Professional Documents
Culture Documents
extend far beyond a believable recitation of documented fact and reasonable inference; the details of grammar, usage, and style also become important. Readers expect a "reader friendly" document; deviations from standard English (grammar and usage, spelling, etc.) will diminish the communication effort. Writing to learn and writing to communicate are both integral parts of the writing process. It is very hard to achieve excellence in the latter without putting forth major time and effort in the former. Experience with students has shown that when sufficient effort and time is invested in both types of writing, the quality of work will always be higher. The more you thoughtfully practice writing, the sharper your skills will become. This investment will yield rich rewards.
Laboratory reports
You may have heard this statement before from numerous instructors: "Laboratory assignments are an integral part of the learning experience." Why? There are two theories. The first is that students learn more in labs because they tend to stay awake. Or, more seriously, the hands-on nature of lab experiences reinforces theoretical foundations, thus making subject matter more interesting and understandable. OK, so what's the purpose of lab reports? Again, there are two theories. The first is to prove you were in class. The second is to help you learn effective and efficient communication methods for data collection, analysis, and presentation; determination and execution of procedures; development of requirements definitions; etc. Mastering these skills is no trivial task and that is what makes a lab report basically a wonderful vehicle of guided self-instruction. That and the fact that professors are quieter during labs and we know that's a also good thing. Lab reports force you to communicate a problem or task, bring to light any problems you had, and announce any discoveries you made to the technical community. A lab report may therefore be defined as a brief yet formal mechanism for reporting facts and/or demonstrating some form of technical competency in a particular field of practice. Common examples of laboratory reports that most students will encounter during their academic career include:
Scientific experimentation or observation (e.g., chemistry and physics lab reports) Computer lab assignments Procedural instructions (AKA step-by-step or "cookbook" type of documents) A mixture of any or all of the above.
In a technical environment (a.k.a. your real job), this same report format is how you will most likely communicate with your employer or customers. Often, you will be asked to creat technical proposals, status reports, product evaluations, or operating instructions; all of which use the same basic skills as, you guessed it, your lab reports. You should therefore write your lab reports as if your instructor is your employer and your pay, promotions, and overall happiness depended on his of her impression of your performance. How will your instructor form an impression of you? Through your writing! Laboratory reports may include any or all of the following:
Problem statement or purpose Descriptions of equipment and/or materials used Schematic diagrams of hardware and/or software flowcharts, state tables, algorithms, etc.
Procedures for experimentation and analysis Sample numeric calculations that are not intuitive. If repeated calculations are performed, you may give a sample of a typical set of calculations. Tables of data Figures, charts, and other graphical elements Results and/or conclusions Computer source code, sample output, object code listing files, etc. as appropriate.
Lab reports must be neat, well organized, and complete as these qualities will directly correspond to your overall lab and course grade. Unless otherwise specified by the instructor, all lab reports must be computer generated to ensure legibility. An additional benefit to using a computer is that once you've written your first report, subsequent reports may be developed by using previous reports as templates. If you do not have personal access to a computer and appropriate software, the D.P.Culp Computer Lab and many departmental labs have word processing, spreadsheet, basic drawing and charting software available. All tables and figures must be able to "stand alone." By this, we mean that if any figure or table is removed from the document (e.g., is copied or becomes separated), the rader must be able to tell from what document it orginally came from, who generated the data, what eperiment it came from, what eqiupment was used, etc. You must use a table format to present data. It helps to organize the information and makes it easier to find a specific piece of data.
Don't use fancy fonts. If your word processor allows you to modify the font you are using, select a typeface similar to "Times Roman" at a with a font size of 11 or 12 and normal weight (i.e., not bolded). For computer program source code, use a typeface similar to "Courier." Don't simply staple a summary to the end of your lab instructions and hand write your discussions within the lab instruction handout. The lab instructions are just that, instructions, and are not a substitute for a lab report. Don't simply "fill in the blanks" for your lab instructions. Include all information which was pertinent to the completion of the lab.
