Paper Control 1

International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
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International Journal of Mineral Processing

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j m i n p r o
A review of froth otation control

B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers
Rio Tinto Centre for Advanced Mineral Recovery at Imperial College London, Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
The last few decades have seen major advances in instrumentation and technology, and simplications and modications of new otation plant designs. This has allowed for signicant developments in process control. In particular, the development of base level process control (control of pulp levels, air owrates, reagent dosing, etc.) has seen signicant progress. Long-term, automated advanced and optimising otation control strategies have, however, been more difcult to implement. It is hoped that this will change as a result of the development of new technologies such as machine vision and the measurement of new control variables, such as air recovery. This review looks at each of the four essential levels of process control (instrumentation, base level otation control, advanced otation control and optimising otation control) and examines current and future trends within each sub-level. 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Article history: Received 6 August 2010 Received in revised form 19 April 2011 Accepted 8 May 2011 Available online 14 May 2011 Keywords: Froth otation Process control
Contents 1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key variables and considerations in the control of otation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Key variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Effects of plant layout and the location of the cell in the circuit . . . . . . 2.3. Types of process input disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. System constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation and base level otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Pulp levels in cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1. Instrumentation used for pulp level measurement and control. . . 3.1.2. Base level control systems for pulp level control . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Air owrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Instrumentation used for air owrate measurement and control . . 3.2.2. Base level control systems for air owrate control . . . . . . . . 3.3. Slurry owrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1. Instrumentation used for slurry owrate measurement and control 3.3.2. Implementation of slurry owrate in control systems . . . . . . . 3.4. Elemental assaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1. Instrumentation used for elemental analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2. Implementation of elemental assaying in control systems . . . . . 3.5. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1. Instrumentation used for density measurement. . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2. Implementation of density measurement in control systems. . . . 3.6. Reagent addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1. Instrumentation used for reagent addition . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2. Base level control systems for reagent addition . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. Eh, pH and conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1. Instrumentation for the measurement of Eh, pH and conductivity . 3.7.2. Base level control systems for Eh, pH and conductivity control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 61 61 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62
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Corresponding author. Tel.: + 44 20 7594 7360; fax: + 44 20 7594 7403. E-mail address: j.j.cillifers@imperial.ac.uk (J.J. Cilliers). 0301-7516/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2011.05.002
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B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Gas dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.1. Instrumentation used for the measurement of gas dispersion variables 3.8.2. Implementation of gas dispersion variables in control systems . . . . 3.9. Machine vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.1. Instrumentation and methods used for machine vision . . . . . . . 3.9.2. Implementation of machine vision in control systems . . . . . . . . 4. Advanced otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Advanced control of mass pull and re-circulating load . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1. Mass pull control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2. Re-circulating load control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Advanced control of grade and/or recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1. Model-based methods in advanced otation control . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2. Expert systems in advanced otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Modelling-based methods in optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Expert methods in optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Examples of approaches found in advanced/optimising otation control . . . . . . . 7. Commercial advanced/optimising otation control software . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction Froth otation is one of the most broadly used separation methods in the mineral processing industry. However, despite being introduced in the early 1900s and numerous years of research and development, otation is still not fully understood and remains relatively inefcient. As such, large economic gains stand to be made through optimisation of many present processes (McKee, 1991; Hodouin et al., 2000; Moilanen and Remes, 2008). It is important to realise from the outset that process control consists of several interconnected levels. Several authors, e.g. Roesch et al. (1976); McKee (1991); Laurila et al. (2002); and Gupta and Yan (2006), describe the process control of froth otation by a hierarchy of 34 inter-connected layers. The hierarchy described by Laurila et al. (2002) is presented in Fig. 1. The lowest level is the instrumentation itself, which is the basis for all process control. As such, the choice/design and maintenance of the instrumentation is of central importance to any process control system. Furthermore, the correct choice of instrumentation can only be achieved if a detailed understanding of the functioning and application of the required instrument, within a given process, is acquired (Laurila et al., 2002). Base level otation control is focused on maintaining primary variables at setpoints. These primary variables include: pulp level, air owrate and reagent addition rate. This is generally achieved through the usage of conventional SISO PID control; although more advanced
methods are now commonly used in modern control strategies. Similarly, traditional base level otation control was applied to single cells, although modern control strategies are now regularly applied to entire banks of cells (e.g. pulp level control). The two higher tiers of otation control are advanced otation control (AFC) and optimising otation control (OFC). AFC involves the rejection of the effects from input disturbances to the process (e.g. a change in feed grade) and maintaining performance parameters grade and recovery (although care should be taken when dening recovery; in a dynamic situation accumulation of material within the system and lag times should be considered). OFC, on the other hand, aims to maximise overall nancial protability (commonly by maximising grade and recovery). Both AFC and OFC attempt to achieve their objectives through manipulation of lower level control setpoints. It thus follows that the efciency of AFC and OFC systems are dependent on satisfactory lower level otation control systems being in place. Several cells are generally controlled simultaneously; and advanced control methods (which in control engineering terminology classically refers to any control strategy more complicated than SISO PID control; and more recently to computer based technologies) are used as PID control is insufcient. Numerous years of research into the automation of froth otation control has been conducted to increase process efciency, with efforts prior to the 1970s being largely unsuccessful. Several authors, such as McKee (1991) and Laurila et al. (2002), agree that reasons for this include: a lack of appropriate instrumentation and technologies, and
Fig. 1. Process control system level hierarchy for otation processes (Laurila et al., 2002).
