An algorithm for modeling the interaction of a exible rod with a two-dimensional high-speed ow

D. Tam1 , R. Radovitzky1, and R. Samtaney2

1

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institue of Technology, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.
2

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, U.S.A.

SUMMARY We present an algorithm for modeling coupled dynamic interactions between very thin exible structures immersed in a high-speed ow. The modeling approach is based on combining an Eulerian nite volume formulation for the uid ow and a Lagrangian large-deformation formulation for the dynamic response of the structure. The coupling between the uid and the solid response is achieved via an approach based on extrapolation and velocity reconstruction inspired in the Ghost Fluid Method. The algorithm presented does not assume the existence of a region exterior to the uid domain as it was previously proposed and, thus, enables the consideration of very thin open boundaries and structures where the ow may be relevant on both sides of the interface. We demonstrate the accuracy of the method and its ability to describe disparate ow conditions across a xed thin rigid interface without pollution of the ow eld accross the solid interface by comparing with analytical solutions of compressible ows. We also demonstrate the versatility and robustness of the method in a complex

Correspondence

to: Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institue of Technology,

Cambridge, MA, 02139, U.S.A.

1
uid-structure interaction problem corresponding to the transient supersonic ow past a transverse, highly exible structure. Copyright c 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. uid-solid interaction, compressible ows, exible structures

key words:

1. Introduction

Current and future interplanetary exploration missions demand the availability of numerical tools for the design of light structures such as gossamer spacecraft and parachutes, [1, 2, 3]. In many situations of interest, an adequate description of the continuum elds in both the uid ow and the solid structure dynamic deformations, as well as of their coupled interactions, is necessary. In this work we propose a computational strategy for modeling the coupled response of a thin structure immersed in a supersonic ow. In general, the dynamic deformation of solid structures is most adequately described in a Lagrangian framework, especially in the case of large deformations. The main advantage of the Lagrangian approach lies in its natural ability to track the evolution of properties at material points in materials with history, as well as in the treatment of boundary conditions at material surfaces such as free boundaries or uid-solid interfaces. In contrast to Eulerian approaches, boundary conditions are enforced at material surfaces ab initio and therefore require no special attention. In this work, we propose a Lagrangian formulation for describing the large dynamic deformations of two-dimensional thin structures (rods) having both bending and membranal stiness. By contrast, Lagrangian formulations are inadequate in the case of high-speed ows or
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2 ows involving signicant vorticity due to the unavoidable mesh distortion incurred during deformation which reduces the stable time step and the overall accuracy of the simulation and, eventually, breaks the numerical method. This problem can be partially remedied by the use of remeshing [4]. However, remeshing increases the complexity of the algorithm and of its implementation and suers from robustness problems in the three-dimensional case. Eulerian approaches, in which the eld equations are formulated in terms of spatial variables and xed or adaptivealbeit not distortingmeshes, are more adequate for most uid ows. We concern ourselves with ows where the viscous time scales far exceed the convection time scales, i.e. we model the uid ow with the compressible Euler equations. In this work, the supersonic, unsteady ow conditions are modeled by recourse to a nite volume formulation of the Euler equations of compressible ow following Samtaney et al [5, 6]. A number of dierent strategies for coupling xed-grid Eulerian uid dynamics formulations with Lagrangian solid mechanics formulations have been proposed. For incompressible viscous ows, the immersed boundary method of Peskin and McQueen [7] has received signicant attention, especially owing to its success in modeling the complex conditions of blood ow in the heart. A recent review of the method may be found in Peskin [8]. Several extensions of this method have been recently proposed by Liu [9]. Our work is concerned with problems involving high-speed compressible ows. For this type of problems, the so-called Cartesian boundary method [10, 11] and the Embedded boundary approach of Colella et al [12] have recently gained signicant popularity. In these approaches, the computational domain is discretized by rectangular nite volume cells and the geometry is represented by intersections with the underlying Cartesian grid. This leads to cut-cells in those grid locations where the boundary intersects the grid. A detailed description of this
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3 approach, along with some issues related to the unavoidable appearance of small cells, is given by Colella [12] and references therein. An alternative approach that explicitly avoids these issues from the outset by replacing the imposition of boundary conditions with an approach based on eld extrapolation into exterior ghost cells has been proposed [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. This class of methods is inspired in the Ghost Fluid Method of Fedkiw et al [18]. The convergence properties of this Eulerian-Lagrangian coupling approach have been carefully studied by Arienti et al [17]. A similar treatment of irregular boundaries in cartesian grid approaches including second order accurate formulation of boundary conditions has been recently given by Sussman [19, 20]. The algorithms presented in the references above are adequate for ows interacting with bulk solids [13, 14] or thin shells [21, 22]. However, in the case of thin shells they are limited to situations in which the shell is closed and ow takes place only on one side of it. This restriction is imposed by the assumption that the uid domain has a well-dened interior and exterior, which is the basis of the coupling algorithm based on level sets. In this work, we extend this approach to the case of thin structures that at the same time are open and in which the ow on both sides of the structure may be relevant. These situations arise in important applications such as the deployment of parachutes used as decelaration devices during planet entry in space exploration missions, [1, 2, 3], The extended approach retains the basic concepts of the original algorithm, but allows an unbiased consideration of the ow conditions on both sides of the immersed structure as well as an adequate treatment of the boundary conditions on both sides of the boundary. Among the advantages of the approach one nds its simplicity, robustness and ease of implementation especially considering the minimal modications required in each solver. Another advantage of this class of uid-solid coupling
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4 methods is their suitability for parallel implementation. In [14, 22], the three-dimensional parallel implementation of this class of uid-solid coupling algorithms was demonstrated, including scalability properties on up to 1856 processors. For simplicity, we restrict our attention to the two dimensional problem. In the following sections we rst present the formulation and numerical approach for describing large dynamic deformations of a thin rod structure. This is followed by a review of the numerical method adopted for the uid. Subsequently, we describe the uid-solid coupling algorithm and the proposed extension to thin open immersed structures. The last section of the paper is devoted to establishing the feasibility and properties of the method. We rst present verication simulations and a convergence study corresponding to the supersonic ow past a very thin at rigid boundary at dierent angles of attack. These simulations demonstrate the ability and accuracy of the proposed approach to describe the ow on both sides of a very thin structure. We nally present a fully coupled simulation of a supersonic ow initially normal to a exible structure which demonstrates the versatility and robustness of the overall method in simulating complex uid-structure interaction problems.

