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Guidelines for Writing Term Papers

I. Checklist for Writing Term Papers II. On the Pedagogical Philosophy behind Term Papers III. On Choosing a topic and defining a question IV. Constructing an Argument V. The Policy Memorandum VI. Sources VII. Formatting VIII. Tips on the Writing process I. Checklist for Writing Term Papers

All Students will be required to turn in their term papers with a copy of the following check list. Additional copies of this check list will be found at the end of these Guidelines. Any paper that is not handed in with a completed check list will not be accepted. Students should expect a deduction for every item on the check list that is not checked off. Exemptions for different items can be made with the express permission of the instructor. For further explanations 1. Include a Title along with your name 2. Include Page numbers on every page 3. Use Standard format Times New Roman or New Courier, 12 pica, double spaced, single sided on every page. 4. Use subheadings introduction, etc. 5. Specify an Analytical Question 6. Specify a possible answer to that Question (i.e. state a thesis) 7. Specify possible alternative answer(s) for the question (alternative hypotheses) 8. Consider the possible practical or theoretical implications of your thesis what might it mean for policy, political action or how we view or understand the issue under review 9. Explain how you plan to substantiate your thesis give an outline of the paper 10. Substantiate your thesis 11. Include footnotes or documentation 12. Consider the alternative view and explain why you dismiss it, modify it or prefer the view expressed by your thesis 13. Come to conclusions where you return to the thesis and elaborate on the practical implications and/or how we understand the issue 14. Include a bibliography 15. Proof read your essay at least once

II.

On the Pedagogical

Philosophy behind Term Papers

Most of us begin to learn to write in English class. There we are taught to put together free flowing essays that give voice to our innermost thoughts and feelings. Typically we refine our writing skills by producing reports for student newspapers or for social studies and history classes. These are perfectly good ways of learning how to write. In terms of style and readability the product of such efforts is usually vastly superior to what passes for prose in the social sciences. The one thing that tends not to be taught well at the precollege level is how to construct an argument. Learning to do so is surprisingly difficult. Nonetheless, it of one of the few skills that we teach in political science and other social science classes that may be genuinely useful later in life, no matter what career path you chose to follow. The same analytical skills needed to write a good social science term paper can be used to put together a business plan, write a legal brief, or compose a policy memorandum. This is why we ask you to write term papers not out of some sadistic desire to make you work harder or to erect additional barriers to prevent you from completing your degree, but because believe it or not it is good for you. II. On choosing a Topic and defining a Question The first step in writing a term paper is to find a topic and define a research question. Most students can find topic that interests them (if not, then they probably should not be taking the course to begin with). For instance, you may be interested in Sino-U.S. relations, or the determinants of ethnic unrest in Kashmir, or perhaps the status of women in German society. From the point of view of the pedagogical philosophy outlined above, what you pick is irrelevant, as long as it interests you and can be plausibly connected to subject matter of the course. What does matter is that you make a persuasive analytical argument for whatever point of view you choose to present. This requires you to go beyond simply writing about a subject e.g. describing the state of Sino-American relations, ethnic conflict in Kashmir or the socio-economic and political position of German women. You need to ask a question. The importance of this cannot be emphasized enough. Without a question, it is impossible to give an answer in other words, to advance a thesis. To stay with the examples above, you may want to ask: why are Sino-U.S. relations in a state of crisis?