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the old design of otation plants; which consisted of numerous smaller cells making process control more complicated and cumbersome. As such, operator intervention was the only method of process control (and this is still largely true of many plants today). However, the early 1970s saw extensive improvements in available instrumentation and the research into the development of automatic control of otation began to show increasing promise (McKee, 1991; Thwaites, 2007). Subsequently, there has been major development in base level otation control; although the development of robust, long-term, automatic A/OFC systems has proven more challenging. According to McKee (1991) this is partially due to the inherent complexity and unpredictability of the response of most otation circuits to upset conditions, unclear expectations of what a control system can achieve, unrealistic objectives for control systems and excessive complexity of the actual control strategies. Osorio et al. (1999) included coupling among control loops, long varying lag times, and an imperfect knowledge of the phenomenology of otation and the lack of appropriate and precise instrumentation as contributors for complicating control attempts. Despite this, Laurila et al. (2002) believe that otation is currently facing a new era in terms of automation and process control, with there being three main reasons for this: Henning et al. (1998), and Moilanen and Remes (2008) noted that otation circuit design is moving away from multiple recycle streams and towards simpler circuits. This simplies regulation and control of the over-all process. Authors such as Kallionen and Heiskanen (1993), and Carr et al. (2009) have noted that the sizes of otation cells are increasing, the main benets being: a reduction in capital expenditure and operational costs, lower energy consumption per cubic metre, less items to maintain and a lower plant footprint. Fewer cells also mean less instrumentation is required; allowing for less-intricate process control systems. However, this does mean more accurate instrumentation is required. Fewer, larger cells also increase the incentive for better base level control on each individual cell. Recent developments in instrumentation have seen the development of tools such as eldbus technology and image analysis, and have allowed for the assembly of smart instruments; devices that use self-diagnostics to provide information about the equipment status and measurement quality. Laurila et al. (2002) also highlight that as each otation process is unique (e.g. cell conguration, instrumentation, ore, chemistry, etc.) a large variety of A/OFC strategies have been developed and implemented, and a single, universal, control approach cannot be given. The aim of this literature review is to broadly explore the various control strategies that have been/are being, developed and utilised from a metallurgist's perspective. This work shall begin with a look at the key variables and considerations in the control of otation. Each of the four levels of otation control will then be explored in detail. Lastly, a description of some available commercial control systems and conclusions are presented. It should also be noted that although this paper focuses primarily on cell otation devices, as opposed to column otation devices, much of the literature and theory is applicable to both. 2. Key variables and considerations in the control of otation
simple other simultaneous sub-processes also occur. Examples include: entrainment of gangue into the froth phase, coalescence of bubbles, de-attachment of valuable particles from bubbles as they impact the froth phase, etc. (Ventura-Medina, 2000). The feed composition and upstream grinding stages prior to otation also signicantly affect the process. Thus, in reality, the otation process is highly complex with Arbiter and Harris (1962) estimating that there are approximately 100 variables that affect (to varying degrees) the otation process. Moreover, co-interactions between variables further complicate control efforts. For example, an increase in air owrate may well result in a larger bubble size, which will subsequently affect the bubble rise velocity, rate of attachment, gas holdup, froth depth, etc. meaning other variables may be affected and need manipulating after a given response time. As such, it is the high number of variables and the complex, non-linear, inter-relationships between these variables that make otation control in specic very challenging. 2.1. Key variables Laurila et al. (2002) suggest that the following variables specically from an A/OFC viewpoint are most important: slurry properties (density, solids content) slurry ow rate (retention time) electrochemical parameters/potentials (pH, Eh, conductivity) chemical reagents and their addition rate (frothers, collectors, depressants, activators) pulp levels in cells air owrates into cells froth properties (speed, bubble size distribution, froth stability) particle properties (size distribution, shape, degree of mineral liberation) mineralogical composition of the ore mineral concentrations in the feed, concentrate and tailings (recovery, grade) froth wash water rate (especially in otation columns)
Manipulating/measuring each of these variables simultaneously may well be unnecessary to achieve a good process control result. However, each of these variables and their effects on the otation process should be considered. 2.2. Effects of plant layout and the location of the cell in the circuit The process layout is a key consideration in process control. Recycle streams in particular can make process control (e.g. pulp level control) more challenging, especially if accumulation and/or sudden discharges of material are allowed to occur. Additionally, different sections of the plant require different process control regimes; the rougher and scavenger sections being operated at comparatively low froth depths and high air owrates, to achieve high mineral recovery; whilst cleaner sections operate with greater froth depths and lower air owrates in a bid to increase grade (Laurila et al., 2002). 2.3. Types of process input disturbances
Froth otation is a three phase separation process for complex ores based on the manipulation of the difference in hydrophobicity of the solids. Suspended, hydrophobic metal-rich particles are contacted with, and subsequently combine to, air bubbles whilst the more hydrophilic gangue particles sink and are recovered to the tails stream. The valuable-mineral loaded bubbles report to a froth phase and overow into a launder, before being recovered to the concentrate stream. Although the process may sound relatively
It is important to identify the frequency and severity with which input disturbances can occur for a given otation process. Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) suggest that if the grinding circuit control systems are running efciently, variations in particle feed rate, pulp density and particle size should be minimal with the otation circuit being responsible for compensating for variations in mineralogy and oatability of the ore.
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2.4. System constraints Existing circuit constraints need to be considered when implementing a process control regime. Two types of constraints exist. Firstly a process may be equipment constrained (e.g. a recovery cannot be achieved because the required air owrate rate cannot be supplied). Secondly, a process may be constrained by another part of the system; an example being the limitation of the maximum recovery of a desired species, at a high concentrate grade objective, within a otation plant as a result of insufcient liberation by the grinding circuit (McKee, 1991). Bergh and Yianatos (2011) add that in practise the plant operating point that satises the overall economic goals of the process will lie close to the intersection of constraints. 3. Instrumentation and base level otation control Information about the input disturbances, process operating parameters and nal product quality is required before optimisation and control can be performed; with the quality of measured information largely determining the efciency of an implemented control system. However, despite the availability of instrumentation for the measurement of important parameters such as: ore composition, owrates and less ore specic properties (e.g. pulp levels, density, pH) essential properties such as liberation degree, surface chemistry, bubble size distribution, bubble loading, etc. remain difcult to measure and infer (Bergh and Yianatos, 2011). Currently, most existing instrumentation on otation plants makes use of analogue signal technology; with signals requiring conversion into a digital format before interfacing with automation systems. As such, it is thought that analogue technology is to be replaced by digital eldbus technology. This will result in completely digital communication between instrumentation and base level control systems at source, and has already enabled the decentralisation of pulp level and air owrate base level control systems. This has also allowed for better integration of base level control during otation cell design (Laurila et al., 2002). Continued development of base level control is now largely focused towards operational aspects that facilitate and speed up the setting of control loops (Moilanen and Remes, 2008). 3.1. Pulp levels in cells 3.1.1. Instrumentation used for pulp level measurement and control Laurila et al. (2002) and Carr et al. (2009) suggest that the most typical methods of pulp level measurement are: Float with a target plate and ultrasonic transmitter Float with angle arms and capacitive angle transmitter Reex radar Other methods mentioned in literature include: Hydrostatic pressure measurement. Authors such as Roesch et al. (1976); Hamilton and Guy (2000); and Maldonado et al. (2008) describe methods whereby the hydrostatic pressure is measured to determine the pulp level. Accurate measurement requires that both the slurry density and air holdup in the pulp be known. Microwave radar and ultrasonic transmitters. Microwave or ultrasonic beams are emitted towards the froth and are reected at the slurry surface before being measured, and the pulp level being inferred (Hamilton and Guy, 2000). Conductivity and capacitance Hamilton and Guy (2000) describe two techniques whereby the large difference in dielectric constant between gasses and liquids is used to determine the pulp level. Similarly, the difference in electric conductivity, measured using a conductivity probe, can also be used to locate the frothpulp interface (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006; Maldonado et al., 2008).