2. Large-displacement rod dynamics model

In this section, we briey summarize the model adopted for describing the dynamics of slender rods. For more general beam or slender rod models, the vast literature on the subject, which traces its origins to the work of Euler and Bernoulli [23], may be consulted, see for example [24, 25, 26] and references therein. A representative rod element is shown in Figure 1. The rod element is allowed to undergo a motion consisting of a nite rotation, a nite uniform stretch and a small bending distortion. With the conventions shown in this schematic, the deformation
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Figure 1. Schematic describing the conventions and kinematics of the rod model proposed

mapping of the rod element follows as:

x1 x2

l X1 (X1 )X2 L

(1) (2)

X2

and the stretch of the longitudinal bers of the rod element follows as

x1 l (X1 )X2 X1 L

(3)

The small bending distortion measured from the rotated and stretched conguration (axes x1 , x2 ) is assumed to follow the classic Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis:
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w x1

(4)
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6 A strain energy density per unit undeformed area of the rod of the form: W () = E(1 + log ) (5)

is assumed, where E is the Youngs modulus. This energy density gives a linear relation between the nominal stress and the logarithmic or true strain. The strain energy of the rod is obtained by integrating equation (5) over the volume of the undeformed rod after inserting the assumed rod kinematics, equation (3), with the result U EA [L l + l log(l/L)] + EI 2
l 0

