Transportation Infrastructure

International Conference On Regional Development and Infrastructures: Trends, Issues and Challenges Confronting Regional Development, Infrastructure and
Environment in Developing Countries
TRANSPORTATION/ INFRASTRUCTURE
ITB Research Center on Environmental Management, Infrastructure and Regional Development 2009
CONTENTS TRANSPORTATION/INFRASTRUCTURE ...................................................................... III Identification of Optimum Implementable Temperature of Full Bitumen ASBUTON and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt Mixture from Dynamic Shear Rheology Properties by Harmein Rahman, Ir, MT .............................................................................................III.1.1 Public-Private Partnership Scheme in Infrastructure Provision by Rudy Hermawan K., Dr. ................................................................................................III.2.1 Identification of Accessibility Measurement in Association with Urban Form Toward Sustainable Transport by Siti Nurlaela, ST.............................................................III.3.1
Identification of Optimum Implementable Temperature of Full Bitumen ASBUTON and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt Mixture from Dynamic Shear Rheology Properties Harmein Rahman and Bambang Sugeng Subagio
Identification of Optimum Implementable Temperature of Full Bitumen ASBUTON and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt Mixture from Dynamic Shear Rheology Properties
Harmein Rahman 1 & Bambang Sugeng Subagio1
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Technology, Bandung
Abstract: The decreasing deposit of crude oil increases the price of petrol derivative product that also includes petroleum asphalt. This condition is positioned the flexible pavement into its extreme challenge, like a need of higher quality of pavement structure with longer service life, to maintain its economic competitiveness. One of the strategic engineering issue involves is improving the rheological properties of bitumen. The most recent approach for the purpose of improving the rheological properties of bitumen is by adding harder bitumen to normal petroleum (pen 60/70) bitumen. This addition of hard bitumen will decrease the mixed bitumen temperature susceptibility. In adopting the mixing approach there are major factors that have to be determined, which are the optimum amount of bitumen coinciding with optimum implementable level of temperature. This approach is considered very promising because in Indonesia there is a source of hard natural asphalt (in Buton Island, Sulawesi) with huge amount of deposit (more than 300 millin tonnes) that potentially could improve the rheological properties of Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt, or maybe further replace the Petrol Asphalt. Beside the quality improvement of the bitumen, the utilization of Buton Asphalt (ASBUTON) will directly decreased the dependency to the petroleum derivative product. Different than previous approaches, the idea proposed in this research is mixing the ASBUTON in full bitumen format with Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt, so the reliable proportion of each components (ASBUTON and Pen 60/70) in the mixes could be maintain. This approach is advantageous, in term of standard procedure, because it improved the suitability of implementing the associated bitumen standard tests. The additional proportion of ASBUTON has proven to be increasing the rheological properties of mixture (bitumen mixture) with: increasing the stiffness of bitumen mixture (max 8% of ASBUTON), increasing the Softening Point to more than 50oC and increasing the PI or lowering the temperature susceptibility of the mixture to the level that recommended by most specification. These conditions are considered important, to meet the natural condition of Indonesia. Result from Dynamic Shear Rheometer tests, shown that there are values of optimum level of temperature for each proportion of ASBUTON and Pen 60/70. 15oC is the minimum temperature for 0% ASBUTON, 20oC is the minimum temperature for 40% ASBUTON and 30oC is the minimum value for 100% ASBUTON. This combiantion of values are considered very important, especially for implementation purposes. The proper optimum level of temperature will improved of the road network performance. Keywords: Buton Asphalt, Petrol Asphalt, Rheology, Optimum Temperature and Shear Properties.