Laurila et al. (2002) add that accurate level measurement is often problematic as the slurryfroth transition is not sharp and variations in slurry density and/or very dense froth layers often exist. This especially complicates methods using direct ultrasonic or hydrostatic pressure measurements. Lastly, Carr et al. (2009) highlight that control valve options are limited due to the eroding conditions and large variations in owrate. Dart and pinch valves are generally used (neither being optimal), and both being occasionally incorrectly sized. The optimal operating range of these valves is 3060% open, although these valves are commonly seen operating at below 30% open. Operating a valve near the fully closed position causes increased wear, while operating near the fully open position reduces the control range of the valve. 3.1.2. Base level control systems for pulp level control Stenlund and Medvedev (2000); Kmpjrvi and Jms-Jounela (2003); and Carr et al. (2009) report that otation cells traditionally use feedback PI control to ensure pulp levels remain at desired set-points; although Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) add that feedforward control is also regularly integrated to account for owrate variations upstream. This is achieved by manipulating the tailings ow from the cell by adjustment of the slurry outlet valve. This technique is effective for the control of isolated cells, but is also commonly used to control a bank of cells in series. This approach is problematic, as each individual cell control loop attempts to independently maintain the pulp level at the set-point. As such, a control action for one cell is a disturbance for the next; the net result being that each cell drives the following cell off its set-point. As such, sophisticated multivariable model-based control methods have been developed; whereby the whole bank of cells is modelled and compensations between adjacent cells calculated and/or considered. Two examples of multivariable control methods are presented in Stenlund and Medvedev (2000). The rst makes use of a decoupling controller model, where compensator parameters are introduced (representing the dependencies of each cell in a series on prior cells) to counteract the interactions between cells. The second method introduced is a multivariable model-based feedback controller, which manipulates ows out of each cell simultaneously so as to continually minimise a dened error function. Kmpjrvi and Jms-Jounela (2003) described an alternative multivariable model whereby a feedforward controller was linked with traditional PI controls on each cell. Moilanen and Remes (2008) described a similar feed forward control algorithm. Despite this, Carr et al. (2009) reports that these more sophisticated methods are rarely used in industrial processing plants. Commercial control packages such as FloatStar Level Stabiliser by Mintek, or CellStation by Outotec, also aim to control all cell levels simultaneously using advanced control techniques. Both have reportedly been trialled successfully and installed on industrial plants (www.mintek.co.za; www.outotec.com). From an A/OFC perspective pulp level control is important as it dictates the froth depth (dened as the distance from the pulp/froth interface to the overow lip). Theoretically, a deeper froth allows for increased drainage of mechanically entrained gangue, and subsequently, a higher concentrate stream grade (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). As such, A/OFC systems commonly manipulate the setpoints of pulp-level controllers. 3.2. Air owrates 3.2.1. Instrumentation used for air owrate measurement and control Laurila et al. (2002) report that there are three common methods of measuring air owrates in otation processes. Two of the methods make use of differential pressure metres, which are popular in industry, including otation, due to their low price, simple principle and fairly low requirement of maintenance. The three methods are: Thermal gas mass ow sensor. The cooling effect of the air as it ows past a sensor is measured and correlated to an air owrate. These
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instruments are unobtrusive to the air ow, although they are expensive and factory calibrated, making changes difcult. Differential pressure metre with venturi tube. Green and Perry (2007) describe that the narrowed venturi tube acts as a restriction to the ow, resulting in a pressure drop that is measured and a ow rate determined. This method is reliable, produces tolerable pressure drops and is accurate, although the venturi tube has large space requirements and is expensive Laurila et al. (2002) add that an orice plate is not a suitable solution due to the signicant pressure loss it causes. Differential pressure transmitter with Pitot tube or annubar tube. Both the Pitot tube and annubar element determine the gas owrate, in a pipe, by comparison of the internal pipe pressure and the static gas pressure. The difference between the methods is that the Pitot tube only has one measurement point, while the annubar element has several measurement points and thus provides an average air velocity. Both methods are deemed accurate and the observed pressure drop is small. Fig. 2 illustrates the instrumentation used for air owrate measurement. Problems associated with differential pressure metres include large space requirements, with large sections of straight piping being needed to ensure a fully developed ow prole. One solution is to decrease the pipe size, as the required straight pipe length is related to pipe diameter. Buttery valves are used to control the air ow as they are cheap and sufcient for the task (Laurila et al., 2002). 3.2.2. Base level control systems for air owrate control Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) elaborate just how important and useful aeration control is; adding that otation generally responds faster to changes in aeration, than to changes in froth depth, and because of this aeration is often a more effective control variable. Similarly, they infer (by use of an example) that in comparison to reagent addition, air is by far the cheaper reagent and leaves no residual concentration if used in excess. As such, air owrate is frequently incorporated into A/OFC systems, often in conjunction with pulp level and/or reagent addition control systems; an example being the simultaneous manipulation of air-ow rate and pulp level to control mass pull. Carr et al. (2009) note that the control of otation aeration is easier than slurry level control. Luyben and Luyben (1997), Laurila et al. (2002), and Carr et al. (2009) agree that a simple, well-tuned, feedback/feedforward PI/PID control loop is adequate to accurately regulate air ow by manipulation of the control valve setting. Sizing of the control valve is of central importance for effective control. Oversized valves are often tted to infer a smaller pressure drop, but in reality result in a limited control response (Luyben and Luyben, 1997); and can signicantly, and rapidly, affect otation performance and pulp level control. Smith et al. (2008), suggest that down-the-
bank air owrate prole control is also advantageous. If the cell air owrates are not controlled individually, and air is fed to a group of cells, buttery valves are often operated manually to adjust the ow to each cell. Lastly, Laurila et al. (2002) add that otation cells with self-aspirating aeration mechanisms often do not have automatic airow control. The available range of airow control is anyhow limited. This problem is pronounced at high altitude. This limits the potential for the implementation of advantageous A/OFC strategies. 3.3. Slurry owrates 3.3.1. Instrumentation used for slurry owrate measurement and control Magnetic ow metres are commonly used to measure slurry owrates and are based on Faraday's principle of induction, with the device consisting of an electromagnet coiled around an insulated length of pipe. Electrodes are installed at opposite sides of the pipe, which enable an electric current to be generated through the owing uid and measuring device. From this measured current a owrate can be determined. This method is non-obtrusive and modern magnetic owmeters take up to 30 measurements per minute. Slurry measurement is problematic, however, as solids and air bubbles decrease performance. Moreover, if magnetic solids (e.g. magnetite) are present de-magnetisation is required (Laurila et al., 2002). Slurry owrates can also be controlled by variable or xed speed pumps that are capable of handling slurries. Suitable valve options have already been discussed in Section 3.1.1. 3.3.2. Implementation of slurry owrate in control systems In otation circuits, slurry owrates are generally manipulated to control pulp levels in cells (see Section 3.1.2), and are not controlled to a setpoint. Nevertheless, the measurement of slurry owrates are important, as Laurila et al. (2002) point out, for A/OFC, and allow for calculating re-circulating loads and performing mass balance calculations. Slurry owrate measurement is also important for reagent addition base level otation control. 3.4. Elemental assaying 3.4.1. Instrumentation used for elemental analysis On-line X-ray uorescence (XRF) analysers provide elemental assays from process ow streams and are now considered standard hardware on large scale otation plants (Garrido et al., 2008). Several points of the process can be sampled, with some modern XRF analysers handling up to 24 streams and most machines being capable of analysing for several elements and solids content. The time to analyse a single sample can range from 15 s to a minute, and the sampling cycle time is between 10 and 20 min depending on the number of sample points attached to the analyser (Laurila et al., 2002;
Fig. 2. Illustration of (A) thermal gas mass owmeter, (B) venturi tube with differential pressure metre and (C) Pitot tube.