(x1 )dx1

(6)

where A and I are the area and moment of inertia with respect to the axis normal to the bending plane of the undeformed cross section of the rod. In evaluating the integral along the undeformed axis of the rod, a change of variables to the deformed conguration has been conveniently taken advantage of. Linear momentum balance is enforced weakly by recourse to Hamiltons principle for continuous media, i.e. by nding the paths between two arbitrary times t1 and t2 for which the action integral is stationary:
t1

t0

Ldt = 0

(7)

where L is the associated Lagrangian dened as L = K , K is the kinetic energy of the system, = U + ext is the potential energy of the system and ext is the potential of the external forces. Equation (7) must hold for any variationally admissible virtual displacement. A complete derivation of Hamiltons principle for continuous systems may be found in standard references, see for example [27]. We take Hamiltons Principle, Equation (7), as the basis for nite element discretization. The explicit derivation of the rst variation of the action integral, Equation (7), leading to
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7 the explicit expression of the continuous variational form is omitted for conciseness, since it is not necessary for the numerical formulation. This derivation for dierent linearized beam models may be found in standard textbooks, see for example Reddy [28]. We use hermitian cubic interpolation to represent w and its derivatives as a function of x1 . This automatically satises the requirement of C 1 interelement continuity of w. In the nite element formulation proposed, the unknowns represent the physical displacements and rotation at extremity (node) a = 1, 2 of the rod element. Explicit expressions of the strain and kinetic energy of the rod element in terms of the degrees of freedom are derived in [29]. Upon spatial discretization, the stationarity condition (7) leads to the semi-discrete system of nonlinear ordinary dierential equations: Mh xh + Fint (xh ) = Fext (t) h h In these expressions, Mh is the mass matrix, xh the array of nodal accelerations and Fint (xh ) = h Fext = h U xh (9) (10) (8)

ext xh

are the arrays of internal forces and time-varying external forces, respectively. In the uid structure interaction problems of interest in this work, the array Fext in equation (10) h represents the external nodal forces equivalent to the traction boundary conditions imposed by the ow on the structure. The computation of these forces is discussed in section 4. The equations of motion (8) are integrated in time using Newmarks family of algorithms: xn+1 = xn + txn + t2 1 xn + n+1 x 2 (11)

xn+1 = xn + t (1 )n + n+1 x x Mn+1 + Fint (xn+1 ) = Fext (tn+1 ) x

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8 where and are the Newmark algorithm parameters. For = 0, a conventional implicit predictor-corrector algorithm [30] is adopted to solve the system of equations (11), leading to the incremental nonlinear algebraic system: M U + Fint (xn+1 + U) = Fext n+1 t2 (12)

where U = t2 xn+1 . A consistent linearization of this nonlinear algebraic equation about the predictor conguration leads to the computation of the tangent stiness matrix: K= Fint x (13)
b xn+1

which enables a quadratic convergence of the Newton Raphson algorithm used to obtain dynamic equilibrium at t = tn+1 . Explicit expressions for the mass matrix, array of internal forces and consistent tangent moduli in our slender rod model are derived in [29].

3. Eulerian compressible uid solver

In this section we summarize the formulation of the uid solver. Further details may be found in the original references. [31, 5, 6]. The ow is modeled as compressibe and inviscid, leading to the governing Euler equations of compressible ow. These equations may be expressed in the following strong conservative form: U ,t + F,x (U ) + G,y (U ) = 0 where U = , u, v, E
T

(14)

p F(U) = u, u2 + p, uv, (E + )u p G(U) = v, uv, v 2 + p, (E + )v

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9 where is the density, u and v are the Cartesian components of the velocity vector, p is the pressure, E is the specic total energy, U is the vector of conservative variables, F(U ) and G(U ) are the components of the ux vector. An additional equation of state closes the system of equations. In this work, the equation of state of perfect gases: p = ( 1)e (15)

is adopted, where is the specic heat ratio and e is the specic internal energy with E =e+
1 2

u 2.

A nite volume formulation is adopted as the numerical approximation of these equations. The discretized equations may be written as:
1 Fi 1 ,j Fi+ 1 ,j Gi,j 1 Gi,j+ 2 Ui,j 2 2 2 = + t h h

(16)

