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History of RFiD
Decade Events
Radar refined and used. Major World War II development effort. RFID invented in 1948. Early explorations of RFID technology, laboratory experiments. Development of the theory of RFID. Start of application field trials. Explosion of RFID developmental work for electronic article surveillance (EAS) to counter theft, improve animal tracking, vehicle tracking and factory automation Tests of RFID accelerate. Very early adopter implementations of RFID. Commercial applications of RFID enter mainstream. Emergence of standards. RFID, such as electronic toll collection, deployed throughout the U.S. RFID becomes part of everyday life with a single tag capable of handling multiple applications such as electronic toll collection, parking lot access and fare collection, gated community access, and campus access. Development and implementation of RFID for supply chain management, healthcare/pharmaceuticals, library information systems Major retailers mandates to suppliers to implement pallet and case level tagging by January 2005 spark rapid RFID research and development
1980s 1990s
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RFiD Components
Three Basic Components A transceiver (with decoder), commonly refer as RFID Reader. Antenna A transponder, commonly refer as RFID label or Tag
Reader Antenna Label / Tag
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RFiD Tag
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RFiD Tags
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RFiD Antennas
Antenna Characteristics
Transmits and receives RF signals Typically made of copper or aluminum, new technologies for printed antennas Stationary or handheld Weather-proof or industrialized Fixed or tunable
Micro-chip, contains Unique ID Code (UID), memory Antenna, copper or aluminum , wound or etched
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RFiD Reader
Readers are radio frequency devices that
Transmit and Receive RF signals Contain a control unit to execute commands Incorporate an interface to transfer data Receives commands from a Host computer Responds to software commands from Host
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Why RFiD?
Easy Tracking System
Simplifies the process flow and easy data capture in short time period
Write Capability
Useful info stored in tags eg. Name, serial number, location
Maintenance
Maintenance update done electronically
Auditing
Authenticate the process
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Benefits of RFiD
Operational
No Line of Sight Easy & Fast Data Capture Ability to scan thru multiple tags at one go Easy Implementation, Data Collection
Tags will work even if submerged in water No deterioration by age Operating temp -15 to 75 C Unique id to prevent duplication Store information on transponders Tamper proof labels/ resistant stickers Unique customer code for security applications EEPROM Industry standards (100,000 read/ write cycle) Information on tags can be encrypted
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RFiD LF
Penetrates most materials well Could be affected by electrical noise Relatively low data transfer rate (200msec for read command) Non-simultaneous reads (reads one tag at a time) Tags can easily be embedded in any non-metallic product (labels, plastic, etc) Read range variable: near contact up to 1 meter Optimal reading depends on tag and antenna orientation Frequency is usable worldwide (no restrictions) Standards being finalized: ISO 18000-2 Relatively high cost (Transponders: $2.00 - $17.00 ) Memory limited to 64 2 kbits
Common Applications:
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Animal Identification (ISO 11784 & 11785 Standards) Access Control Automotive Security (Ford, Chrysler, Honda etc.) Wireless Commerce (Esso, Mobil, McDonalds)
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RFiD HF
Characteristics (13.56MHz)
Penetrates most materials well Less effective frequency in the presence of metal and water Not susceptible to electrical noise Higher data transfer rate (20m sec for read command) Simultaneous reads, 50 tags per second (Anti-collision) Tags can easily be embedded in any non-metallic product (labels, plastic, etc) Read Range variable: proximity to 1.5 meters Optimal reading depends on tag and antenna orientation Ultra-thin inlays and smart labels (0.13) Larger memory (2048 bits; 256 ASCII characters) Frequency is usable worldwide (no restrictions) Global Standard: ISO 15693, 14443, 10536 Standards being finalized: EPC and ISO 18000-3 Low cost, flexible inlays: $0.40 - $0.90 Common Applications: - Access Control - Wireless Commerce (Shell, Visa, MC, Amex) - Ticketing - Marketing and Loyalty programs
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RFiD UHF
Does NOT penetrate most materials well Not an effective frequency in the presence of metal and water Not susceptible to electrical noise Higher data transfer rate (2m sec for read command) Simultaneous reads, 150 tags per second (Anti-collision) Tags can easily be embedded in any non-metallic product (labels, plastic, etc.) Read Range variable: up to 10 meters. Optimal reading depends on tag and antenna orientation Ultra-thin inlays and smart labels (0.13) 915MHz not available globally; different frequencies for North America, Europe and Asia Standards being finalized: EPC and ISO 18000-6 Low cost, flexible inlays: $0.40 - $0.90 CDN
