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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING IN RESIDUAL AND VOLCANIC SOILS

Laurie Wesley Department of Civil Engineering University of Auckland

RESIDUAL SOIL: -produced by physical and chemical weathering of underlying rock. Erosion by rainfall and run-off.

Soil
Rock

Transport by stream and river. Delta deposits

Re-depositoin in layers in lakes or the ocean.

Rock

Sea or lake level

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES

SEDIMENTARY SOIL - later tectonic movement may raise this above sea level

Parent Material (normally rock) Physical and chemical weathering Possible unloading due to erosion

Diagrammatic representation of soil formation processes

Erosion and transportation Re-deposition Residual soil

SEDIMENTARY SOIL (Young / Normally-Consolidated.) Self loading, causing compression (consolidation) Possible erosion, causing unloading Possible further chemical & physical processes eg secondary consolidation, cementation, hardening, leaching, producing structural effects such as apparent over-consolidation, sensitivity.

SEDIMENTARY SOIL (Old / Over-consolidated )

SOIL MECHANICS, SEDIMENTARY SOILS, AND RESIDUAL SOILS


Soil mechanics grew up in Northern Europe and

America, from the study of sedimentary soils Behavioural framework or theoretical basis of soil mechanics is based almost entirely on the properties of sedimentary soils. Textbooks and geotechnical engineering courses deal almost exclusively with sedimentary soils (even in countries with predominantly residual soils)

Sedimentary soils are more amenable to a theoretical framework than residual soils for two reasons:
- Firstly , the sorting process which takes place during erosion, transport, and re-deposition, tends to produce fairly homogeneous soils - Secondly, the stress history factor is a dominating influence on the behaviour of sedimentary soils (the division into normaly and over-consolidated soils is an essential feature of conventional soil mechancs)

Special Characteristics of Residual Soils


- no stress history influence - unusual clay minerals (composition) - often strong structural effects (macro and/or micro) - empirical correlations/relationships valid for sedimentary soils my not apply - often relatively high permeability and high cv values - often strongly influenced by hetrogenuity (but certainly not always)

Grouping or Classification of Residual Soils


a rigorous classifaciton system is unrealistic a useful grouping is possible on the basis of clay mineralogy and structure

Mineralogical groups: (a) Soils without strong mineralogical influence (b) Soil with strong mineralogical influence from normal clay minerals (c) Soils with strong mineralogical influence from special minerals not found in sedimentary soils Structural grouping: (a) Strong macro structural influence (b) Strong micro structural influence (c) Little or no structural influence

Tropical red clay


- moderate mineralogical influence (halloysite) - no structural effects (macro or micro)

Volcanic ash
- strong mineralogical influence (allophane) - some micro but no macro-structural influence

Volcanic ash
- minor mineralogical influence strong micro structure, (high sensitivity) minor macro structure

Weathered schist
- no significant mineralogical influence - strong macro structural influence

Weathered sandstone
- no significant mineralogical influence - major macro structural influence, minor micro structural influence

1.6

Consolidation behaviour - magnitude


Oedometer tests on a tropical red clay - note influence of linear versus log plot on shape of graphs

Void ratio

1.4

1.2 (a) log scale 10 0 100 Pressure (kPa) 100 1000 200 300

Compression %

4 (b) linear scale 5

10

Pressure (kPa) 100 1000

5000

100

Pressure (kPa) 200 300

400

500

A
3 Compression (%)

A
2

B
4

Void ration

B
2

C
6 8

10 1

12 14

Residual soils: log and liner plots. The linear plot is much more informative

Log plots - presumed to show preconsolidation pressure re-drawn using a liner scale no indication of a pre-consolidation pressure (Piedmont residual soil USA)

Settlement Estimates with Residual Soils


Choice of parameters for making estimates cc / cs or mv ?
Only by plotting the test results on both a linear and a log scale can a rational choice be made It appears that in many cases the resulting graph is closer to linear when a linear scale is used than when a log scale is used, especially over the relatively limited stress range involved in most foundation design situations Hence the linear parameter mv may be the better choice.

Consolidation behaviour (rate)


Compression (%)

time

min.

Volcanic ash soil Weathered Waitemata clay Tropical red clay

Square root of time graphs often do not show an initial straight section - because of the high permeability of the soil

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time 0 1 2 3

min 4

time 2

min 4

Auckland clay (Weathered sandstone) Compression (%) 1


Undisturbed

Volcanic ash soil (allophanic) 1 Compression (%)


Undisturbed

2
Remoulded

Remoulded

Influence of remoulding on consolidation rate

NOTE RE LIMITATION OF CONVENTIONAL OEDOMETER TESTS FOR MEASURING CV IN RESIDUAL SOILS


There is an upper limit to the cv value which can be determined with a normal oedometer. If the sample thickness is 19mm then the highest value of cv which can be reliably measured is about 0.1m2/day (= 0.012cm2/sec). Soils with higher cv values tested in conventional oedometers will produce time settlement curves which are not governed by pore pressure dissipation but by soil creep. If reliable estimates of cv are needed, then a triaxial dissipation test is probably the best alternative.

