ! !" !" ! ! !" !" ! ! ! " ! " ! " " ! " ! " E = ! " $ E 0 e# j k "r & = E 0 " !e# j k "r = # jk " E 0 e# j k "r = 0 % '

! ! " ! This implies k ! E 0 = 0 , which states that the two vectors are perpendicular. Since k is in the direction of propagation, this result shows that the electric field of the plane wave is transverse to the direction of propagation. The magnetic field associated with the plane wave is found using Faradays law: ! " !" ! ! " E = # j$ H . Thus:
!" !" ! ! !" !" ! ! !" ! ! " ! " " j j $j ! H= "#E = " # & E 0 e$ j k %r ( = E 0 # "e$ j k %r ' ) ! ! ! ! ! ! !" ! " " !" !" " " $j ! k # ! $ j!"%r 1 # ! = E 0 # $ jke$ j k %r = k # E 0e k = k # E ! ! *

This result reveals several important facts. First, the magnitude of the magnetic field is that of the electric field divided by the intrinsic impedance, ! = " , as before. Also, the presence of the cross product ensures that the magnetic field is perpendicular to the ! electric field and also to the direction of propagation, k . Combining with the results for the electric field, we see that the plane wave has both its electric and magnetic fields transverse to the direction of propagation. For this reason, the plane wave is an example of a TEM wave, for Transverse ElectroMagnetic. The time-domain electric field is found in the usual manner from the phasor:
!" !" ! ! ! " ! " " $ ! j (! t " k #r ) ' j! t E ( x, y, z,t ) = Re E ( x, y, z ) e = Re % E 0 e ( & ) ! " " " = E 0 cos ! t " k # r

! " Here, we have assumed that the amplitude constant vector E 0 is real. It is useful to sketch the geometry of a constant phase wavefront of the threedimensional plane wave. A constant phase occurs where the argument of the cosine function is constant: ! ! ! t " k # r = const
At any particular instant of time (say, t = 0 ), this means that the dot product is constant:

! ! k ! r = const

Written out in full, this is:

kx x + ky y + kz z = const

Recall from Analytic Geometry that this is the equation for a plane in space with normal given by:
" ! ! ! ! = k = xkx + yky + zkz = k ! n 2 2 k kx + ky + kz2

! A typical constant!phase surface is shown in the figure below, along with its normal, k . The wavevector, k , and the electric and magnetic fields are shown as well. Note that the ! !" " " ! triple E, H , k forms a right-handed orthogonal system.

! ! k ! r = const

! " E
!" ! H

! k

! ! n=k

A second such figure is provided below.

Circularly Polarized Plane Waves The polarization of a plane wave refers to the direction of the plane of oscillation of the electric field. The plane waves considered so far have had their electric fields pointing in a fixed direction, and are called linearly polarized waves. However, as we will see, the plane of polarization of a plane wave may vary with time. Linearly polarized waves may oscillate in any direction that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Consider a plane wave propagating in the z direction. In the

most general case, it may have components in both the x and y direction. An example of such a phasor field is:
! " # # E = ! xEx 0 + yEy0 # e% jkz " $

If Ey0 = 0 , the wave is polarized in the x direction; if Ex 0 = 0 , it is y polarized. If neither are zero, the field is polarized at an angle:

! = tan "1
This is illustrated below.
y

Ey0 Ex 0

E y0

!
Ex 0

Now consider the case where the x and y components of the plane wave are 90 out of phase. Let Ex 0 = E and Ey0 = ! jE0 for simplicity. The phasor field is now:
! " # # E = E0 " x ! j y $ e! jkz # %

In the time domain, this is:

! " # # E ( z,t ) = xE0 cos (! t " kz ) + yE0 sin (! t " kz )

Use has been made of the identity cos ( x ! " 2 ) = sin x . Now consider the behavior of this field as a function of time in a fixed plane, say z = 0 for simplicity. The electric field expression becomes:
! " # # E ( 0,t ) = xE0 cos ! t + yE0 sin ! t

It is apparent from this expression that the tip of the electric field vector traces a circle in the counter clockwise direction at angular frequency ! as time progresses. This is known as right hand circular polarization, RHCP, since the fingers of the right hand indicate the direction of rotation of the electric field vector when the thumb is in the

direction of propagation. Left hand circular polarization, LHCP, may be obtained using fields of the form:
! " # # E = E0 ! x + j y # e% jkz " $

The figure below indicates both RHCP and LHCP waves.

2.3

Plane Wave Reflection: Normal Incidence

Here we consider the case of a uniform plane wave normally incident on a planar interface between differing media, as shown below.