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"01": "Motorola" "02": "ST Microelectronics" "03": "Hitachi" "04": "Philips Semiconductors" "05": "Siemens AG" "06": "Cylinc" "07": "Texas Instruments" "08": "Fujitsu Limited" "09": "Matsushita Electric Industrial" "0A": "NEC" "0B": "Oki Electric" "0C": "Toshiba" "0D": "Mitsubishi Electric" "0E": "Samsung Electronics" "0F": "Hyundai Electronics" "10": "LG Semiconductors" "16": "EMarin Microelectronic"
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RFiD Tags
Tag Types
Active tags battery powered, long read range, toll tags Passive tags low-cost, no battery required, medium read range Chipless tags ultra-low-cost, no battery required, short read range
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Passive vs Active
Advantages Passive Longer life time Wider range of form factors Tags are more mechanically flexible Lowest cost Greater communication distance Can be used to manage other devices likes sensors (temperature, pressure, etc) Do not fall under the same strict power regulations imposed on passive devices Disadvantages Distance limited to 4-5 m (UHF) Strictly controlled by local regulations Remarks Most widely used in RFiD applications Tags are LF, HF or UHF
SemiPassive
Active
Expensive due to battery, and tag packaging Reliability impossible to determine whether a battery is good or bad, particularly in multiple transponder environments Widespread proliferation of active transponders presents an environmental hazard from potentially toxic chemicals in batteries
Used mainly in realtime systems to track high value materials or equipment throughout a factory Tags are UHF Used in logistics for tracking of containers on trains, trucks, etc. Tags are UHF or microware
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Class 2 -
Class 3 -
Class 4 -
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Class 0 read only NA Class 1 write once / read many NA Faster and more reliable reads than Generation 1. Better compliance with other global standards
Other Features
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FDX
Energy Transfer Down Link Up Link
SEQ
Energy Transfer Down Link Up Link
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Data Modulation
A modulation is a periodic fluctuation in the amplitude of radio frequency carrier sine wave, which is used to transmit data back from the tag to the reader. Data are transferred to the host by amplitude-modulating the carrier. For passive RFiD tags, its called backscatter modulation. FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) This form of modulation uses two different frequencies for data transfer; the most common FSK mode is Fc/8/10. In other words, a 0 is transmitted as an amplitudemodulated clock cycle with period corresponding to the carrier frequency divided by 8, and a 1 is transmitted as an amplitude-modulated clock cycle period corresponding to the carrier frequency divided by 10. The amplitude modulation of the carrier thus switches from Fc/8 to Fc/10 corresponding to 0's and 1's in the bitstream, and the reader has only to count cycles between the peak-detected clock edges to decode the data. FSK allows for a simple reader design, provides very strong noise immunity, but suffers from a lower data rate than some other forms of data modulation. FSK data modulation is used with NRZ encoding.
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Data Modulation
PSK (Phase Shift Keying) This method of data modulation is similar to FSK, except only one frequency is used, and the shift between 1's and 0's is accomplished by shifting the phase of the backscatter clock by 180 degrees. Two common types of PSK are: Change phase at any 0, or Change phase at any data change (0 to 1 or 1 to 0). PSK provides fairly good noise immunity, a moderately simple reader design, and a faster data rate than FSK. Typical applications utilize a backscatter clock of Fc/2,
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Data Encoding
Data encoding refers to processing or altering the data bitstream in between the time it is retrieved from the RFiD chips data array and its transmission back to the reader. The various encoding algorithms affect error recovery, cost of implementation, bandwidth, synchronization capability, and other aspects of the system design. The most used methods are; - NRZ (non-return to zero) Direct - Differential Biphase - Biphase L (Manchester) There are three implementation issues that may impact technical performance of RFiD systems; - Collision - Transmission - Site Survey
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Encoding Methods
Noise, interference and distortion can all corrupt transmitted data, making error free data recovery difficult to achieve. This is compounded by the fact that data communication processes are asynchronous or unsynchronized, so care must be taken with the form in which the data is communicated. Channel encoding schemes include the following: >> NRZ >> Manchester >> FM >> Miller (Modified FM or MFM) >> Modified Miller
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Encoding Schemes
NRZ A binary 1 is represented by a high signal and a binary 0 by a low signal. This coding scheme is often used with FSK or PSK modulation. A binary 1 is represented by a negative transition half-way through the clock cycle and binary 0 is represented by a positive transition. This coding scheme is often used in RFiD system employing load modulation using a sub-carrier. A binary 1 is coded by a transition of any type, a binary 0 is coded by lack of transition. A binary 1 is represented by a transition of any type of half-bit period, a binary 0 is represented by the continued level of the previous 1 over the next bit period. A series of zeros causes a transition at the start of the next bit period. Miller is sometimes referred to as Modified FM or MFM coding.