What has caused ethnic conflict in Kashmir to flare up? Or, why, despite many advances in the status of women, do feminists continue to feel frustrated in Germany? Of course there are many other questions that we could ask in connection with these topics. These are only examples of the kind of questions that you could ask. Once you have found a general question you need to sharpen it further by specifying some possible alternative answers. If there is only one possible answer to the question you are asking it will be difficult to write an interesting paper about it. You need something to argue against just as much as you need something to argue for. If the only possible reason for SinoU.S. tensions is that their political systems are incompatible, why bother going on about the topic for fifteen to twenty pages? On the other hand, if there are a number of possible explanations if, for example, one can argue that the United States and China disagree with one another because of the natural rivalry that always emerges between a hegemon and a rising great power, or because there exists a fundamental lack of understanding between the two sides rooted in culturally derived stereotypes, or as a result of the machinations of the media or certain political interest groups the essay becomes much livelier and more interesting as you contrast and compare these different positions. The next step is to choose one possible answer to the question that you are asking and make a case for it in other words, to present a thesis. If you feel that a combination of factors are needed to explain the phenomenon under investigation, fine. However, try to indicate which factor you think is most important and under what circumstances. Alternatively, you can take one common explanation for the phenomenon under investigation and show why it is not persuasive e.g. why culture (or economics, or the role of the Chinese Communist party, etc.) alone may not explain why democracy has failed to take root in China. Note that there is no one right answer to most questions in the social sciences. I will make clear my own position on various issues in the class lectures, but I do not pretend to have a monopoly on the truth. Nor do I expect my students to parrot my views. I welcome perspectives different from my own, as long as they are presented in a persuasive manner. I do, however, expect that if an alternative view is raised in the lectures and readings they should be addressed in the paper,

even if only to dismiss them. For instance, I might argue that Japan is under enormous pressure to accept more immigration in the future and that we have good reason to believe that it will handle immigration better than is commonly believed. Of course you are free to disagree with this claim, but since it has been made in the course, you need show why it is wrong. III. Constructing an Argument Having chosen a topic, defined a question and identified the thesis that you want to support all of which should be done in the first page or two of the paper - the rest of the essay becomes a matter of making your case. You need to marshal evidence to substantiate your claims and to weaken the claims of those that you are arguing against. What kind of information would support your claim? What kind of information would All students should draw up an outline of the paper before they begin writing. Use subheadings both in the outline and in your text they are helpful both to the reader and the writer. While you are writing, think of how the different parts of your argument fit together. Free flow of consciousness is fine for James Joyces Ulysses; it is not helpful in an analytical term paper. A typical outline might look as follows: I. Introduction Perhaps the single most important and yet difficult part of the essay. If you get the introduction right, everything else tends to flow smoothly. As every athlete or horseback rider knows, the body follows the head. An ideal introduction would include the following elements: 1. Raise the question 2. Indicate why the question is an important one 3. Indicate the possible answers to the question as well as the one you will support (thesis). (some argue X, others maintain y. A close review of the evidence, however, reveals that). 4. In a few sentences outline the rest of the paper tell the reader where you are going, and if possible why. Perhaps because of our Judeo-Christian heritage we tend to have three substantive sections bracketed by an introduction and a conclusion, but one does not necessarily have to follow that pattern. Section One for instance, the background to the question the history of Sino-American relations, of ethnic

II.

conflict in Kashmir, or the status of women in Germany. Another possibility would be to lay out some theoretically derived explanations for a phenomenon e.g. Realist versus Liberal interpretations of American foreign policy. Or perhaps outline the non-academic debate on a subject. III. Section 2 for instance, standard explanations for the phenomenon e.g. Sino-U.S. tensions as a clash of political systems, or the reasons why they are viewed as being in a state of crisis. Or consider the arguments for and against creating or maintaining multiethnic states in the Balkans. Or consider how a particular theoretical paradigm may help illuminate aspects of what is going on in the case being looked at. For example, how Realism and/or Liberalism would explain the source of SinoAmerican tensions. IV. Section 3 for instance, reasons why the standard view of Sino-U.S. relations are wrong, or why we should view ethnic conflict in Kashmir as the product of domestic socio-economic tensions rather than of Fundamentalist agitation. Or discuss why you think that some degree of partition between ethnic communities in the Balkans is the only realistic hope for peace in the region. V. Conclusion Come back to the original thesis and link it once again to the evidence you have produced for it. Draw out the implications for the future. If a speculative paper, you may want to draw up a number of scenarios for the future. Identify what seem to you to be the key variables for example the economic power of women in the German economy, or their penetration of the political system and show how they may lead to different outcomes. For instance, if you believe that future trade relations between the European Union and United States depends on the size of their deficit and the degree to which their economic systems and philosophies converge, you may come up with an analytical scheme with two possible futures convergence and non-convergence. If they converge, then there will be peace, joy and happiness in the world economy. If they do not there will be gloom and doom instead. If you can identify two variables convergence and size of the trade deficit you can create a classical two by two matrix. E.G.: Converge