Transportation Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Technology, Bandung, Ganesha no. 10, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia, +62222502350
III.1.2 Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre:
International Conference on Regional Development, Environment and Infrastructures "Trend, Issues and Challenges Confronting Regional Development, Infrastructure and Environment in Developing Countries
Proceeding of International Conference on Energy and the Environment: Reinvention for Developing Countries The ITBs Golden Anniversary Bandung, 15th-20th of June 2009
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Good infrastructure for transportation is a prerequisite for regional economic growth. For Indonesia, which most of the actifities rely on road transportation, a reliable road network is then a must. Flexible pavement, which still majorly applied in Indonesias road network, nowadays faced its utmost challenge. The global raising price of crude oil that further push the price of asphalt, lower the comprehensive economic value of the pavement structure. In Indonesia, the problems become more complicated because of several issues: a. The sensitive nature of flexible pavement to the overload is contra productive to a very weak control to the traffic (truck) load in the network. b. Higher level of temperature caused by under regulated development (regional and urban) and global warming, requires higher structural capacity and durability that mostly contributed by the asphalt quality. Although these 2 (two) major issues is considered multi-dimensional, from the engineering angle, there are some strategic contributions that engineers and researchers can do, one of it is providing a better quality asphalt in low level price. Associated with the issues, a quality of asphalt is in the context of its rheological properties and the lower level of price is actually a thorough assessment of the economic value, which can be simplified into lower price or longer service life or both. This initiative is considered doable in Indonesia, in view of the fact that there is a resource of natural asphalt, founded in Buton Island (ASBUTON), with specific rheological properties that, potentially, could improve the quality of normally used type of asphalt, which is Pen 60/70 petroleum asphalt. From the economic point of view it also promising since the price of the natural asphalt is relatively low and not directly related to the crude oil condition. 1.2 Objectives The main objective of the research is to evaluate the level of improvement in term of bitumen rheological properties, by adding ASBUTON to Petrol Asphalt Pen 60/70.
Furthermore the research also aimed to find an indication of optimum temperature for field implementation of different proportion of ASBUTON in bitumen mixture. For Indonesia condition with relatively wide spread of pavement temperature, these level of optimum temperature, for each proportion of ASBUTON is then very important, especially in order to get a desired performance in asphalt mixture. 1.3 Research Rational a. The high value/price of crude oil pushed the price of petrol asphalt. b. Potential deposit local non petrol material, which is of ASBUTON. c. Unsuccessful implementation of ASBUTON. d. There is a need of discovering the suitable format of ASBUTON that could overcome the unexpected performance of the material. e. From the consideration of the main unevenness of bitumen and material content, the object format is full bitumen extracted from native ASBUTON. f. Coinciding with recent method developed for pavement structure analysis, the property analysis of the material must be focused on the mechanistic properties. g. Considering the recent problem of low Penetration Index and Softening Point of Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt and, on the other side, the hard nature of ASBUTON, the research object is mainly on a property of mixture of Pen 60/70 and ASBUTON full bitumen. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Buton Asphalt Buton Asphalt (ASBUTON) is natural asphalt discovered in Buton Island (South part of South East Sulawesi Province) buy Dutch miner in 1924. Until now there have been19 locations of ASBUTON mine filed found in the island, but only 5 of them are considered economically potential. The locations of the material are mostly shallow only 0-1 m deep, covered with soft top soil. The deposit of the material is more than 600,000,000 tones, which more than enough to fulfilled the long
III.1.3
Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre:

term domestic need of bitumen material, since the need as for now is only 1,000,000 pa.
evenness is occurred even the material is from the same batch or field of mining. Other factor is the brittleness (full bitumen pen is only 12) and its inelastic behaviour when heated to such extend. 2.2 Basic Theory (Parameters and Equation) Parameters involved in the research analysis are within a rheological context, which include: Penetration Value (before and after heating) and Softening Point (before and after heating) and Penetration Index (before and after heating). Some basic equation are involved in the calculation of the parameters, one major equation derived from Van sder Poel (Shell, 1990), which described below;
Buton Island
S mixt ,T =
t ,T
Figure 1. Location of Buton Island
The original form of ASBUTON is a rocklike mineral filled and covered with bituminous material, in scientific term the form is usually called Natural Rock Asphalt. Since the discovery, the material has been explored and exploited for different use, but mostly for pavement/road material. In order to meet the specification of a road material, the native form of ASBUTON have been converted into several format as described in Table 1 below.