Modified Miller Each transition is replaced by a negative pulse. This coding scheme is very useful for inductively coupled RFiD systems due to the very short pulse durations. By having tpulse < Tbit, a continuous power supply can be provided to the transponder from the HF field of the reader even during data transfer.
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Encoding Schemes
There are three main considerations involved with coding schemes: >> the signal spectrum, >> susceptibility to interference (transmission errors), and >> power supply interruption.
The spread of the signal spectrum differs with the coding method.
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Manchester Encoding
Manchester encoding (first published in 1949) is a synchronous clock encoding technique used by the physical layer to encode the clock and data of a synchronous bit stream. In this technique, the actual binary data to be transmitted over the cable are not sent as a sequence of logic 1's and 0's (known technically as Non Return to Zero (NRZ)). Instead, the bits are translated into a slightly different format that has a number of advantages over using straight binary encoding. A Manchester encoded signal contains frequent level transitions which allow the receiver to extract the clock signal using a Digital Phase Locked Loop (DPLL) and correctly decode the value and timing of each bit. To allow reliable operation using a DPLL, the transmitted bit stream must contain a high density of bit transitions. Manchester encoding ensures this, allowing the receiving DPLL to correctly extract the clock signal. The penalty for introducing frequent transitions, is that the Manchester coded signal consumes more bandwidth than the original signal. Manchester encoding follows the rules shown below: Original Data Logic 0 Logic 1
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Value Sent 0 to 1 (upward transition at bit centre) 1 to 0 (downward transition at bit centre)
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Manchester Encoding
The waveform for a Manchester encoded bit stream carrying the sequence of bits 110100.
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RFiD vs Barcode
Barcode / UPC Data Capacity Flexibility Efficiency Dependability Cost Standards
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RFID / Auto-ID
Limited data can be stored Significantly higher data capacity and memory Static Information Ability to read one tag at one time Labels susceptible to damage Chip Stable Potential for read/write capability (allows tags to be reusable) Ability to read multiple tags simultaneously (without line of sight) Tags less susceptible to damage High Manageable
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Cable Loss 3 dB
Reader 100 mW
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Antenna Polarization
Antenna polarization is a very important consideration when choosing and installing an antenna. Most systems use either vertical, horizontal or circular polarization. Knowing the difference between polarizations and how to maximize their benefit is very important to users.
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Polarization
An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency electric current to electromagnetic waves that are then radiated into space. The electric field plane determines the polarization or orientation of the radio wave. In general, most antennas radiate either linear or circular polarization. A linear polarized antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the direction of propagation. An antenna is said to be vertically polarized (linear) when its electric field is perpendicular to the Earth's surface. An example of a vertical antenna is a broadcast tower for AM radio or the "whip" antenna on an automobile. Horizontally polarized (linear) antennas have their electric field parallel to the Earth's surface. Television transmissions use horizontal polarization. Circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes and all planes in between.
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Frequency Allocations
Some ISM frequencies are unavailable in some region
ISO Standards
Proprietary or Standards-Based
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PC
RS232 USB Ethernet WiFi IR RS485 Optic
Micro Controller
Keypad
125 KHz 13.56 MHz 433 MHz 900 + MHz 2.45 GHz
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Communications
MicroController
RF Transceiver
RFIC
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TECHNICAL
PRESENTATION - TF0106C296
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Control Module
Serial Transmission
RF Module
PDA
Application Software
PC
Synchronization
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Integration Layer M DATA Filtering i d d l e w a r e Application Level Events Process Layer RFiD Network Layer S c a n n e r / R e a d Speed e r Cost Physical Device Layer Air Interface Protocols
DATA Integration
DEVICE Management
Memory
Standards
Tag Type
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RFiD Evolution
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RFiD Evolution
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RFiD Evolution
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