1 1 where Ui,j is an average value of U over the (i, j)th cell, and Fi 1 ,j , Fi+ 2 ,j , Gi,j 1 and Gi,j+ 2 2 2

are the uxes at the cell interfaces. This formulation is numerically conservative and thus, the variation of U over one cell of the mesh is equal to the inward ux. For stability reasons, ows with strong compressibility eects leading to the formations of shocks are best modeled by a conservative formulation [32, 33]. The uxes at the cell interfaces may be calculated either by the Equilibrium Flux Method (EFM) (a kinetic ux vector splitting scheme) [31], or the Godunov [34] or Roe method [35] (a ux dierence splitting scheme). These discretization schemes are rst order in space and can be taken as a starting point for the formulation of higher order schemes. In our case, second order accuracy is achieved via linear reconstruction with Van Leer type slope limiting applied to projections in characteristic state space. This method is often referred to as the MUSCL approach (Monotone Upstream-centered Schemes for Conservation Laws) [36, 33, 37, 38]. Equations (16) are integrated explicitly in time using the second-order Runge-Kutta algorithm:
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10 First step: Ui,j

n+ 1 2 n = Ui,j +

t [Fi1/2,j (U n ) Fi+1/2,j (U n ) 2h + Gi,j1/2 (U n ) Gi,j+1/2 (U n )] (17)

Second step:
n+1 n Ui,j = Ui,j +
1 1 t [Fi1/2,j (U n+ 2 ) Fi+1/2,j (U n+ 2 ) h

+ Gi,j1/2 (U n+ 2 ) Gi,j+1/2 (U n+ 2 )]

(18)

The uid solver imposes restrictions on the stable time step given by the Courant-FriedrichsLevy (CFL) stability condition [32, 38, 33]. The resulting uid model is second order in time and space. Details of the parallel implementation of this algorithm, including adaptive mesh renement capability may be found in Ref. [39].

4. Eulerian-Lagrangian coupling algorithm

Our objective in this work is to develop a uid-structure coupling algorithm with the ability to describe situations in which the details of the ow on both sides of a very thin structure are of equal importance. Such situations arise, for example, when the structure is a manifold with boundary (e.g. an open shell) or, if the manifold is closed, when there is uid in the shell interior as well as in the exterior. This objective is relatively easy to achieve with an unstructured mesh, nite element, Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation [40] or with other alternative mesh moving techniques[41] in the case that the thin structure is xed, i.e., in the case of a thin rigid boundary, or when the structure deformations are relatively small. However, when the deformations are large, these methods usually suer from stability [42] and excessive mesh distortion problems [43].
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11 In previous work, [16], we have focused on ow geometries with closed boundaries and a well dened exterior region. In this work we extend this algorithm in a way that this restriction can be eliminated. For simplicity, we restrict our attention to the two-dimensional case. The Eulerian uid solver and the Lagrangian solid solver are weakly coupled by applying appropriate boundary conditions at the uid-solid interface at the beginning of each time step. Other possible implicit and staggering schemes in coupled systems have been proposed and studied in detail in [44, 45]. In the case of inviscid ows considered, these boundary conditions correspond to continuity of the normal component of the velocity eld:

[v

n] = 0, on the uid-solid boundary

(19)

where [.] represents eld jumps, and continuity of the normal component of the traction across the uid-solid interface:

[t

n] = [ij ni nj ] = [n ] = 0, on the uid-solid boundary

(20)

which enforce conservation of mass and linear momentum, respectively. For simplicity, heat transfer across the uid-solid interface is neglected. The formulation of the algorithmic steps to enforce these conditions is described in the following. In the model proposed, we consider that the only aerodynamic force acting on the structure is due to the uid pressure. Equation (20) is enforced weakly by directly applying the pressure exerted by the uid on the structure at time tn as traction boundary conditions for time step tn+1 in a variationally consistent manner. This results in the following expression for the external force array Fext in Equation (10): h
ext Fia n+1

=
So2

pn Na ni ds

(21)

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12 where i is the degree of freedom, Na the shape function of node a and pn is the local value of the pressure, which is interpolated bilinearly from the computed ow eld at time tn . On the uid, mass, momentum and energy conservation at the boundary are enforced via extrapolation and a ow reconstruction step. First velocity, pressure and density cell averages from the physical uid domain are extrapolated to a narrow band of ghost cells across the boundary. This extrapolation is done by advection in pseudo-time : q +n q=0 (22)

where q = (, p, u, v) is the array of extrapolated quantities and n is the normal to the interface computed from the level set function. We employ simple upwinding along the normal n to march forward in in the extrapolation step above. When the steady state (q/ = 0) is reached, the non-physical extrapolated velocity eld in the ghost cells is reconstructed according to the expression: v F = (2v S v F ) n n + (F t)t v (23)