Shear Strength some generalisations


Residual soils are extremely variable and generalisations are dangerous Shear strenth tends to be higher than with sedimentary soils evidence of this is in the steep slopes often seen in residual soils Undrained strength is seldom less than about 75 kPa and ranges up to soft rock strength values are likely to be above 30o and the c value is normally significant In slopes of soils containing numerous defects (strong macro structure), it is likely to be impossible to determine values of c and appropriate for design purposes.

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Triaxial Test Results


Volcanic ash clay results are reasonably consistent
Shear strength (kPa)

300 VOLCANIC ASH CLAYS


34 / c= a kP
/

=3

1 / c=

Pa 4k

=3

200

100

100 200 Normal stress (kPa)

300

400

500

600

MIDDLE CLAY - FROM WEATHERED SANDSTONE

Shear strength (kPa)

400
5 / c= Pa 4k

=3

kP a =5

2 / =

200

200

400 600 Normal stress (kPa)

800

1000

Weathered sandstone clay reflects defects and relic structures of parent rock

Slope stability
Slopes generally stable at steeper angles than with sedimentary soil Failures tend to be translational not deep seated rotational failures Failures are normally triggered by heavy and/or prolonged rainfall The cohesion intercept is normally a significant part of the shear strength of the soil With many (possibly most) residual soils, the performance of slopes is governed by the presence of discontinuities

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1.8

Industrial site Pleistocene deposits

1.3

Steel mill site Weathered basalt and ashes

1.2
Dry Density (gm/cm )
3

1.4
Ze ro a ir vo

Ze ro

ai r

1.1
id sl in e

vo id sl in e

1.0

1.0

0.9 0.8 20 40 60 Water content (%) 80 40 50 60 Water content (%) 70

Compaction behaviour
Variability of some residual soils makes compaction control by conventional methods (Opt. water content and Max. dry density) very difficult.

Alternative compaction control method


Water content limit from shear strength criteria
r ea Sh e str th ng

Ze ro

air

Dry density limit

voi ds

Water content limits from compaction test

Water content

Shear strength Shear strength limit

Dry density

A it im sl id vo ir

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150

ACLAY

e Lin

100

SILTY CLAY
s ) oil ite s e) ys llo ton lonit ot l ha s( k c ti ac mo clay Bl ont m ed ( lr i ca op Tr

Atterberg limit tests

Plasticity Index

SILT
s h soil nic as Volca ophane) (all

50

50

100 Liquid Limit

150

200

250

Liquid limit, plastic limit, or plasticity index should not be looked at in isolation The position on the Plasticity Chart should be examined the distance above or below the A-line, together with the L.L. value should be looked at together.

50 Plasticity Index

CH

C -line
A

A
CL Clay Silty clay MH or OH Silt ML or OL

50 Liquid limit

100

Significance of position on Plasticity Chart

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THE SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOPHANE CLAYS

What is allophane?
A clay mineral derived from weathering of volcanic ash (non-cryatalline parent material) Originally thought to be amorphous, now known to have crystalline structure Generally occurs with another mineral imogolite Allophane small spherical particles Imogolite fine threads weaving among the allophane spheres A very open structure

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Mt Galunggung, Indonesia - 1982

Volcanic ash parent material for formation of allophane

HILLY/MOUNTAINOUS AREAS:
Vertical seepage tends to leach out silica based materials, ie the kaolinite/halloysite minerals leading to concentration of iron and aluminium sesqui-oxides.

FLAT LOW LYING AREAS:


Lack of drainage, together with seasonal drying and wetting, leads to the formation of smectite (montmorillinite) clays, known as vertisols or black cotton soils.

Weathering processes relevant to formation of allophane and associated soils.

-Soils with good engineering properties

-Problem soils

Free draining area


Weathering Sequence:

Poorly drained area

VOLCANIC ASH/TUFF (non-crystalline pyroclastic material) ALLOPHANE/IMOGOLITE

HALLOYSITE

KAOLINITE

SESQUIOXIDES (gibbsite, geothite, haematite)

LATERITE

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Electron micrograph of allophane and imogolite


50nm

Imogolite threads

Allophane spheres

Observed field behaviour of allophane clays


Irrigated ricefield slopes are stable at 35o to 40o slopes Cut slopes are stable at steep angles Many water retaining embankments have been successfully completed Major raft foundations, especially of geothermal power stations, have performed very well

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Measured geotechnical properties:


Abnormally high water contents and Atterberg limits Atterberg limits plot well below the A-line on the Plasticity Chart Drying reduces or eliminates plasticity (irreversible) Moderate to low compressibility Rapid consolidation rate High effective stress shear strength parameters Very high residual strength Unusual compaction behaviour

Atterberg limits on the Plasticity Chart:


100 Plasticity Index 80 60
e lin A-

40 20 0 40 80 120 Liquid Limit 160 200 240

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Water content and Atterberg limits versus allophane content

Particle size curves natural, air dried and oven dried.