Don't assume that the instructor will not take off points because an important item was not specifically asked to be put in the report. Often, part of the process of developing lab reports is to train yourself to generate appropriate questions and to make observations on your own. Freshman-level cookbook-style chemistry and physics experiments should not be your primary lab report role models. Don't print your report with a fading ribbon, near empty ink or toner cartridges.
Suggestions:
In writing, it is very important to make an effective use of "white space". Text is difficult to read when crammed together in long paragraphs without any visual breaks or spacing. Turn off "right" or "full" justification. "Ragged" margins are easier to read than straight right-hand margins except for reports submitted in a multiple column, newsletter format. See the alignment portion of the settings section below. Allow plenty of time to organize your data, create tables, and, heaven forbid, make revisions. It also helps to write the lab report soon after the lab has been completed while the procedures are still fresh in your mind. Use a CAD drafting package or word processor drawing program to generate your drawings and schematics. Put to use word processor spelling and grammar checkers prior to printing, but do not, however, depend on them to catch all mistakes.
Technical papers
A technical paper is defined for the purposes of this handbook as a formal, multipage, primarily text-based document used to present facts or concepts to an identified reader. The most familiar example of a technical paper would be the basic five to ten page double-spaced research paper required for a particular class. Realistically, students may define a technical paper as any "long" writing assignment. All technical papers should have the following features:
Focused introduction Purposeful organization Appropriate conclusion Meaningful content Attention to grammar
Preparation and planning go a long way towards ensuring that any technical paper succeeds in its mission: guarantee communication. The following sections cover many topics of interest to a writer.
Organization
Many students report that a major problem encountered in the writing process is the organization of material. Organization is an important step that requires conscientious planning. If done properly, it helps balance critical elements in the paper and provides readers with what they need to know in the proper sequence. Poor organization usually leads to other writing problems such as lack of clarity and conciseness. Paper organization consists of a title page, abstract, table of contents, body, and references. The abstract and table of contents are optional for shorter papers. Content and style should follow accepted standards described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fourth Edition; The Blair Handbook, section 61d; or a standard specified by your instructor. Consistent style will reinforce the organization of a report and must therefore be used throughout the paper. Details of the format are given in a following section. All papers submitted as course assignments must, at a minimum, be typed or printed from a word processor in a "letter quality" mode. Final copy of formal reports cannot be handwritten. Of course, many students find that during any number of phases in the writing process, they prefer to develop their thoughts using pen and paper. Such a writing style may be most suitable to contemplative writers who find that they best use their time organizing their thoughts within before putting them down on paper. Others may simply sit down in front of a computer and start typing. No matter what the writing style, most writers find that by using a particular methodology of writing, they are able to maximize their efforts. Such a method typically consists of
Some degree of research Generating ideas as to how material would best be covered Combining and refining these ideas into some sort of dynamic outline format Filling in the body of the paper Repeatedly editing the paper for organizational consistency, flow of ideas, grammar, and readability.
Good writing is an iterative process of writing, reviewing, editing, and revising. Outlines can be extremely helpful during the writing process. Writing is not
usually a "sequential" process. Starting a paper based around a dynamic outline will help keep the paper flowing in a logical progression. The use of a computer is not just highly recommended; it is expected. In fact, you should learn to use a computer or dedicated word processor very early in your educational career. A word processor should not be viewed as a mere productivity aid. Effective communication requires quality. Writers seldom, if ever, simply sit down and create a quality report. The quality of a report is reflected in the number of revisions a writer is willing to make. Using a word processor will greatly increase the number of revisions in a given period of time, thus increasing the quality of a report. Additionally, word processing skills are now expected by employers. Without such skills, a student will be at a competitive disadvantage when seeking employment.
must gain the reader's attention and lead smoothly into the statement of the problem. The problem statement must be included in the introduction and must state clearly the purpose of the paper. The body must be structured with appropriately organized topics and must lead to a definite conclusion. Tables, figures, and graphical images should be incorporated into the body of the document immediately after they are referenced. The stylistic details are covered below. Optional appendices may be used in long technical papers for presenting additional information not appropriate for inclusion in the body of the paper. This includes items such as source code listings for computer programs, presentation of "raw" data, etc. Each appendix should be sequentially labeled using uppercase letters (e.g., Appendix A) and given a brief descriptive title.