where v F is the uid velocity extrapolated from the active uid cells and v S is the velocity of the solid interface. The resulting ghost velocities correspond to a reection of the normal component of the uid velocity relative to the moving boundary, whereas the tangential component is left unchanged. The uxes thus computed from real and ghost values at the boundary, see section 3, in eect, enforce Equation (19). In the case of ows with a welldened exterior domain, ghost and real ow values can be supported on the same grid. By contrast, in the case of open boundaries a separate data structure is required to store the extrapolated ghost values, as ghost and real uid regions overlap. To this end, two arrays are used: one storing the real values of the conserved variables on the whole domain on which
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13 the main computation takes place and another one storing the values of the extrapolated variables in the ghost uid cells next to the interface, as shown in Figure 2, which is used for the application of boundary conditions in the uid. It bears emphasis that signicant storage savings may be achieved by adopting specialized sparse arrays [46] to store ghost values, which eectively reduce the dimensionality of the required storage size. It should be noted that the use of an additional array to store and access ghost data imposes some additionalalbeit straightforwardmodications to the uid solver, as compared with conventional ghost uid approaches one of whose attractive features is the minor solver modications required.

Figure 2. Real uid and ghost uid arrays

The location of the boundary as well as the boundary normal required to apply these boundary conditions, as described above, need to be computed eciently to avoid computational bottlenecks. To this end, the level set function (x) which gives the minimum distance to the uid-solid interface at each grid point of the uid domain is used. The normal n to the interface is also interpolated directly from the level set function: n=
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(24)
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14 The boundary is located where (x) = 0. The computation of the distance function at each time step is accomplished with an optimal algorithm developed by Mauch [47], whose complexity is O(m + n), where m is the number of elements in the shell mesh and n is the number of grid points in the subset of the uid grid where the level set is required. In the case of ows with a well-dened exterior, as assumed in [13, 21], a sign is assigned to the level set function. (x) is taken as negative (positive) in the interior (exterior) of the physical uid domain. This facilitates the immediate identication of real and ghost uid cells. The main limitation of this approach is that it precludes the possibility of ows coexisting on both sides of a thin boundary. In the case of open boundaries, by contrast, interior and exterior cannot be dened. However, a key observation is that the boundary remains an orientable manifold, i.e., it has two unequivocally identiablealbeit arbitrarily chosenpositive and negative sides which can be conveniently assigned to the adjacent uid domain. Both in the two and three dimensional case, the manifold may be endowed with an orientation by a suitable choice of a specic parametrization, from which the surface tangent vector(s) and a positive normal may be dened. Based on this observation, the side of the boundary is identied on the uid grid by endowing the distance function i,j with a sign next to the interface. This sign is obtained from thedimension independentformula: +1 1 if di,j n 0 (25) otherwise

sign(i,j ) =

where di,j is the distance vector from grid point i, j to the boundary and n is the local normal to the boundary. Thus, cells lying in the half space pointed to by the surface normal are assigned a positive sign and all other a negative one, as shown in Figure 3. Therefore, this
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15 pseudo-signed level set function oers a straightforward manner to determine if two grid points lie on the same side of the boundary or not.

Figure 3. Pseudo sign dened by the orientation of the interface

Once the pseudo-signed distance function is computed, values from each side of uid-solid interface are symmetrically extrapolated to the corresponding other side and stored on the auxiliary ghost array. The velocity elds are then reconstructed in the entire ghost region to impose non-penetration boundary condition, as described earlier. After the explicit application of boundary conditions by extrapolation in the uid, Equations (22) and (23), and in the structure, Equation (21), at the beginning of the time step, time integration proceeds independently in each solver as described in sections 2 and 3. The computation of the uxes in the uid, Equation (16), for cells next to the uid-solid boundary,
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16 i.e. where i,j changes sign, needs to be done using both real and ghost values. The latter are obtained from the auxiliary array described above. Apart from this consideration, the solution is computed on the whole uid grid, without the need of any additional special treatment of the boundary. One of the main advantages of this explicit coupling approach is its suitability for parallel implementation. The scalability properties of this coupling scheme on upwards of 1800 processors has been reported in [14]. It is important to remark that in order to avoid singularities stemming from the violation of the Sobolev cone condition at the ends of vanishing-thickness boundaries, structures embedded in the ow are endowed with a nite thickness, as real structures are expected to have. The staggering method adopted remains stable if the time step is chosen as:

t min (tCF L , tb )