A plane wave is incident in the z direction on a planar interface at location z = 0 between free space and a material with constitutive parameters ( ! , , " ) . General Medium Assume that the electric field of the incident electric field is x directed. Then, the incident fields for z < 0 are:

! " # ! jk z E i = xE0 e 0 !" ! # E ! jk z Hi = y 0 e 0 "0

We will find that in order to match boundary conditions at the interface, there must also exist a reflected field in the region z < 0 of the form:
! " + jk z # E r = x!E0 e 0 !" ! # !E + jk z H r = "y 0 e 0 #0

Here, ! is an unknown reflection coefficient to be determined, and the reflected magnetic ! " !" ! ! field is in the !y direction so that E r ! H r points in the direction of propagation of the ! reflected wave ( !z direction). Boundary conditions also require the presence of a transmitted field in the region z > 0 of the form:
! " # E t = xTE0 e! jkz !" ! # TE H t = y 0 e! jkz "

In this case, we introduce an unknown transmission coefficient T to be determined. Recall the values of the wavenumber k = ! " and intrinsic impedance ! = " , which are fixed and given in each region. The two unknown coefficients, ! and T , may be determined by application of boundary conditions at the interface at z = 0 ; the tangential electric field Ex and tangential magnetic field H y must be continuous there. This leads to the two conditions:

1+ ! = T 1" ! T = #0 #
These equations may be solved for the reflection and transmission coefficients:

" # "0 " + "0 2" T = 1+ ! = " + "0

!=
Lossless Medium

If the region z > 0 is lossless ( ! = 0 and ! and real) then ! = " is real, ! " !" ! so that ! and T are real as well. Then E and H are in phase in both media. It is instructive to compute the average power flow in both regions. The complex Poynting vectors associated with the incident and reflected waves for z < 0 are:
2 !+ " E0 S0 = z !0 2 !" " # E0 S 0 = "z !0 2

For the region z > 0 , we have:

2 ! " E0 1 " # 2 S=z !0

Perfect Conductor We found the intrinsic impedance in a conducting medium as:

! = (1 + j )

" 1 = (1 + j ) 2# #$ s

We find for a perfect conductor as ! " # the results:

! " 0 #s " 0
Then the reflection and transmission coefficients become:

! = "1 T = 0
Fields exist only in the region z < 0 , given by:
! ! " " ! " ! jk z + jk z # # E = E i + E r = xE0 e 0 ! e 0 = !x j2E0 sin k0 z !" !" !" ! ! ! + jk z # E ! jk z # E H = H i + H r = y 0 e 0 + e 0 = y2 0 cos k0 z "0 "0

! " !" ! # Note that at z = 0 we have E = 0 and H = y2 E0 !0 . The complex Poynting vector for z < 0 is:

2 ! ! " 1 " "! * # 2 E0 S0 = E ! H = z j cos k0 z sin k0 z 2 "0

The complex Poynting vector has no real part, indicating that no average power is delivered to the perfect conductor. The surface current on the conductor may be found by application of the boundary condition on the tangential magnetic field:

! " !" ! # # 2E J S = !z " H = x 0 A m #0

2.4

Oblique Incidence on a Dielectric Interface

We turn to consideration of a plane wave incident at an oblique angle on a dielectric interface, as shown in the figure below. There are two cases to consider: incident electric field with parallel polarization, and incident electric field with perpendicular polarization. These cases are analyzed separately.

Parallel Polarization In this case, the electric field vectors of the incident, reflected, and transmitted lie in the plane of incidence, the x ! z plane. The incident, reflected, and transmitted fields are given by:

! " " jk ( x sin !i + z cos !i ) # # E i = E0 x cos! i " z sin ! i e 1

! " " jk ( x sin !r " z cos !r ) # # E r = $E0 x cos! r " z sin ! r e 1 !" $E0 " jk1 ( x sin !r " z cos!r ) ! # Hi = ye #1

!" E0 " jk1 ( x sin !i + z cos!i ) ! # Hi = ye #1

! " " jk ( x sin !t + z cos !t ) # # E t = TE0 x cos! t " z sin ! t e 2 !" $E0 " jk2 ( x sin !t + z cos!t ) ! # Ht = ye #2

In these expressions, the known quantities are: k1 , k2 , !1 , !2 , E0 , and ! i . The quantities to be solved for are: ! , T , ! r , and ! t . ! " !" ! Two equations are obtained by enforcing continuity of tangential E and H at the interface at z = 0 :
r i cos! i e 1 + # cos! r e 1 = T cos! t e 2 1 " jk1 x sin !i # " jk1 x sin !r # " jk2 x sin !t e " e = e $1 $1 $2

" jk x sin !