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Allophane clay profile

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Pressure (kPa) 100

1000

5000

Void Ratio

Compression behavioiur: e-log(p) graphs

Sample I.3 Sample I.4 4 Sample I.6 Sample N.Z.1 Sample N.Z.6 Sample N.Z.7

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Pressure (kPa) 500 1000

1500

2000

Compression (Vertical strain %)

Compression behaviour: linear plots

10

20

30 Sample I.3 Sample I.4 Sample I.6 Sample N.Z.1 Sample N.Z.6 Sample N.Z.7

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20 (a) 0 -200 kPa 15 Constrained modulus D (MPa)

Constrained modulus versus initial void ratio

10 5

0 15 (b) 1600 - 2000 kPa 10 5 1 2 3 4 Initial void ratio 5 6

20

Time 2

min

Total compression (%)

Typical root time plots from oedometer tests

20
128 025 60

40

60

16 032 0k Pa

a kP

80
16-32 kPa

100

0 20
% Dissipation

800
40 0-

-1

40
20
10 0-

60 0k Pa

-4

80 0

60 80

00

kP a

kP a

50 00 -1

0 20 a kP

a kP

100

0.01

0.1

1 Time (minutes)

10

100

1000

Pore pressure dissipataion tests in triaxial cell to determine cv value

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50 New Zealand samples - undisturbed


Coefficient of consolidation (cm /sec)

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Summary of cv values from pore pressure dissipation tests

1 Indonesian samples - undisturbed 0.1

0.01

0.001 New Zealand samples - remoulded 0.0004 20 100 Pressure (kPa) 1000 2000

50 Coefficient of permeability
Coefficient of permeability (10-9 m/sec)

Coefficient of permeability measured at each stage of pore pressure dissipation tests

Coefficient of consolidation (cm /sec)

10

100

1 Coefficient of consolidation 0.1

10

0.01

0.1

0.001

0.01

0.0004 20 100 Pressure (kPa) 1000 2000

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CPT test results:


0 Cone resistance (MPa) 5 10 15 20

Cone resistance (MPa) 5 10 15

20

10
Depth (m)

10
Depth (m)

20

20

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Kamojang Geothermal Power Station, Indonesia

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Omata oil storage tank, New Zealand

Effective strength behaviour:


500 RESIDUAL STRENGTH FROM RING SHEAR TESTS: Indonesian samples New Zealand samples
c
/

400

Shear stress (kPa)

r (degrees)
/

, Pa 0k 2

40

50 40 30 20 10 0 20 40 Plasticity Index Indonesia New Zealand 60 80

300

200

ak Pe
100

h gt en str

m fro

ax tri

tes ial

ts

100

200 300 400 Normal effective stress (kPa)

500

600

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Terraced slope for irrigated rice cultivation

Back analysis of terraced ricefields:

B H D A

For H = 3m, = 35o = 16 kN/m3, / = 35o the required value of c/ = 8.4 kPa on plane A-B = 15.3 kPa on plane C-D.

Typical standard compaction curves (Indonesian allophane clay)


1.2 Dry density g/cm3 1.0
Ze ro a
Natural Air dried Oven dried Air dried to 65 %

0.8 0.6 0.4 20

ir v

oid

40

60

80 100 120 Water content (%)

140

160

180

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Influence of repeated compaction

SOME CASE RECORDS

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Cipanunjang Dam, West Java, Indonesia built 1928

Flood control dam New Plymouth, New Zealand built 1985

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Cut slope 8m high at 60 degrees

Note absence of erosion on the face

Cutting at Derajat Geothermal Project, Indonesia

Terraced ricefields on volcanic slopes

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Mt Telomoyo, Central Java - access road to micro-wave station

Kamojang power station - excavation for a raft foundation

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Learned gentlemen studying allophane clays in the field (near Chillan)

Conclusions re residual soils generally


We should avoid preconceived ideas about how soils ought to behave In evaluating the engineering properties of soils, first observe how they behave in the field, before looking at test results We need to recognise the limitations of theoretical or behavioural frameworks, and not seek to make all soils fit into these frameworks Some well established procedures, such as the use of the log scale for plotting consolidation test results, are not necessarily appropriate for residual soils (and may be quite misleading) Empirical correlations, derived from the study of sedimentary soils may not be valid with residual soils

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Conclusions re Allophane clays

Allophane clays are generally good engineering materials (provided properties are understood and taken account of)

Evaluation by conventional tests such as water content, particle size and Atterberg limits tends to suggest allophane clays are not good engineering materials (Such indicators are a poor guide in this case) Problems with allophane clays have generally arisen during earthworks operations, especially control of compaction

THE END - THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Mt Galunggung from Tasikmalaya - 1982

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