Table 1. ASBUTON Format
No 1 Type Conventional Maximum Nominal Size (12,7 mm) (6,35 mm) No. 8 (2,36 mm) Mineral < 600 Mineral <1,16 mm Bitumen Content (%) 18 22 Moisture Content (%) 10 15 Packaging Bulk Plastic Bag @ 40 kg Plastic Bag @ 40 kg Plastic Bag Utility and Year of Implementation Cold Mix 1929 Cold Mix 1993 Hot Mix 1993/1996 Hot Mix 1995 Hot Mix 1997 Hot Mix 2002
Where: Smix = Stiffness Modulus = Stress t,T = Strain (temp. & time of loading)
Relation between Stiffness of Mixture and Bitumen is expressed in equation from Heukolomp and Klomp below;
2,5 Cv x Smix = Sbit 1 + n 1 Cv
Where: Smix = Stiffness Modulus, kg/cm2 Sbit = Bitumen Modulus, kg/cm2 Cv = Volume Agregat/Volume Mixture
Fine
<6
21
Micro plus
25
<2
Mastic
50
<2
4 x105 n = 0.83 log Sbit
Refined
90
<2
Block/ Bulk Plastic Bag @ 40 kg
Since it first utilized in 1929, the result of the implementation of ASBUTON as pavement material, have never been a total success, in term of: durability, workability, evenness of product properties and other parameter, which make the material not yet economically feasible. From several research and field experience, the condition is mainly due to a widely spreaded properties condition of material (bitumen and mineral). This un6 Granular 20 25 <2
In order to determine the value of Sbit (main parameter of mechanistics properties) from G* resulted from Dynamic Shear Rheology test, equation from Bituminous Binders and Mixes, L. Francken, 1998 below is adopted.
Sbit = 2 x G* x (1 + ) Where: Sbit = Bitumen Stiffness Modulus

G*
= Complex Shear Modulus = Poisson Ratio
The data compiled from laboratory testing are presented in Table below.
Table 2. Test Result of Initial Penetration (Pi) and Softening Point (SPi)
3 METHODOLOGY
Literature Review
Basic Rheology Tests
Advance Rheology Test (Mechanistic)
Penetration Softening Point G* Sbit
DSR Test
Sbit
Penetration Index
Elastic Boundary Value
From the test result on the initial state, Penetration of the mix is continuously decreasing, in such way, along with the raising proportion of ASBUTON, as for the Softening Point the value is increasing.
Table 3. Result of Recovered Penetration (Pr) & Softening Point (SPr)
Evaluation of Basic Rheological Properties Figure 2. Methodology
Minimum Implementable Temperature
4 LABORATORY WORK AND DATA ACQUISITION 4.1 Basic Rheological Test The basic rheological test in this research is include a sequence of Penetration Test, Softening Point Test, Thin Film Oven Test and After Heated Penetration and Softening Point Test. The test is subjected to prepared material specimen, which include: a. 100% ASBUTON with 0% Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt. b. 10% ASBUTON with 90% Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt. c. 8% ASBUTON with 92% Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt. d. 6% ASBUTON with 94% Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt. e. 0% ASBUTON with 0% Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt.
The next tests are the same tests but in the condition of After Heating, where the specimen has been subjected to Thin Film Oven test. From the test result (show in Table above), the nature of mix property change, are still consistent with the initial condition. The interesting fact is raised from the calculation procedure followed, where there are several observed differences between calculated and tested value, which will be further discussed. 4.2 Shear Test More advanced test that also part of the research is a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) test. This mechanistic oriented test is mainly aimed to find a value of Complex Shear Modulus (G*) and phase angle of
III.1.5

bitumen, that in this case, a mix of ASBUTON and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt. The G* and phase angle are parameters that ilustrate a proportion of Loss Modulus (G) and Storage Modulus (G). Compiled data from the series of DSR test is presented in figure below
Temperature sweep
10
8
Pa
7
10
10
10
increasing value along with the raining proportion of ASBUTON is considered positive contribution of the ASBUTON, since the means of adding the natural material is to elevate the Softening Point to encounter high level of temperature on Indonesias road construction implementation. In order utilize the result, on determination of the right amount of ASBUTON that must be added to the Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt, the information of maximum pavement temperature is a necessity.
|G*| 10
4
Keterangan
100% ASBUTON 40% ASBUTON (1)
10
3
40% ASBUTON (2) 0% ASBUTON
10
10 0 10 20 30 40 Temperature 50 T 60 70 80 90 C 10
2
Anton Paar GmbH
Figure 3. DSR Result
For analysis purposes the G* value are further converted into Sbit with an equation described in the previous part (Literature Review) of this paper.
Figure 5. Softening Point vs Proportion of ASBUTON
5 ANALYSIS 5.1 Basic Rheology The continuously decreasing in mixes Pen value (hardening) along with the raining proportion of ASBUTON (as illustrated in Figure below) is, to some point, considered positive contribution of the ASBUTON, since the first means of adding the natural material is to elevate the stiffness modulus, which highly related to the hardness of bitumen. The extent is proposed to be maximum 8% where bitumen (mix) Pen reaches 40s.