" jk x sin !

" jk x sin !t

In order for these conditions to hold at all points along the interface (i.e., for all values of x ), the variation with x must be the same for all terms. This leads to the conditions known as Snells laws of reflection and refraction:

!i = ! r k1 sin ! i = k2 sin ! t
With this simplification, the equations may be solved for ! and T , with results:

"2 cos# t $ "1 cos# i "2 cos# t + "1 cos# i 2"2 cos# i T= "2 cos# t + "1 cos# i
!=
It is easy to show that these results reduce to the correct form in the case of normal incidence (i.e., ! i = 0 ). For parallel polarization, there exists a special angle of incidence, known as the Brewsters angle, or polarizing angle, ! i = ! B , for which the reflection coefficient vanishes: ! = 0 . This occurs when !2 cos" t = !1 cos" i , which leads to the result:

sin ! B = [1 + "1 " 2 ]

Perpendicular Polarization

#1 2

In this case, the electric field vectors of the incident, reflected, and transmitted are perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the x ! z plane. The incident, reflected, and transmitted fields are given by:

!" E0 ! ! jk ( x sin "i + z cos "i ) # # Hi = !x cos" i + z sin " i e 1 #1 ! " # ! jk ( x sin "r ! z cos"r ) E r = $E0 ye 1 !" $E0 ! ! jk ( x sin "r ! z cos "r ) # # Hi = x cos" i + z sin " i e 1 #1 ! " # ! jk ( x sin "t + z cos"t ) E t = TE0 ye 2 !" $E0 ! ! jk ( x sin "t + z cos "t ) # # Ht = !x cos" t + z sin " t e 2 #2

! " # ! jk ( x sin "i + z cos"i ) E i = E0 ye 1

) )

As before, the known quantities are: k1 , k2 , !1 , !2 , E0 , and ! i , and the quantities to be solved for are: ! , T , ! r , and ! t . ! " !" ! Enforcing continuity of tangential E and H at the interface at z = 0 gives:
e
! jk1 x sin "i
r t + #e 1 = Te 2 # !# ! jk x sin "r ! jk x sin "t + cos" r e 1 = cos" t e 2 $1 $2

! jk x sin "

! jk x sin "

!1 ! jk x sin "i cos" i e 1 $1

The same argument used for x variation in the parallel case again yields Snells laws:

!i = ! r k1 sin ! i = k2 sin ! t
Then the two equations may be solved to give:

"2 cos# i $ "1 cos# t "2 cos# i + "1 cos# t 2"2 cos# i T= "2 cos# i + "1 cos# t
!=

These results reduce to the formulas derived previously for normal incidence. It can be shown that no Brewsters angle giving ! = 0 exists in this case (for dielectric media). A plot of the magnitude of the reflection coefficients for both cases is shown below.

Total Internal Reflection and Surface Waves Consider a uniform plane wave incident on an interface between two perfect dielectric regions with k1 > k2 (say, water to air). Snells law states k1 sin ! i = k2 sin ! t , from which we obtain:
#k & cos! t = 1 " % 1 ( sin 2 ! i $k '
2 2

For large enough angles of incidence ! i , the quantity under the square root may become negative; the angle at which this quantity vanishes (and the angle of transmission ! t takes on its maximum value of 90 ) is called the critical angle:

! c = sin "1

k2 k1

For incidence angles beyond the critical angle, the phenomenon of total internal reflection occurs. We examine this effect here. When ! i > ! c , the term cos! t is an imaginary quantity; call it ! j" (the reason for the negative sign will become apparent). Now consider the expressions for the reflection coefficients ! in both the parallel and perpendicular polarization cases. In both cases, they take the form:

!=

" + j# " $ j#

Here, both ! and ! are real numbers. This means that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is ! = 1 , and all incident power is reflected off the interface. Next, consider the expressions for fields in the region z > 0 . For example, in the case of perpendicular polarization), the transmitted electric field takes the form:
! " ! jk x sin #i # E t = TE0 ye!" z e 2

Here, we see the reason for the choice of the negative sign for the square root defining ! , which leads to exponentially decaying (rather than growing) behavior as z increases. We conclude that for incidence at angles greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs. The fields in region 2 propagate as usual in the x direction, but rapidly decay exponentially away from the interface. This is an example of a nonuniform plane wave, and is known as a surface wave, since fields in air are confined to the vicinity of the interface. We will see more of surface waves in the chapters to follow.