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Bergh and Yianatos, 2011). Accuracy ranges from 1 to 6% and detection limits are as low as 330 ppm (Moilanen and Remes, 2008). Moreover, Haavisto et al. (2008) introduce a new method of analysis; the visual and near-infrared reectance spectroscopic analysis of process slurries. This measurement aims to be a supplementary method, which complements the on-line assay information available from an XRF analyser. It is further reported that spectral information can be used to accurately predict element contents in the slurry in between successive XRF analyses, and as these measurements can be taken with high frequency as opposed to sparse XRF analysis, a practically continuous on-line estimate of the slurry contents is reached. This would allow for any process disruptions to be rapidly identied. Despite the obvious benets of online XRF analysis Garrido et al. (2008) report that these analysers are generally under-utilised because operators do not trust the online information given by estimation models. They further describe a calibration method for estimation models that minimise the effects of the uncontrollable disturbances during the estimation. 3.4.2. Implementation of elemental assaying in control systems Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) report that the key to effective (otation) control is online chemical analysis, which produces real-time analysis of the metal composition of process streams. However, the relatively long sampling cycle times mean that input disturbances of high frequency can be missed, making it difcult to capture the experimental data required to form dynamic models of the process (Bergh and Yianatos, 2011); and take required control actions. Moreover, Remes et al. (2007) conducted a study into the effect of speed and accuracy of on-line elemental analysis on otation control performance. The study concluded that an increase in sampling cycle time results in a strong decline in controllability, resulting in negative economic impacts. 3.5. Density 3.5.1. Instrumentation used for density measurement Roesch et al. (1976) report that nuclear density metres are commonly used for density measurement on otation plants. Gamma radiation is emitted by a radioactive isotope and the attenuation of the radiation by the slurry is measured, from which the density can be determined from a prior calibration. This method is non-obtrusive to the process ow. This is in agreement with Laurila et al. (2002), who add that air bubbles in the slurry often make use of a nuclear density metre impossible and choice of location in the process is an important consideration. Additionally, some on-stream XRF analysers are now capable of density measurement. 3.5.2. Implementation of density measurement in control systems Density measurements are used in mass balance calculations, which are associated with A/OFC (Laurila et al., 2002). Furthermore, control/manipulation is normally preformed in the grinding circuit/s (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). 3.6. Reagent addition 3.6.1. Instrumentation used for reagent addition A variety of alternative equipment for maintaining/setting reagent addition rates are used industrially. Laurila et al. (2002) suggest the main reasons for this are due to the seemingly negligible amounts that need to be added (often measured in millimetres per minute) and the large variety of different reagents added, each with their own chemical properties and attributes. Common methods include: A simple on-off type dosing system which periodically opens a valve and allows reagent to enter the process. Regular checks are required to ensure the correct amount is added, as this method can be very inaccurate.
Metering pumps are also used, especially if volumes to be added are very small or cost is of importance. This method is more accurate, but the pumps are costly and require regular maintenance.
3.6.2. Base level control systems for reagent addition Base level reagent addition control commonly consists of a feedforward ratio-type control, as mentioned by Hodouin et al. (2000), whereby the reagent addition rate is altered according to the feed rate of ore to achieve a reagent (in slurry) concentration setpoint (e.g. grammes of reagent per ton of ore). This reagent concentration setpoint may then be altered retrospectively by operators in a feedback fashion after considering composition results from an XRF analyser. Similarly, the setpoint could be manipulated by an A/OFC system to achieve a required metallurgical result; although Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) add that this is more common with collector control, with frother addition rate setpoints usually being set manually.
3.7. Eh, pH and conductivity 3.7.1. Instrumentation for the measurement of Eh, pH and conductivity Measurement of electrochemical potential (Eh), pH and conductivity provide information on the surface chemistry of the particles in the slurry and are the only direct, non-intrusive methods of determining what is occurring chemically within the otation cell (Ruonala, 1995). Laurila et al. (2002) report that pH is a commonly measured electrochemical property, and is related logarithmically to the hydronium ion activity in solution. Measurement is achieved by using ion selective electrodes, although this is often problematic as the electrodes are easily contaminated by active substances in the slurry. As such, sampling systems are often used for pH measurement, where washing of the electrodes and regular maintenance can be performed. Conductivity measurement can often be used instead of, or in conjunction with, pH measurement as both provide complimentary/ similar information. Conductivity metres are generally cheaper and are more suitable for highly alkaline solutions, although their use should be avoided in highly aerated systems. In addition, Wang and Cilliers (1999), and Bennett et al. (2002) performed studies where conductivity measurements were used to determine froth density and ow regimes. Eh measurement too is problematic, with Woods (2003) adding that maintaining electrode probes so that they respond appropriately in these plants is difcult to achieve, and concluding that the choice of materials in Eh probes requires further research.
3.7.2. Base level control systems for Eh, pH and conductivity control Base level control of pH involves maintaining the slurry pH at a desired setpoint, through manipulation of acid or lime addition rates, with PID control loops being adequate for the task (Laurila et al., 2002). Long response times of the system mean a lag time should follow any corrective action/s performed to fully appreciate the effects it has had (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). Commercial controllers, such as FloatStar pH Controller, are also available and use advanced control methods. Control of Eh usually involves the addition of nitrogen or air to the system to alter the electrochemical potential (Woods, 2003). Much research into improving metallurgical results through Eh manipulation (A/OFC) has been published over the last four decades. Ruonala et al. (1997); and Woods (2003) present thorough reviews of this work on both laboratory and industrial scales, for several ore types. A summary of a brief literature review, listing the ore-type the studies were conducted on, is listed below in Table 1.
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771 Table 1 Summary of literature review for Eh measurement/control in froth otation. Author and date Berglund (1991) Bruckard et al. (2007) Mineral type
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problems with the design include the requirement of a range of orice valves to suit all gas velocities and the build up of froth within the system (Torrealba-Vargas and Finch, 2006; Gomez and Finch, 2007). 3.8.1.2. Gas holdup measurement sensor. The sensor is based on Maxwell's model that relates the concentration of a non-conducting dispersed phase to the conductivities of the continuous phase and the dispersion. This requires two measurements in separate vessels (see Fig. 3, part B); one vessel measures the conductivity of the aerated pulp; the other measures the conductivity of the air free pulp (achieved using a syphon). The ratio of these measurements is used to solve Maxwell's model and estimate the gas holdup. This method ensures continuous measurement; although care is required when choosing the opening sizes of the syphon to ensure no bubbles enter the vessel and result in inaccuracies (Gomez et al., 2003; Gomez and Finch, 2007). 3.8.1.3. Bubble size measurement sensor. The McGill bubble sizing device (see Fig. 3, part C) is able to measure the full bubble size distribution found in the pulp phase. A sample is drawn from the pulp via a tube and directed into a sloped viewing chamber (the sloped window allows for a near mono-layer of bubbles to form) exposed to a pre-set light source. The continuous ow of bubbles is then captured via image analysis. The accuracy of the measurement is difcult to establish, although the method is widely used and continues to evolve by improvements dictated by eld trials (Gomez and Finch, 2007). 3.8.2. Implementation of gas dispersion variables in control systems A recent publication by Bartolacci et al. (2008) focused on using gas dispersion sensors in conjunction with a Froth Stability Column and machine vision (both still to be discussed). Air owrate, pulp level, reagent dosage and feed rate were varied whilst dispersion parameters, froth stability, bubble surface area ux and metallurgical results were measured. The results indicated a high dependence of grade and recovery on dispersion parameters and froth stability; a clear indication of the potential of these measurements being integrated into an A/OFC system. 3.9. Machine vision 3.9.1. Instrumentation and methods used for machine vision Machine vision makes use of cameras positioned above otation cells to record digital images of the froth surface. Several froth features can be extracted from these images and used for control purposes.