Paper
The paper should be neat with no ragged edges, on heavy (20 lb.) white bond paper 8 1/2 x 11 inch using one side only. Do not use onion skin or erasable paper as they tend to tear or smear when handled. The pages should be stapled in the upper left corner. Binders or folders are unnecessary. Do not use blank pages to separate sections. Use a cover sheet unless your instructor states otherwise.
Line Length or Alignment: Left justify only. Turn off Full Justify or Right Justify for an uneven, or ragged, right margin. This will provide a much more readable document. The only time fully justified paragraphs are necessary is in newletter-type documents with two or more columns of text. Line Spacing: All technical papers should be double spaced (or Line Spacing = 2). Leave one full-size blank line between each line of type on the page. Some word processors use the term leading to specify the line spacing in point sizes. If so, add 2 to the point size and multiply that sum by 2 to get the appropriate value. (Example: for 12 point text, (12 + 2 ) x 2 = 28 points) Hyphenation: As a rule, do not divide words at the end of a line, or hyphenate. If using a word processor, turn the hyphenation function off. Naturally hyphenated words such as self-limiting may break across lines. Page Headers: (Optional) A short, descriptive running head in the upper right hand corner may be used. This header should be physically located approximately 0.5 inches from the top of the page and follow the left and right hand page margins. Page Footers: (Optional) For long reports (typically over five pages), center page numbers on the bottom of each page beginning with second page of text. The footer should be physically located approximately 0.5 inches from the bottom of the page and centered within the margins. Use ordinal numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3, etc.) for the body of the paper, references, and appendices. Use lower case Roman numerals (e.g., i, ii, iii, iv, etc.) for the abstract's and the table of contents' page numbers .
Acceptable typefaces
Use a typeface that is similar to one of the three following types: (a) proportionally-spaced, serif typeface [Times Roman or Roman]; (b) proportionally-spaced, sans-serif [Helvetica or Arial]; or (c) monospaced [Courier]. Times Roman or Roman-this is a proportionally spaced typeface found in most
"typeset" material such as newspapers and books. This handbook uses a variant of Times Roman for the body text. Each character has an appropriate width (i.e., an i takes up much less space than an M ). The little features found on the ends of each letter (called serifs) tie the characters together into words; this provides a flow to the printed page and makes the words more quickly recognized. Times Roman-style typefaces are very legible; they are the preferred typeface for the body of a paper, especially for long documents. Verify that the printed typeface is suitably supported by the printer you will be using. For laser, ink jet, and 24pin printers, this typeface should not be a problem. For 9-pin dot matrix printers, a test printing will be required to ensure legibility. Helvetica or Arial-this is a proportionally spaced typeface with a clean, modern look. Each character has an appropriate width (i.e., an i takes up much less space than an M ). As this is a sans-serif typeface, it is a bit harder to read a body of text printed in this typeface than an identically sized one printed in Times Roman. However, because of their large, open look, sans-serif typefaces make excellent figure captions and chapter and section "headers" if a mix of typefaces is allowed in the report. This handbook uses a variant of Helvetica for the chapter and section headers. As with the Times Roman typeface, make sure this kind of typeface will be legible when printed.
Courier-This monospaced typeface--found on most standard typewriters--is acceptable for most work. Each character takes up an equal width (i.e., an 'i' has the same width as an 'M'). Courier is an ideal typeface for computer program source code as characters will line up easily. Most printers will print Courier very legibly. In HTML-formatted (Web-published) documents, the monospaced typeface is called "preformatted text" and line breaks are hard coded into the document. Because the web browser's automatic word-wrapping capability is turned off with preformatted text, these paragraphs may appear much shorter than all the others on computer displays wider than 640 pixels. It is not a big deal if you understand the limitations. However, if you don't, web-readers will be cursing your inconsiderate oversight as they continually have to use the horizontal scroll bars. You've been warned, don't play cute.
