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When studying microbiology, many different types of cells are observed. It is important to distinguish the differences between these cells as each type has its own set of unique characteristics. These unique characteristics give rise to various cells that in turn make up the mass of every organism. Therefore, it is imperative for scientists to note the differences in cell in order to make research and learning of life as complete as possible. Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ from each other in many ways. The broadest and most known difference between these two groups is that eukaryotic cells contain a true nucleus and prokaryotic cells do not; though this is true, there is much more diversity when comparing these two groups. Starting from the outside of the cell, the cell wall of a prokaryotic cell typically contains peptidoglycan, whereas a eukaryotic cell wall contains other substances such as cellulose, chitin, glucan, mannan, silica, calcium, or carbonate. External cellular structures also differ in composition and presence: flagella of prokaryotic cells are made of fibrils and flagellin while flagella of eukaryotic cells are comprised of microtubules and prokaryotic cells lack cilia filaments but contain fimbriae or pili while eukaryotic cells contain cilia and do not have fimbriae and pili. Internally, prokaryotic cells do not contain many structures that eukaryotic cells contain. Eukaryotic cells contain sterols, of which many prokaryotic cells do not contain, in their plasma membranes and have organelles that are bound to the membrane which contains a multi-functioning cytoskeleton. Unbounded prokaryotic organelles are encased in a much simpler cytoskeleton made of parallel filaments. An interesting difference between the two groups of cells is seen when observing their ribosomes. While they may be assumed to be identical, the prokaryotic ribosome has a density of 70S while most eukaryotic ribosomes have an 80S density, with exception to mitochondrial ribosomes and the ribosomes of chloroplasts. The genetic material of prokaryotes consists of singular circular

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chromosomes in the nucleoid with plasmids as the extrachromosomal DNA. Eukaryotic cells genetic materials have paired linear chromosomes located in the cells nuclei while extrachromosomal DNA can be found in the mitochondria, plasmids, or chloroplasts of cells. Eukaryotic cells also contain a nucleolus and histones while prokaryotic cells typically do not; in place of the histones, prokaryotes use a condensing protein. Finally, the reproductive methods of these two groups vary. Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually through binary fission, budding, and fragmenting while diversifying their genetic pools by swapping genetic information through pili, a process known as conjugation. Eukaryotic cells have the ability to reproduce asexually as well as sexually, which increases genetic diversity, by means of meiosis and mitosis. After viewing these differences, it is clear that these two groups of cells have the ability to give rise to a multitude of unique organisms. Bacteria and Archaea seem very similar; however, the two groups have distinct differences that make each unique. Bacteria have ester bonds in their cell membranes and peptidoglycan in their cell walls. They also contain glycerol and ring structures, hopanoids, that aid in the strengthening of bacterial plasma membrane. Additionally, bacterial cell walls are typically bilayered. Archaea, on the contrary, have rigid ether links in their cell membranes and do not have peptoglydican in their cell walls; instead, their cell walls are composed of proteins and polysaccharides. They use and enatiomer form of glycerol, which is tougher than bacterias, and use folded branched hydrocarbons, instead of hopanoids, to make their plasma membranes more rigid. Finally, archaea are found in both bilayer and monolayer forms. These differences make the organisms within these groups truly distinct. The Gram stain is useful to identify different characteristics of bacteria. If a bacteria stains Gram positive, the bacteria has a thick multilayer of peptidoglycan (PTG) and possibly

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contains teichoic acids. However, these bacteria do not contain a periplasmic space, an outer membrane, and contain minute amounts of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) content. If the bacteria stain Gram negative, they either contain thin single layers of PTG or no PTG at all. They do not contain teichoic acids. They do, however, contain outer membranes, have LPS content, porin channels, and periplasm. These differences determine how a Gram stain will affect the bacteria, which in turn helps researchers to study the bacteria they are viewing. In conclusion, although cells are the smallest units that are able to show life, they are by no means simplistic. They are complex and each group contains unique qualities that allow many different types of organisms to develop. These general differences do not apply to every cell in a group, but the differences aid researchers when learning about the capabilities of cells being studied. Therefore, it is important to learn how these cells differ to make learning and research of cells as thorough.