(26)

where tCF L is the stable time step for the uid and:

tb =

min (x, y) vS

(27)

which prevents the solid boundary from crossing more than one uid cell per time step. As explained in section 2, the structure does not impose additional time step restrictions related to stability, as the integration is done implicitly. The stability of dierent weak coupling schemes in coupled systems has been studied in detail in [45]. The resulting uid-structure coupling algorithm is summarized in Algorithm 1.
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17

Algorithm 1. Fluid-Solid Coupling 1. - Apply boundary conditions using solution from previous time-step: (a) For the uid solver: i. Compute pseudo-signed distance function from updated location of solid boundary ii. Extrapolate ow eld values to the ghost region using Equation (22) and store extrapolated elds in auxiliary ghost array. iii. Reconstruct velocity eld in the ghost region using Equation (23) (b) For the solid solver: i. Interpolate pressure eld at the interface directly from uid grid ii. Apply pressure as external loading on the structure using Equation (21) 2. - Compute stable time step: (a) Compute stable time step for the uid solver tf according to CFL condition (b) Compute time step restrictions at the interface tb , Equation (27) (c) Adopt stable time step as: t = min (tf , tb ), Equation (26) 3. Integrate solution in time: (a) Integrate in time the uid solution Second order Runge-Kutta integration, Equations (17), (18). Next to the boundary, access ghost values from auxiliary array to compute uxes in Equation (16). (b) Integrate in time the solid solution using Newmarks algorithm, Equations (11). (c) Increment time-step in both uid and solid: t tn + t (d) Update location of the interface, i.e., the reference conguration of the solid.

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18

Figure 4. Schematic solution of the supersonic ow past a thin rigid plate

5. Numerical examples

5.1. Supersonic ow past a xed thin plate The rst example is intended to assess the ability of the extended ghost uid method to describe supersonic ows past open thin boundaries. To this end, the ow past a xed thin plate immersed in a high-speed ow at dierent angles of attack , see schematic in Figure 4, is computed using the numerical method described in the foregoing. This problem is amenable to analytical treatment [48, 49] and, therefore, provides a convenient means of assessing the accuracy and convergence properties of the extended ghost uid method. The plate prole induces a weak shock attached to its leading edge on the side where the cross section of the ow decreases and an expansion wave on the opposite side. The pressure behind the shock and

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19 the expansion wave is uniform and can be computed analytically as a function of using the Rankine-Hugoniot relations and, respectively, the Prandtl-Meyer function [49].

Figure 5. Computed solution of the supersonic ow past a thin rigid plate. In the case shown, the Mach number is M = 1.8 and the angle of attack is = 15 degrees. Contours show pressure normalized with upstream value

The Mach number adopted in these calculations is M = 1.8 and the initial properties of
kg the gas are: p = 1.0atm, = 1.293 m3 , and = 1.4. The uid domain is discretized with a

400 680-cell uid grid. In order to avoid singularities in the solution, the rigid boundary is
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20

(a) y=-0.245

(b) y=0.095

(c) y=0.275

Figure 6. Comparison of numerical and analytical horizontal pressure proles for dierent values of the vertical coordinate y. Analytical values are shown in thick gray lines. Numerical results are shown in thin black lines and + symbols. Values shown are normalized with upstream pressure.