Unacceptable Typefaces
Compressed Sans-Serif: Do not use any of the compressed or narrow typefaces (e.g., Arial Narrow, Huxley Vertical, etc.); they are very hard to read when used as body text. This is especially true for documents when paragraphs are wide and long. Headline typefaces: Do not use any of the "headline typefaces" (e.g., Bodoni,
Umbra, BedRock, etc.) or cute looking typefaces (e.g., Technical, Corsiva, etc.) in a formal report. Such typefaces are either illegible when used in small sizes or hard to read as body text. Consequently, they are never appropriate.
Symbol Typefaces
Appropriate use of symbols is expected, especially in technical reports. Type all the special characters using available system typefaces or special elements. When using a word processor, use either the system's extended character set or the special symbol typefaces. Other special characters and symbols may be found either in an application's documentation or via an operating system utility (e.g., the Windows Character Map application found in the Accessories group).
Tables and figures should be used when words alone are inadequate to efficiently transmit information. Tables and figures also serve to break up the endless flow of text and add "white space" to a document. This serves to make the document more readable. However, too many inappropriate tables and figures will serve to "clutter" a page and hinder comprehension. When a table or figure will not cover an entire page, place it appropriately at the top, center, or bottom of the page and fill in text above or below as required. Do not break tables or figures across pages unless absolutely necessary. If a table must be broken, make sure subsequent pages include the table's title as well as appropriate row and column headers.
Tables
Tables are typically used to present text or numeric data in a user-friendly, efficient format. However, a well designed table is not easily generated and will require additional effort. Every table should have the following elements:
Table number (format: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and a brief descriptive title. These should be placed either above or below the table (be consistent!). Column and row headers. "Spanners"-headers that span multiple columns or rows-should be used as required. The table body
Additionally, the following elements may be used in any table where appropriate:
Notes-delimited using superscripted letters (e.g., a, b, etc.) Grid lines as desired to enhance readability and understanding.
For specific information regarding tables, see the appropriate section in the APA Publication Manual.
Drawings and diagrams are used to enhance reader visualization of a part or process. Photographs can help with reader visualization if they are in focus and have suitable contrast. If you are preparing a single paper, you can simply secure photographs directly on the page. If, however, the paper is to be reproduced, a halftone image of the photograph needs to be made before it is incorporated into the document. Every figure should have the a figure number (format: Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.) and a brief descriptive title located either above or below individual figures (be consistent!). As in tables, notes can be added to items in a figure delimited using superscripted letters (e.g., a, b, etc.). For specific information regarding figures, see the appropriate section in the APA Publication Manual.
. Computer
Source Code
Many of the students in the College of Applied Science and Technology must write computer programs as a part of their learning experience. Each programming language has its own "style standards" to enhance readability and maintainability. A few of the more common elements of good programming style have been collected below. Obviously, each language, class, and/or instructor will have unique style requirements; use the following as guides unless otherwise noted:
Use a monospaced typeface-To enhance the readability of on-screen and paper output, use a monospaced or non-proportionally spaced typeface such as Courier. This is typically not an issue with text-based systems (e.g., DOS and ASCII text editors). For graphical user interface environments (e.g., Windows and Macs) with many available typefaces, the use of a non-proportionally-spaced typeface helps to spread out the letters and line things up. This helps to increase readability, especially if others will be working with your original (and long forgotten) code. Use tabs instead of spaces-Use the [Tab] key instead of the [Space] bar to indent or align text. This will help readability and speed subsequent editing. Also, ensure the text editor you use keeps tabs as tabs and does not replace them with spaces. The DOS EDIT.COM editor, for instance, is not one of these "user friendly" editors. Use a "tight" default tab spacing-Most text editors/word processors allow the user to change the default tab spacing. Take advantage of this ability and change the default tab spacing to three or four characters for monospaced typefaces or 3/16 to 1/2 inch for non-proportionally spaced typefaces. Such settings will allow you to maintain appropriate indentions to highlight program structure while conserving column width.