Pyrite, sphalerite-galena, chalcopyrite Arsenopyrite, lollingnite and arsenic from tin bearing ores Chander and Fuerstenau (1975) Copper and chalcocite Clark et al. (2000) Chalcocite, chalcopyrite and bornite Guo and Yen (2005) Enargite and chalcopyrite Hayes and Ralston (1988) Galena, chalcopyrite and sphalerite Hicyilmaz et al. (2004) Pyrite Hintikka and Leppinen (1995) Complex sulphide ores and gold bearing ores Kirjavainen et al. (1992) Copper ores with rich copperzinclead pyrite ores Kocaba and Gler (2007) Pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite Leppinen et al. (1997) Copper and zinc rich complex ores Qing et al. (2008) Leadsilverzinc complex ores Roos et al. (1990) Chalcocite and covellite Roos et al. (1990) Copper and chalcopyrite Shen et al. (1997) Sphalerite and pyrite Uribe-Salas et al. (2000) Galena, chalcopyrite and pyritic ore Walker et al. (1984) Chalcocite Yuan et al. (1996) Complex copper/zinc sulphide ore with pyrite and pyrrhotite
3.8. Gas dispersion 3.8.1. Instrumentation used for the measurement of gas dispersion variables Gomez and Finch (2007) report that gas dispersion is the collective term for supercial gas (air) velocity (volumetric air owrate per unit cross sectional area of cell, Jg), gas holdup (volumetric fraction of gas in a gas-slurry mix, g) and bubble size distribution (Db). The publication also details the equipment used for the measurement of these variables. 3.8.1.1. Supercial gas velocity measurement sensor. The sensor consists of a vertically positioned tube; the lower end is partially submerged in the pulp zone to collect bubbles (see Fig. 3, part A). The continuous version has an orice valve mounted on the air outlet. When air is allowed out of the orice valve, time is given for a pressure steadystate to be reached and measured (i.e. the rate of air into the column is equal to that out the orice valve). The volumetric air owrate is then inferred from a previous calibration and Jg calculated. Current
Fig. 3. Schematics of (A) gas velocity, (B) gas holdup and (C) bubble size measurement devices (Gomez and Finch, 2007).
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These features are categorised into three types; namely: physical, statistical and dynamic properties. Within each category several methods exist for extracting different variables and/or features. For example bubble size, a physical property of a froth, is one feature that may be extracted through usage of bubble edge or watershed algorithms. An extensive amount of literature has been written about the methods by which features are extracted from froth; with a full, recent, literature review being carried out by Aldrich et al. (2010) (see Table 2). Aldrich et al. (2010) highlight that the use of physical features for control purposes remains problematic. Issues associated with physical feature extraction include: It is commonly observed that the surface bubbles of owing froths are signicantly larger than those in the layers immediately below; the lower layers forming the predominant portion of the volume overowing into the launder. This cannot be corrected for readily. Neethling et al. (2003) observed that the surface lm size distribution is not necessarily representative of the bubble size distribution in the underlying froth layer Wang and Neethling (2009), however, have determined a method to relate surface lm size to underlying bubble size distribution. The watershed method often over-segments larger bubbles and under-segments smaller bubble sizes. Mobility feature extraction has been shown to be particularly useful within the context of A/OFC. 3.9.2. Implementation of machine vision in control systems It is common in industry for operators to control and regulate a otation plant by visual inspection of the froth surface. Indeed, an understanding of processes occurring within the froth phase is central to understanding the overall behaviour of otation systems (Glembotskii, 1972; Cutting et al., 1986; McKee, 1991; Mathe et al., 1998). The structure of froths has a signicant effect on grade and recovery; with several publications (e.g. Supomo et al., 2008; Moilanen and Remes, 2008) suggesting a link between froth velocity and metallurgical performance. As such, the development and implementation of machine vision was an attempt to rene and automate the control based on the froth appearance. Currently, numerous commercial machine vision systems are available; making the on-line measurement of froth velocity possible. This is useful in the implementation of A/OFC, an example being the measurement and control of mass pull. Moreover, the faster dynamics of machine vision (1 min) compared to XRF technology (1020 min), open the possibility
for building better predictive otation A/OFC models, based on visual aspects of the froth as opposed to stream grades (Bergh and Yianatos, 2011). 4. Advanced otation control AFC, also known as stabilising control, aims to reject the effects of input disturbances (e.g. a change of ore type) and maintain the otation process as close to steady state as possible (McKee, 1991; Laurila et al., 2002). This is generally achieved by controlling mass pull; recycle load; stream grade and/or recovery to setpoints (usually set by operators or an optimising controller), with the manipulated variables being the setpoints of base level controllers (i.e. pulp level, air owrate, reagent addition rate and pH/conductivity). As such, effective AFC is only possible if robust, efcient base level otation control systems are in place. 4.1. Advanced control of mass pull and re-circulating load An effective method of keeping the plant's mass balance at steady state is to maintain constant mass pulls and/or re-circulating loads at setpoints (often in conjunction with maintaining grade and/or recovery). 4.1.1. Mass pull control Mass pull refers to the amount of concentrate collected. A recent paper by Supomo et al. (2008) describes the successful installation and operation of VisioFroth, a commercial machine vision based control system developed by Metso, at PT Freeport in Indonesia. The control system measures the velocity of the overowing froth, and then adjusts the froth-depth to achieve the desired mass pull. An alternative commercial package, FloatStar Flow Optimiser by Mintek, uses density and owrate measurements to calculate mass pull. The required mass pull is then obtained through manipulation of pulp level and air owrate (www.mintek.co.za). 4.1.2. Re-circulating load control Re-circulating material through a otation plant results in decreased residence time of material per otation cell, but does allow for the valuable material to spend more time in the otation plant as a whole; and, subsequently, increases the overall recovery (Wills and NapierMunn, 2006). However, this re-circulating load may need to be varied to account for input disturbances (McKee, 1991). FloatStar Flow Optimiser is an example of a commercial control package which uses the
Table 2 Overview of methods used for feature extraction by machine vision (Aldrich et al., 2010). Type Physical Methods Edge Watershed Statistical Spectral Froth variables or features Bubble size and shape Bubble size and shape RGB References Banford et al. (1998); Forbes and De Jager (2004b); Forbes et al. (2006); Lin et al. (2007a,b); Wang et al. (2003); Wang and Stephansson (1999) Forbes and De Jager (2004a); Sadr-Kazemi and Cilliers (1997); Ventura-Medina and Cilliers (2000); Yang et al. (2008) Bonifazi et al. (2005a,b); Gebhardt et al. (1993); Hargrave et al. (1996, 1998); Hargrave and Hall (1997); Morar et al. (2005); Oestreich et al. (1995); Siren (1999); Vathavooran et al. (2006) Moolman et al. (1994) Bartolacci et al. (2006); Liu and MacGregor (2007, 2008) Hargrave and Hall (1997); Holtham and Nguyen (2002) Aldrich et al. (1995, 1997); Bezuidenhout et al. (1997); Moolman et al. (1994, 1995a,b) Bonifazi et al. (2000); Hargrave and Hall (1997); Hargrave et al. (1998) Bartolacci et al. (2006); Liu et al., (2005); Liu and MacGregor (2007, 2008) Estrada-Ruiz and Perez-Garibay (2009); Hytyniemi and Ylinen (2000); Jeanmeure and Zimmerman (1998); Kaartinen and Hytyniemi (2005); Moolman et al. (1995c); Niemi et al. (1997) Botha (1999) Barbian et al. (2007); Forbes and de Jager (2007); Holtham and Nguyen (2002); Moolman et al. (1994); Supomo et al. (2008) Nguyen and Holtham (1997) Barbian et al. (2003, 2005, 2006); Moolman (1995); Morar et al. (2006)
Co-occurrence matrices Fractals Latent variables
FFT Wavelets Texture Spatial and neighbouring grey level Fractal descriptor PCA Neural networks
Dynamic
Mobility
Bubble tracking Block matching Pixel tracing
Stability