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21 given a nite thickness, as real structures are expected to have. The numerically-computed ow eld for the case of = 15 degrees is shown in Figure 5. The contours indicate the value of the pressure normalized with its upstream value. Figures 6 (a)-(c) show comparisons of the normalized horizontal pressure proles against the analytical solution for dierent values of the vertical coordinate. Figure 6 (b) corresponds to a cross section through the center of the plate (y = 0.095) and shows that the pressure values behind the shock and in the expansion region behind the plate are accurately computed up to the interface. It bears emphasis that there is no pollution of the solution from one side of the boundary to the other, which usually constitutes a challenge in methods based on extrapolation. Figures 6-(a) and (c) correspond to cross sections one grid cell away from the bottom (y = 0.245) and top (y = 0.275) tips of the rigid boundary, respectively. As it can be seen in these gures, the quality of the numerical solution is very good both far and near the rod ends. Several simulations were conducted for angles of attack ranging from = 5 to 18 degrees. Above 18 degrees and for an upstream Mach number of M = 1.8 the shock at the leading edge of the prole detaches. Figure 7 shows the variation of the pressure behind the shock as a function of the angle of attack. As expected, the pressure behind the shock increases with . The corresponding dependence of the pressure in the expansion region behind the plate on the angle of attack is shown in Figure 8. As is increased, the pressure behind the expansion wave decreases, as expected. The numerically computed values are plotted on the same Figures 7 and 8. In both cases, a very good agreement between the exact and numerical results is obtained. A critical aspect of uid-structure interaction models is the ability to compute the aerodynamic loads on the structure with sucient accuracy, as these loads determine the
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22

Figure 7. Comparison of analytical and numerical values of the pressure behind the shock vs. angle of attack

structural response. In the following, we study the convergence of the pressure load on the structure in the supersonic ow past a xed plate problem. Other aspects of the convergence of the coupling approach based on the ghost uid method were previously reported by Arienti et al [17]. A series of simulations corresponding to the case of upstream Mach number M = 1.8 and angle of attack = 18 degrees is conducted for grid resolutions starting at 85 50. In each subsequent simulation, the resolution is increased by a factor of 2 in each direction. The nest grid resolution is 680 400. The exact nondimensional value of the aerodynamic lift (= 1.5759) for M = 1.8 and = 18 degrees is readily obtained from the dierence between
p1 p2 the analytical pressure values in the windward ( p = 2.5515) and leeward ( p = 0.3453)

sides, where p =

= 0.7143, and the normalized length of the at plate (=

1 cos =1.051).

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23

Figure 8. Comparison of analytical and numerical values of the pressure in the expansion region behind the plate vs. angle of attack

The error in the computed lift, dened as the absolute value of the dierence between the numerical and the analytical values normalized by the analytical value, as well as the rate of convergence, is reported in Table 5.1. The rst order convergence rate obtained is attributed

Grid resolution 85 x 50 170x100 340x200 680x400

Computed value 1.4864950 1.5285353 1.5564916 1.5680707

Error 0.08946629 0.04734034 0.01938427 0.00780513

Error in % 5.6772 3.0041 1.2300 0.4952

Convergence Rate 0.92 1.29 1.31 -

Table I. Convergence analysis of the aerodynamic lift on the solid structure.

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24 to the rst order description of the geometry, and the rst order interpolation of the uid pressures on the boundary. Second order schemes for similar treatment of irregular boundaries in cartesian grids have recently been proposed [19, 20], but are more expensive in terms of CPU and memory. It can be concluded from these results that the algorithm proposed applies boundary conditions on both sides of the thin prole in a consistent manner and results in convergent pressure distributions caused by the ow on the solid boundary. It can therefore be expected that this, in turn, will result in correct traction boundary conditions on the structure in coupled simulations.

5.2. Supersonic ow past a highly-exible structure In this section, we demonstrate the versatility of the overall computational methodology in describing complex uid solid interactions. The simulation corresponds to a supersonic ow transverse to an initially-at structure made of an elastic fabric with a Youngs Modulus
kg E = 6.0 109 P a and mass density = 1000.0 m3 . The length of the structure is 1.m and is

discretized with 50 elements as described in section 2, its thickness is 3.0 103 m, its cross sectional area A = 1.0 103 m2 and its moment of inertia I = 2.25 109 m4 . A schematic of the simulation set up is provided in Figure 9. The initial properties of the gas are: upstream pressure p = 1.0atm, mass density
kg = 1.293 m3 , and = 1.4. The ows Mach number is M = 2.0. The size of the

computational uid domain is 5.20m9.60m and the grid resolution adopted in this calculation is 260 480 uid cells. At rst, the structure is held xed and the steady-state ow around the at structure is computed. A strong shock develops upstream of the structure. The highly exible structure is
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25