Yes I. Large Some tension Blocks (gloom & doom) Trade Deficit Small

No II. Trade War/Economic

III. Comity (Peace and Love)

IV. Intermittent tension (status quo)

You could then explain which outcome you think likely and why. Or you might order them according to your estimation of their probability. Obviously, things can get a lot more complicated (if you have more than two countries, variables or possible range of outcomes). Still, these are popular analytical devices among scholars and pundits, so you too may find it useful to master the matrix. Another thing you might want to consider are the practical ramifications of your analysis. If you wish to claim that the primary problem in Kashmir has been the inability of the Indian government to win the hearts and minds of the Kashmiri people, you might suggest how they should find ways of dealing with that problem (for example, through public works, supporting moderate Kashmiri leaders, controlling the security forces to prevent abuses, etc.) On the other hand, if you maintain the primary problem has been Pakistani support of Kashmiri militants, other policies may be necessary (increase border patrols, pressure Pakistan to reduce or cease supporting the militants, and so on). Of course, as in the real world, often there are no plausible solutions, in which case it is perfectly legitimate to point this out. No matter what, we cant resolve the problem of international inequality in the short to medium term (one to ten years), and we have to accept that fact and focus on how we deal with the consequences of that reality. Bibliography (Always include a bibliography, but include only sources that you actually cite to avoid creating the impression of padding). Appendixes any data, charts, graphs, copies of government documents, etc. that did not fit into the text but which can

be used to support your

argument.

III. The Policy Memorandum An alternative way of writing term papers is to write a policy memorandum. This is something of a role playing enterprise, and requires the student to put him- or herself in the position of a decision maker or someone on the planning staff of a decision maker considering what type of policy should be adopted to deal with a given issue.1 Examples of decision makers might include: the president of the United States, the Military Planning division of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, the head of a NGO working on issues of gender discrimination in the developing world, etc. While the difference between a policy memorandum and a standard research paper is not as great as is often supposed, the two do differ in terms of style and emphasis. The focus is more on what should be done than on why things are developing the way they do. The tone should be more direct, using lots of action words. Nonetheless, since this is still being written for a class, include footnotes and a bibliography. A memorandum might be structured along the following lines: 1. Situation Statement Why is it the right time to think about this issue? Are there any pressing new developments that require the decision makers attention? What are the big interests that may be at stake? 2. Background What, in a nutshell, has been going on and what has the policy been on this subject to date? 3. Policy Options try to identify two or three general directions that one might seek to head. Identify the policy instruments that could be used to influence developments, eg. diplomatic pressure, arms sales, military maneuvers, sanctions, shaming campaigns, working with allies, etc. a. Option A Objective and means for achieving
1 . Note that this is also something of a fantasy role playing exercise. In the real world it is very rare that such documents are drafted. Most people who actually work in such bureaucracies write memos dealing with very limited subjects. It would shock and amaze many of you to learn just how little real strategic thinking about the big issues actually goes on. On the other hand, many decision makers already have considerable pools of experience to draw on. They have gone through these arguments many times in the past and know quite well what the other sides positions are likely to be. For most of their time in office, they largely rely on stored up intellectual capital and a healthy dose of day-to-day pragmatism. Nonetheless, it is still worthwhile for students to explore in a systematic fashion the kinds of tensions and dilemmas that decision makers are faced with.