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measurement and manipulation of mass pull rates to regulate the amount of material recycled (www.mintek.co.za). 4.2. Advanced control of grade and/or recovery AFC commonly refers to strategies that aim to maintain grade and/or recovery (Laurila et al., 2002). However, McKee (1991) states that A [stabilising] control system which is capable of rstly stabilising circuit performance, and then driving the circuit to a desired grade or recovery operating point, would undoubtedly be considered highly successful. highlighting the importance of the stabilising aspect of AFC. The review of the successfulness of alternative AFC strategies is made difcult, as follow-up reports of implemented control strategies are uncommon, as noted by McKee (1991); who suggested that this was because most control systems do not remain in operation for periods of years after installation and are shut down. Furthermore, Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) add that few (if any) plants can claim to have fully automated control systems that can run the plant unsupervised for long periods of time. Thus it seems that despite the large body of literature devoted to the subject, the successful application of AFC (and indeed OFC) techniques into industrial application have been largely unsuccessful. Reasons given for this in literature include: Design of control systems are insufciently thought out during plant design stages (Narraway et al., 1991; Thwaites, 2007; Bergh and Yianatos, 2011); and major control variables are often only identied once the plant is operational (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). This commonly results in poorly designed, incompetent, control systems being installed on new plants; with later (often inadequate) modications being required; or additional ad-hoc control systems being added on as after-thoughts. A vast knowledge of control systems and jargon is required to develop, install and maintain A/OFC systems; with the majority of operators/metallurgists/management not having a background in control engineering (Hodouin et al., 2001; Thwaites, 2007; Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). As already discussed, the non-linear, complex behaviour of otation systems complicates modelling attempts; making the design of robust, effective controllers that can deal with large ranges of operating conditions difcult. It is partially for these reasons (specically the latter two) that Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) argue that the best control systems are those that interact with the operator (i.e. supervisory control systems), giving explanations, when alterations to setpoints/variables of base level otation control systems are required; and as such, experienced, conscientious operators currently remain a competitive alternative towards any automated control system. According to Gupta and Yan (2006), there are broadly two types of AFC used in mineral processing (a hybrid between the two is also possible). These are: Use of model-based methods Use of expert control systems The evolution and current trends of each of these branches will now be discussed. 4.2.1. Model-based methods in advanced otation control Model-based methods can be further sub-categorised into two categories, namely: empirical and phenomenological modelling (Polat and Chander, 2000). Empirical models make use of statistical methods to relate measured input and output plant data, such that multivariable models relating between two or more independent and dependant variables can be established and used for predictive control (e.g. controlling
collector addition rate based on concentrate grade). Furthermore, continual analysis of plant data and corrective adjustment of the predictive (model-based) controller make it adaptive to changing conditions (i.e. adaptive control). Adaptive control is especially important within the context of otation control, which is prone to non-linear, complex behaviour. As such, many predictive otation control systems often (but not always) include adaptive control aspects. By 1991, Thornton noted that although the amount of literature devoted to multi-variable model-based control was extensive, the number of applications in industry was still comparatively small; with McKee (1991) noting that 5 control strategies were particularly common at the time (and largely remain so). These are: Feed back control of collector addition to maintain recovery set points. Feed forward control of collector based on the calculated metal content of the new feed. Maintaining concentrate ows within limits, usually by varying aeration rates or pulp levels. Maintaining circulating loads within limits, again by variation of aeration rates or pulp levels. Controlling aeration rates or pulp level to obtain concentrate grade set points. Despite the apparent popularity of adaptive multivariable modelbased controllers, Desbiens et al. (1994), and Gupta and Yan (2006) note issues with the stability of adaptive control; with the controllers becoming saturated, and un-adaptive, after a period of time. Moreover, in spite of the majority of the predictive multivariable control strategies being based on empirical correlations, research and development of phenomenological models whereby relationships between cause and effect are devised through an understanding of the physics of the otation process for use in predictive controllers was also conducted. As such, phenomenological modelling methods can broadly be classied into 3 groups; namely: kinetics, population balance and probabilistic based modelling (Polat and Chander, 2000). The success of phenomenological modelling, within an AFC context, is debatable. The use of rst-order otation kinetics modelling is thoroughly covered by Polat and Chander (2000), and has undoubtedly received the most attention in literature. Kinetics modelling is based on the assumptions that the rate of the particlebubble collision process is rst-order with respect to the number of particles and that the bubble concentration remains constant. Numerous batch experiments (Imaizumi and Inoue, 1963; Tomlinson and Flemming, 1963; Harris and Chakravarti, 1970; Jameson et al., 1977; Dowling et al., 1985; Rastogi and Aplan, 1985) and continuous otation tests (Jowett and Safvi, 1960) support the use of the rst-order rate equation. This has allowed a otation cell to be modelled using the chemical reactor analogy; whereby the removal of solids from the pulp phase is dened by a rst order rate equation. This means a bank of cells can be approximated by perfectly mixed CSTR's in series (Gaudin, 1957; Niemi and Paakkinen, 1969; Atkins et al., 1986; Yianatos and Hendrquez, 2006). Subsequently, efforts have been made to accurately determine the so called over-all otation rate constant (or k). This is not trivial, as k is dependent on particle size, degree of liberation, air owrate, agitation, etc. To account for this, various continuous distribution functions of k have been devised (Polat and Chander, 2000); although previous reviews by Dowling et al. (1985) conclude that no single distribution model could sufciently represent k; and Roesch et al. (1976), suggest that attempts based on the rst order kinetics assumption are approximative and hide secondary details. Alternatively, a population balance model is presented by Bascar (1982), Bascar and Herbst (1982), and Bascur (2000). The three phase model represents each mineralogical species and particle size, with each particle species being classed according to state in the slurry (i.e. free in pulp, attached to bubble in pulp, free in the froth, attached to
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bubble in froth). Kinetic equations relate transfer of particles between slurry states and hydrodynamic considerations (e.g. power dissipation into pulp, gas holdup in pulp, etc.) are incorporated into the population balance. This makes it possible to simulate the effects of manipulated variables such as air owrate, pulp level, agitation, etc. on a otation process. Despite much research into both empirical and phenomenological based modelling, authors such as Bergh and Yianatos (2011) and McKee (1991) highlight several issues that still exist; the latter concluding that Multivariate predictive control is ideally the solution for high quality control. However, to be applicable without losing its benets, good measurements, acceptable regulatory control of local objectives (i.e. base level controls), reliable dynamic models, explicitly stated process constraints and new methods to promote robustness are needed. Flotation processes have weaknesses in most of those aspects. It is for reasons such as these that expert control systems (where decision making by operators is automated by use of articial intelligence) are used. 4.2.2. Expert systems in advanced otation control The potential of expert systems in the mineral industry was recognised as early as 1983 (Bearman and Milne, 1992); and were introduced into A/OFC as modelling of otation systems is difcult, they are suitable for the handling of non-linear systems, and they automate (and standardise) decision making by operators. Although several methods of Articial Intelligence (AI) based control systems exist, three important techniques include: Articial neural networks (ANN) data-driven computing devices, comprising of a large number of neurons, inter-connected by a predetermined network of synapses on a large scale. These neurons are arranged in several layers and adjustable numerical weights are associated with the connecting synapse network (see Fig. 3). Neural networks are trained by iteratively updating the associated weight matrix, such that a set of outputs can be predicted for a given set of inputs. As such, an ANN based controller can be taught how to manipulate base level control system's setpoints to maintain a given metallurgical objective; an example being the changing of collector addition rate to maintain recovery (Aldrich et al., 1997; Gupta and Yan, 2006) (Fig. 4). Inductive machine learning makes use of mathematical models to generate rules and form induced decision trees, and is based on the concept of information entropy. A set of samples, each with a corresponding vector of classifying attributes (e.g. bubble size, froth velocity, etc.) is assessed. The vector is then split according to the most informative attribute (each split forming a branch of the decision tree); with each newly formed subset subsequently being re-split (according to a different attribute) until each subset consists