Figure 9. Schematic of simulation of supersonic ow past a exible structure tranverse to the ow

then released, except at its tips which are restrained horizontally, and starts inating under the pressure of the ow, inducing complex interactions between the ow and the thin structure, see Figure 10. Figure 10 (a) shows the initial steady-state ow past the xed structure. A strong shock forms in front of the structure which causes a very high (low) pressure
p p

5.0 ( pp 1.0) on

the windward (leeward) side of the structure. When released, the structure starts to accelerate rigidly except at the extremities where the horizontal supports create a exural wave which propagates towards the center, Figure 10 (b). The forward motion of the structure releases an expansion wave in the ow, which travels upstream towards the strong shock lowering the upstream pressure, Figures 10 (b)-(c). The exural waves in the structure converge at its center at t = 2.80ms. As the structure deforms until it reaches a maximum deection, the ow in
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26

(a) Step 0, t = 0.00ms

(b) Step 150, t = 1.20ms

(c) Step 350, t = 2.80ms

(d) Step 450, t = 3.60ms

Figure 10. Simulation of supersonic ow past a exible structure

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27

(a) Step 650, t = 5.20ms

(b) Step 850, t = 6.80ms

(c) Step 1050, t = 8.40ms

(d) Step 3050, t = 24.40ms

Figure 11. Simulation of supersonic ow past a exible structure (continued)

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28 the windward side stagnates and the pressure increases again, as shown in Figure 10 (c). At t = 3.60ms, Figure 10 (d), the expansion wave propagating upstream reaches the shock front, aecting its shape and causing it to move downstream, thus following with some delay the initial forward motion of the rod. In the same Figure, it can be observed that, at this point, the elastic strain energy stored in the structure starts causing it to recoil. As the elastic energy is released, Figure 11 (a), the structure pushes the upstream ow generating a compression wave. This emphasizes the ability of the method to describe aspects of the ow caused by the dynamic deformation of the structure. Figure 11 (b) clearly shows the compression wave shed by the structure propagating upstream towards the shock front. At t = 8.40ms, Figure 11 (c), the compression wave reaches the shock front, aecting its shape and causing it to move backwards, following again with some delay the motion of the structure. This process in which the structure rst inates storing elastic energy and then recoils restoring the energy to the ow continues ostensibly unchanged, as no physical dissipation mechanisms are taken into account in the model. In order to reach a steady-state inated conguration, a small numerical dissipation is added to the structure by a convenient choice of the parameters of Newmarks algorithm, equation (11), as = 0.5 and = 1. Figure 11 (d) shows the steady-state conguration reached at time t = 24.40ms after the structure was rst released. This example illustrates the robustness of the coupling algorithm in describing complex uid-solid interactions in which the structure undergoes large nonlinear elastic deformations which, in turn, aect the ow in a non-trivial manner. The ability of the model to describe these interactions across a very thin structure without cross pollution of the ow across the interface is particularly noteworthy.
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29 Summary and conclusions

We have proposed a computational strategy for the coupling of high-speed ows interacting with the large, dynamic deformations of very thin open structures. Among the necessary components of the overall computational framework, a formulation is presented for the large dynamic deformations of thin rod structures including the bending and membrane response. The coupling algorithm constitutes an extension of the ghost uid method without the restrictions of thick solid structures and closed boundaries in which a well-dened exterior to the uid domain exists. The new algorithm was veried against the analytical solution of the supersonic ow past a at rigid plate at dierent angles of attack. The numerical solution is shown to converge to the analytical solution on both the shocked and rareed regions on the windward and leeward side of the plate without pollution of the solution across the innitely thin boundary. A convergence analysis of the lift load on the structure conrms the theoretical rst order accuracy of the coupling approach. As an example of a coupled application, a simulation of the transient supersonic ow normal to a highly-exible structure is presented. The simulation shows that a complex pattern of highly unsteady coupled interactions are set in motion between the ow and the structure, leading to the large oscillations of the structure until a steady-state is reached in its nal inated conguration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The support of the U.S. Department of Energy through the ASC Center for the Simulation of the Dynamic Response of Materials (DOE W-7405-ENG-48, B523297) is gratefully acknowledged.

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