that objective b. Option B c. Option C 4. Policy evaluation compare the different policies and evaluate the pros and cons in terms of the interests of the actor whose role you are trying to play? Are these policies feasible? What are their costs and benefits? 5. Conclusion Policy recomendation IV. On Sources In order to write on a subject, it generally helps to know something about it. Therefore, you are expected to do some research. The main emphasis, however, should be on constructing a strong argument. You arent expected to know everything about the topic, but you are expected to know enough to make a convincing argument. Aim for what I call the point of optimal ignorance. Know enough to write with some authority on the subject, but do not know so much you no longer are able to write. Especially graduate students, but also some undergraduates, have a tendency to go way beyond the point of optimal ignorance. They feel compelled to read as much as possible on a topic, and are then paralyzed when they try to write because they already know so much and are aware that there is so much, much more that could be brought into the discussion. Remember, there is always more that can be learned about virtually any topic. This is especially so when you start wanting to put that topic in its broader context. The time comes, however, where you just want closure. Remember, there are two kinds of papers, perfect papers and finished papers. Aim for the latter even as you strive for the former. Begin by reading whatever class materials are required for the topic. Then look up any of the recommended reading that appears to be pertinent. Then you should go beyond what has been assigned for class and do some additional research. As a rough rule of thumb I expect you to have looked at two or three additional books on the topic as well as about twice that number of journal articles. Make as much use as you wish of any newspaper articles that you can find. Newspapers are a wonderful source of information, especially regarding current events. Journalistic sources alone, however, are usually not enough. You also may make use of the Internet, as long as you specify the address and date of the site that you obtained the data. Class lectures do not count as sources.

Do not plagiarize. While I do not pretend to be omniscient, it is often surprisingly easy to spot when students have copied their work from elsewhere. The penalties for plagiarism are severe please consult the Boston University Code of Conduct on this subject. Always indicate your sources and footnote them. It is acceptable to build on topics that you have worked on before in other courses. It would be nice if there were some cumulative growth of knowledge across courses. However, it is not acceptable to hand in the same paper for more than one class. If you have any questions about citations, footnoting or what constitutes plagiarism, ask me. Do not make assumptions that may prove to be wrong. V. Regarding Formatting Essays should be approximately 12-15 double spaced pages in length. If you go a bit over that I wont complain although if you give me a 50 page tome I will probably be grumbling when I have to stay up late that night to grade it. I do not want to see essays of less than 12 pages in length. Please use standard formatting - 12 point pica, 1" margins top, bottom, left and right. Acceptable fonts include Times New Roman, Courier, Courier New, Arial, and Bookman font. Please no Broadway! There should be about 300 words per page. Please include page numbers. With regard to the format of footnotes, there are a number of different styles that are acceptable. As a rule of thumb, if it is in the Chicago Manual of Style, its fine by me. VI. Tips on the Writing Process

There are any number of ways going about writing a term paper, and each student will want to tailor the way they wish to go about the process to suit their own needs and style. Nonetheless, here are a few tricks that may be helpful. 1. Make a tentative outline of the paper early and keep it on a computer disk even though you may change the outline later, it is good to have a framework to help clarify your thinking about the kind of information you are looking for. 2. While you are researching, if you have found a good

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source of information, copy down citations in the parts of your outline where you think you might use that information. That way, when you are actually writing the term paper, you dont have to grope around through all the books and articles that you may have dug up trying to find the references you need to substantiate your argument. 3. When dealing with complex historical processes, build yourself a timeline of the sequence of events. Often, simply by looking at the timeline interesting patterns and plausible explanations emerge. 4. After you write a first draft, always, always, always proof read. 5. If time is short (as it frequently is towards the end of the semester) and you need to rewrite, rewrite the introduction and conclusion first. Those are the most difficult parts to write, and they set the tone for everything else. Once you are sure how you want to start and how you want to end, you can go back to the body of the essay and make the necessary modifications so that the whole piece hangs together.

Checklist for Writing Term Papers 16. Include a Title along with your name 17. Include Page numbers on every page 18. Use Standard format Times New Roman or New Courier, 12 pica, double spaced, single sided on every page. 19. Use subheadings introduction, etc. 20. Specify an Analytical Question 21. Specify a possible answer to that Question (i.e. state a thesis) 22. Specify possible alternative answer(s) for the question (alternative hypotheses) 23. Consider the possible practical or theoretical implications of your thesis what might it mean for policy, political action or how we view or understand the issue under review

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24. Explain how you plan to paper 25. Substantiate your thesis 26. Include footnotes or documentation

substantiate your thesis give an outline of the

27. Consider the alternative view and explain why you dismiss it, modify it or prefer the view expressed by your thesis 28. Come to conclusions where you return to the thesis and elaborate on the practical implications and/or how we understand the issue 29. Include a bibliography 30. Proof read your essay at least once