of examples of a specic class. As such, a given system (e.g. a froth surface) can be categorised and appropriate control action taken if required (Aldrich et al., 1997; Filipic and Junkar, 2000). Fuzzy logic reasoning that serves to be approximate rather than precise. Compared with binary logic, where a result is false or true (or quantitatively 0 or 1), fuzzy logic caters for a degree of truth (anywhere between 0 and 1). Flotation system parameters (e.g. pulp level) are divided into fuzzy sets (according to dened membership functions), which can subsequently be combined to form fuzzy subsets. A response to a fuzzy set/subset is then applied, using IFTHEN rule based strategies (Gupta and Yan, 2006). For example, if froth velocity and air rate are the variables being arranged into fuzzy subsets, the control logic might be something like: IF froth velocity is low AND air rate is high, THEN decrease froth depth; ELSE IF froth velocity is low AND air rate is low/medium, THEN increase air rate; ELSE do nothing. One area in which AI has been used extensively is the identication and categorisation of froth images from machine vision. Aldrich et al. (1997) trialled and compared inductive learning techniques with a back-propagation neural net method in industry; with all methods being found to be equally capable of classication of various froth features. Similarly, Cipriano et al. (1998) used rule-based expert control, combined with machine vision, to control rougher cells. The supervisory controller was able to identify froth characteristics and subsequently suggest actions to be taken to the operators. More recently, Supomo et al. (2008) reported on the successful use of the commercial control software VisioFroth on PT Freeport, in Indonesia. The system combines expert control with machine vision to control mass pull, and has reportedly resulted in increased recovery. Similarly, PlantVision by KnowledgeScape also makes use of expert control. In a comparison between expert control and multivariable modelbased control methods, Zavala et al. (1995) compared a supervisory system of multiple SISO PID regulators, a multivariable model-based predictive controller and an expert rule-based controller on a simulated otation system. The ndings included that: the expert system readily became saturated, the PID controllers were difcult to tune, while the model-based controller required a linear model of the system; the suitability of such a model to handle all disturbance types/ magnitudes being unlikely. Tighter control was obtained with the model-based controllers. Subsequent studies by Prez-correa et al. (1998) and Osorio et al. (1999) altered the model-based controllers to become more exible to varying conditions (although a high degree of on-line mathematical manipulation was required); and altered the expert controllers to avoid control saturation while achieving high recoveries despite severe simulated input disturbances. The combination of AI and model-based methods is also possible. Cubillos and Lima (1997, 1998) noted that using ANN to model otation systems is problematic (due to the many associated degrees of freedom and the heavy computational requirements). However, such issues are averted, and the full advantages of ANN realised, by implementing neural network systems into predictive model-based control systems, such that the AI system is responsible for updating/ modifying constants within the model with time; thus allowing the hybrid controller to remain adaptive. Testing of this hybrid control strategy offered promising results, with the controller reportedly being robust and exible. 5. Optimising otation control The upper-most tier of process control in otation is OFC, which by denition aims to maximise the nancial feasibility of the process. This is achieved by determining where on the theoretical grade recovery curve is most protable to operate and, subsequently, shifting the operating point orthogonally to further maximise prot (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Simplied diagram of a neural network (Gupta and Yan, 2006).
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varied to four cells in a rougher bank, and the air rate that yielded the PAR identied in each of the cells. Moreover it was shown that operating the cells at their PAR air rates resulted in a higher mineral recovery being obtained. The link between operating cells at PAR air rates and improved otation performance was also shown in studies presented by Smith et al. (2010) and Hadler et al. (2010), where it was shown that optimising air recovery in a bank of cells resulted in either a higher concentrate grade, a higher mineral recovery, or in many cases both. This has important implications for control as air recovery is a single quantitative variable that can be measured and maximised; and the process optimised in terms of grade and recovery. Other methods of OFC exist; some using modelling and others resorting to expert control methods.
Fig. 5. Graderecovery curve illustrating optimising control objective (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006).
5.1. Modelling-based methods in optimising otation control Many model-based optimising otation controllers are algorithms that locate the optimal operating point on the graderecovery curve; and then present recovery and grade setpoints to lower control systems and/or plant operators/management. Flintoff (1992) presents the principal of iso-economic contours; which are presented as negatively sloped straight lines on a graderecovery curve that are calculated according to the price of nal product, smelting costs, transportation costs, etc. The optimal operating position is then found by locating the point at which the calculated iso-economic contour is tangent to the graderecovery curve (generated from plant data). Other modelling-based optimising controllers are more complex, and also consider operating parameter limits and technical details (i.e. not solely economical factors). Muoz and Cipriano (1999) present a model-based control strategy that aims to both regulate and optimise a combined primary grinding and otation circuit. The optimising branch of the controller aims to maximise nancial prot using nonlinear dynamic modelling; encompassing both technical (e.g. mill power limits, sump level limits, etc.) and economic criteria (e.g. metal prices, grinding costs, etc.). More recently, Maldonado et al. (2007), proposed a method considering phenomenological models for each otation bank of the circuit, validated using process data obtained from several sampling surveys.... The control objective is the minimisation of the Cu tailing grade in each bank given a nal Cu concentrate grade. This is achieved through dynamic programming methods, such that nonlinear behaviour can be accounted for; with promising simulation results being obtained. 5.2. Expert methods in optimising otation control Laurila et al. (2002) suggest new expert systems are concentrating to solve the issue of feed type classication, which is a challenging and important task. It has already been mentioned that the grade recovery curve is a function of the ore type, and hence it is logical that operating parameters and dosing rates should be altered accordingly if possible. Laine (1995) adds that the performance of such a control strategy is decided by the ability of the system to effectively classify the feed ore, which in turn is dependent on the information received by the classication algorithm. The on-line measurement technique must extract adequate useful information; whilst the algorithm must be able to effectively (and readily) classify ore into one of the dened ore type classes. This would allow for a feedforward type controller to alter upstream operating parameters so as to optimally process each dened ore type. An example of such an expert system is presented by Jms-Jounela et al. (2000); where Kohonen self organising maps (a type of ANN) are used for classication of the ore feed information gathered from instrumentation. Once the ore is classied, the expert control system alters the setpoints of lower control systems and sends information to operators; with the performance being indicated by an economical success index display.