Use descriptive names-Most programming languages accept variable, label, function, procedure, and subroutine names longer than eight characters. Take advantage of this feature by making names as descriptive as possible. "Self-commenting" code eases all phases of programmingdesigning, coding, debugging, and maintenance. Comment appropriately-Moderation is everything. If under-commented code is cryptic, then over-commented code can be too cluttered to understand. By using descriptive names, the need for superfluous commenting is greatly reduced. Comments obviously assist in helping someone understand code they did not write themselves; comments can also help during the early stages of the programming process including designing, coding, and debugging. It will also assist the reader if you standardize where and how you comment so that the printed or on screen document has a consistent "look and feel." Use commented headers-A special and appropriate use of comments is to completely and exactly define the scope of each programming module, (i.e., a function, procedure, or subroutine). Such information may include, but not be limited to (see Figure 1): o a general description of the module's purpose; o special requirements (e.g., compiler switches), global variables, registers, inputs, port addresses used, etc.; o all other called modules (not in the standard libraries); o all possible return values and their meaning(s).
/* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * */ Function: iPrintFile() Purpose: Prints a specified file to LPT1 using fprintf() Inputs: char *pFilename Name of file to be printed int iTabValue Value for TAB spacing Min 2 Max 10 Calls: iGetPrinterStatus() Returns: 0 if successful 1 if not successful * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * */
citations and references in papers and reports. If you are independently wealthy, the complete manual may be purchased at the university bookstore. If you have Internet access, a summarized version of the APA manual is available on-line at PSYCHOLOGY WITH STYLE: A Hypertext Writing Guide. The three most important sections of the APA sytle guide dealing with citations, quotations, and references follow. Please note that at times, individual CAST instructors may--in the interest of "academic freedom"--require that another style (e.g., Chicago, Campbell's, etc.) be used for their classes. (Typically, it will be the style they used in their dissertation as the terminal degree process burned such stylistic nuances deep into their psyches). If that is the case, then defer to your instructor's wishes, don't argue, and use the specified style. You've been warned. Don't play cute.
APA-style Citations
Citations of references in the text should follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines. APA publications use the author-date method of citation; that is, the last name of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point, with the last name and the date, separated by a comma, in parentheses. For example: In a recent study of health care benefits (Jones, 1991).... If the name of the author appears as part of the text, for example, only the year of publication is enclosed in the parentheses: Brown (1990) compared levels of consistency.... In cases of references with two authors, always use both names: ....as shown by Sharpe and Browne (1994). For works with three to five authors, cite all authors in the first citation; for subsequent references use the first author's surname followed by "et al." For example: Boyd, Dewey, Chettum, and Howe (1993) demonstrated .... [first citation in text] Boyd et al. (1993)....[subsequent citations-omit date if used again within the same paragraph] For groups that serve as authors (e.g., corporations, government agencies, etc.) spell out the name in full within the text. For well known names, the name may be spelled out completely for the first citation with the abbreviation in brackets;
subsequent citations would use only the abbreviation. For example: First text citation: (International Business Machines [IBM], 1995) Subsequent citations: (IBM, 1995) Always use the full name in the Reference List.
Note: Italics have been used where applicable instead of underlining. If you are using a word processor that supports legible italic typefaces use them; otherwise use underlining.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1994). Title of article: Subtitle. Title of periodical. vol (no), page-page.
Bickman, L. (1971). The effects of social status on the honesty of others. Journal of Social Psychology, 85, 87-92.
Bersheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). Beauty and the best. Psychology Today, 5, 42-46, 74.