This in turn creates recovery and/or concentrate grade setpoints for the lower AFC/base level control structures (Laurila et al., 2002). However, OFC should only affect lower control levels if the process is at steady state (McKee, 1991). Graderecovery curves vary according to feed grade and can be altered through manipulation of plant operating variables such as air rates. In this way, graderecovery curves can be optimised (Neethling and Cilliers, 2008). An example of this is presented by Hadler and Cilliers (2009), whereby the graderecovery curve for a bank of four rougher cells was optimised by maximising the stability of the froth within each cell. The use of froth stability as a parameter was rst presented by Moys (1984), who published a study whereby the horizontal velocity of the froth could be related to the froth stability, (also dened as the air recovered into the launder in the form of unbroken bubbles). Using this quantitative measure of froth stability, Woodburn et al. (1994) developed a semi-empirical froth-based otation model that combines a conceptual froth structure with the kinetics of otation; the latter being based on the ux of bubble surface area overowing from the cell (see Eq. (1)). B = Q a Sb vf hw Sb 1
In this model the ux of bubble surface area (B) is calculated from the volumetric air owrate into the cell (Qa), the specic bubble area (Sb) and the air recovery, . This is approximately the same as relating B to the specic bubble area, froth velocity (vf), froth height (h), weir length (w) and the volume fraction of the froth that is air (), usually taken as unity. This relationship was simplied by Barbian et al. (2003), who suggested the value of can be calculated by Eq. (2). vf h w=Q a 2
Barbian et al. (2003, 2005, 2006) measured froth stability at laboratory and industrial scales using two different methods; air recovery and the Froth Stability Column. The air recovery was determined using image analysis to measure the froth velocity, with the overowing froth height being measured visually. The Froth Stability Column is an alternative measure of froth stability comprising a non-overowing column in which the froth rises unhindered. The rate of froth growth and maximum froth height achieved are used to give a quantitative measure of froth stability. A good correlation was shown between the two froth stability measures, suggesting the potential for both as future measures of froth stability at an industrial scale. Of greater interest, however, were the results shown by Barbian et al. (2006), where a peak in froth stability was shown as the air owrate increased. A peak in air recovery (or PAR) was also shown in the study by Hadler and Cilliers (2009), in which air owrate was
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Table 3 Summary of literature review focusing on various types of control. Branch Modelling based Type Feedback predictive MIMO Feedback and feedforward predictive MIMO Non-linear mathematical modelling Adaptive control Modelling/AI based hybrids AI based Hierarchical combination of expert and modelling Supervisory control Fuzzy logic Neural networks Inductive learning Modelling and/or AI based References Hodouin et al. (1993) Del Villar et al.(1999); Desbiens et al. (1998b); Ding and Gustafsson (1999); Hodouin et al. (2000); Hulbert (1995); Zavala et al. (1995) Benaskeur and Desbiens (1999); Delport (2005); Desbiens et al. (1998a); Maldonado et al. (2007) Desbiens et al. (1994); Jms-Jounela (1992); Sbarbaro (1999); Thornton (1991) Bergh et al. (1995); Cubillos and Lima (1997, 1998); Gaulocher et al. (2008); Nez et al. (2010) Benford and Meech (1992); Bergh et al. (1996, 1998, 1999); Bergh and Yianatos (1999); Cipriano et al. (1991); McKay and Ynchausti (1996) Carvalho and Duro (1999, 2000, 2002); Cipriano et al. (1998); Hirajima et al. (1991); Osorio et al. (1999); Suichies et al. (1998, 2000) Aldrich et al. (1997); Cortez and Duro (1995); Duro and Cortez (1995); Moolman et al. (1995d) Aldrich et al. (1997) Bascur (1991); Muoz and Cipriano (1999); Pulkkinen et al. (1993); SosaBlanco et al. (2000)
Integrated otation and grinding control
However, despite the various OFC strategies outlined in literature, many mineral processing plants currently rely on operators and plant management to manually select setpoints of lower control systems, based on past experience, in order to optimise the process (Laurila et al., 2002). 6. Examples of approaches found in advanced/optimising otation control Various methods of achieving AFC and OFC have been discussed. A summary of examples using some of these different advanced methods are presented in Table 3 (adapted from (Hodouin et al., 2001)). It should be noted that although the methods are divided into groups, some overlap between methods is inevitable (e.g. adaptive model-based controllers are inevitably also classed as predictive controllers). 7. Commercial advanced/optimising otation control software Various commercial A/OFC systems are available on the market and have been trialled and implemented in industry; many of which have already been mentioned in this communication. One such control package is the FloatStar suite; which consists of FloatStar Level Stabiliser, FloatStar pH controller, FloatStar Flow
Optimiser (these rst three have already been discussed), FloatStar GradeRecovery Optimiser and FloatStar Reagent Optimiser. FloatStar GradeRecovery Optimiser, an OFC, uses online grade analysis to ensure that recovery is maximised for a specied grade; through manipulation of level, air owrate, re-circulating load and reagent addition setpoints across the plant. FloatStar Reagent Optimiser uses a combination of control approaches (such as fuzzy logic and non-linear multivariable predictive control) to automate the manipulation of reagent addition rates (see Fig. 6; www.mintek.co.za). Several commercial systems make use of machine vision; these include: VisioFroth by Metso (www.metso.com), FrothMaster by Outotec (www.outotec.com) and PlantVision by KnowledgeScape (www.kscape.com). Measured variables include froth velocity, bubble size distribution, stability and colour. Expert systems are used to manipulate variables such as pulp level, air addition rate, reagent addition and/or water addition in a bid to increase recovery at a set (or improved) concentrate grade. Each of these systems has been successfully trialled and incorporated on plants. For example, VisioFroth was successfully implemented on the PT Freeport plant in Indonesia (Supomo et al., 2008) (Table 4). 8. Conclusions Despite several advances in base level controls since the 1970s, reports of fully automated advanced and optimising otation control systems operating successfully (and unassisted) for long periods remain scarce. It is hoped, however, that through continued development of new, robust technologies (e.g. machine vision and air recovery measurement) and the continued simplication/modications of plant designs (requiring less-intricate control systems), long term, automated advanced and optimising otation control will be achievable. Such an outcome would indeed be nancially rewarding. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Prof. Raymond Shaw, Dr. Stephen Neethling and Dr. Kathryn Hadler of Imperial College London for their valuable input and advice. References
Fig. 6. Graphical representation of a fuzzy logic generated reagent addition calculation, based on concentrate and tailings grade by FloatStar Reagent Optimiser (www.mintek.co.za).
Atkins, J.E., Barton, G.W., Johnston, R.D., 1986. Synthesis and evaluation of alternative control schemes for a chalcopyrite otation circuit. International Journal of Mineral Processing 16, 2942.
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771 Table 4 Summary of commercial packages (Aldrich et al., 2010). System Company/institution Year of launch Major installations AceFlot 1994 Chile Frothmaster Outokumpu, Finland 1996 Finland, Cadia Valley (Australia), Macraes (New Zealand) JKFrothCam JKMRC, Australia 1999 Australia SmartFroth UCT, South Africa 2000 Anglo Platinum (South Africa) VisioFroth
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Metso 2001 Escondida (Chile), Freeport (Indonesia), Australia
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International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Mineral Processing

A review of froth otation control

Co-occurrence matrices Fractals Latent variables

Bubble tracking Block matching Pixel tracing

Fig. 4. Simplied diagram of a neural network (Gupta and Yan, 2006).

Integrated otation and grinding control

Metso 2001 Escondida (Chile), Freeport (Indonesia), Australia

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