Stanton, G.C. (1988) Numerical control programming: Manual CNC and APT/Compact II. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice-Hall.
Boyd, P.M., Dewey, D., Chettum, A.M. & Howe, A.H. (1995). CERCLA & the superfund: An insider's guide to the comprehensive, endless revenue campaign for lawyers act. Cambridge, MA: Fair City Press
McGregor, B. & Pacheco, J. (1995). Manufacturing resources on the internet. In Conference Proceedings: Vol 1. Autofact '95 (pp. 394-401). Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
International Business Machines. (1989). Computer integrated manufacturing: The CIM enterprise (Doc. No. G320-9802-00). White Plains, NY: Author.
Tarnoff, D.L. (1991). A decision support tool for preliminary system design.
Department of Defense. (1985). Military standard: Specification practices. (MIL-STD-490A). Washington, DC: Author.
Claire, C.N. (1968). State plane coordinates by automatic data processing. (U.S. Department of Commerce Publication 62-4) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Electronic Media: (See also the APA's Electronic Reference Formats web page for more details)
Hannah, M.J. (1996). HTML Reference Manual [On-line]. Available URL: http://www.sandia.gov/sci_compute/html_ref.html Note: Put the appropriate media type in brackets (e.g., [CD ROM], [On-line], [DVD], [Videotape], etc.).
DO:
Allow plenty of time for research, drafts, and multiple revisions. Use a word processor or a "smart" typewriter to realize significant time savings. Use the Introduction-Body-Conclusion format for most documents. State all main ideas at the beginning of the document, sections, and paragraphs. Integrate relevant, supportive, and attractive graphics elements into your document. Use words that express your ideas clearly. Remember the audience-use an audience analysis form to "fine tune" the document. Display enthusiasm and genuine concern for your subject. Use transitional devices, words, and phrases coherently. Anticipate and answer questions credibly. Use correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, and clear and concise
sentence and paragraph structure. Use appropriate references. Ensure the paper is neat and orderly with no typographical errors or other problems. Use a spell and grammar checker prior to printing. Check printer output to ensure the page is readable.
Don't:
Don't submit your first (or even your second) draft as a "finished" product-plan on making multiple, small revisions. Don't wait until the last moment to start your paper-but, of course, you already knew that. Don't use flush right hand margins-keep right hand margins "ragged." A ragged right hand margin makes the document significantly more readable. Don't forget to cite all sources. Don't rely on the spell checker or the grammar checker to catch all errors; do you sea all for of the the errors hear? Don't use more than two typefaces. Don't be a complete eco-warrior. Plan on wasting a few sheets of paper getting your document into its final form. If this thought bothers you, plant a tree each term. Don't use a dead ribbon or an empty ink cartridge. Leave the invisible ink to the professionals at the CIA.
The introduction gains the reader's attention and leads smoothly to the thesis. The introduction includes a satisfactory purpose or thesis statement. The body is structured and organized appropriately (weighted 2X). There are adequate transitions between paragraphs and from topic to topic. There is a definite conclusion and/or action statement. Content and Sources (35%): The subject is appropriate, significant, and is presented in an interesting way (weighted 2X). There is sufficient supporting material to adequately develop and clarify the subject (2X). Each sub-topic or paragraph is adequately developed. Material from sources is smoothly integrated with original commentary. Sources are appropriately documented. Grammar & Layout (35%): The work is free from errors in spelling (2X). The work is free from errors in grammar (2X). The work is free from errors in punctuation. The paper is neat and orderly with correct margins, typefaces, figures, tables, etc. (2X) Total score out of a possible 100 points: Comments:
1 1 2 1 1
2 2 4 2 2
3 3 6 3 3
4 4 8 4 4
5 5 10 5 5
2 2 1 1 1
4 4 2 2 2
6 6 3 3 3
8 8 4 4 4
10 10 5 5 5
2 2 1 2
4 4 2 4
6 6 3 6
8 8 4 8
10 10 5 10