The PI value (illustrated in Table below), also has the same trends as Softening Point, which increasing along with raising proportion of ASBUTON in the mix. This also considered positive, since, as mentioned, there is a need of providing lower temperature susceptibility, to meet the natural high gap of temperature of pavement in almost every part of Indonesia.
Figure 6. Penetration ASBUTON
Index
vs
Proportion
of
Figure 4. Penetration vs Proportion of ASBUTON
5.2 Mechanistic Behaviour From the result of DSR test combined with utilization of maximum Sbit 5 MPa as a limit
For the Softening Point (in oC), as illustrated in Figure below, the continuously
III.1.6

of elastic behaviour, the level of optimum temperature (minimum temperature) for each proportion of ASBUTON is then could be determined.
Table 4. Bitumen Shear and Stiffness Modulus
Kadar AS BUTON No. (oC) G* (Pa) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 4.712.216 1.155.609 594.357 214.328 86.675 43.521 11.444 8.712 4.198 1.221 992 721 510 224 117 91 81 0% S (Pa) bit 14.136.648 3.466.827 1.783.071 642.984 260.025 130.563 34.332 26.136 12.594 3.663 2.976 2.163 1.530 672 351 273 243 G* (Pa) 7.212.875 4.776.540 1.223.178 825.691 434.298 110.675 88.289 42.112 11.120 8.892 4.297 1.392 1.211 990 717 508 218 40% S (Pa) bit 21.638.625 14.329.620 3.669.534 2.477.073 1.302.894 332.025 264.867 126.336 33.360 26.676 12.891 4.176 3.633 2.970 2.151 1.524 654 G* (Pa) 31.456.728 11.298.760 7.192.359 3.724.869 800.765 440.121 109.259 87.253 42.117 11.367 8.734 4.112 1.343 1.121 787 517 229 100% S (Pa) bit 94.370.184 33.896.280 21.577.077 11.174.607 2.402.295 1.320.363 327.777 261.759 126.351 34.101 26.202 12.336 4.029 3.363 2.361 1.551 687
Table above shown 3 (three) minimum pavement temperatures in order assured the bitumen still in elastic boundary condition. The 3 (three) value of pavement temperature are for 0%, 40% and 100% ASBUTON in bitumen mixture. 6 CONCLUSION The research on rheological properties of ASBUTON (full bitumen) and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt mixture concluded that: a. The idea of mixing the ASBUTON in full bitumen format with Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt is advantageous, in term of standard procedure, because it improved the applicability/suitability of implementing the associated bitumen standard tests. The condition is not alike, if the format of ASBUTON still incorporates the mineral content. b. The additional proportion of ASBUTON has proven increasing the rheological properties of mixture (bitumen mixture) with: - Increasing the stiffness of bitumen mixture, but to some point (more than 8% of ASBUTON), the mixture become too hard and brittle. - Increasing the Softening Point of the mixture to the level of optimum performance (more than 50oC), and this is in association with the range of pavement temperature in Indonesia.
- Increasing the PI or lowering the temperature susceptibility of the mixture to the level that recommended by most specification. The condition is also considered important, to meet the natural high gap of temperature of pavement in almost every part of Indonesia. c. Further from the DSR test result, combined with 5 MPa elastic boundary value, the level of optimum implementable temperatures are then determined. These minimum temperature value are aimed to get optimum performance of bitumen which is vital part of bituminous mixtures. The minimum temperatures for each proportion of ASBUTON are: - 15oC for 0% ASBUTON - 20oC for 40% ASBUTON - 30oC for 100% ASBUTON d. In order to sustain the research, and maintaining the basic or original idea, further researches recommended are: - Mechanistics properties of bituminous mixture, to obtain a better understanding on relation between bitumen (mix of ASBUTON and Pen 60/70 Petrol Asphalt) properties and mix characteristics. - Durability of bituminous mixture, to examine the effect of bitumen mix modified properties to the extension of service life. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We gratefully acknowledge Dr. David Woodward, University of Ulster, UK and Dr. Declan Oprey Lagan Industry, Republic of Ireland for valuable literature, equipment and data support. REFERENCES
Atkins, H.N. (2003) : Highway Materials, Soil and Concrete, Prentice Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, 163-166. Brook, D.M dan Atmanto (1983) : Natural Asphalt in Bituminous Mixes of Road Surfacing in Indonesia, Conference of REAAA, Jakarta. Brown, S. (1990) : The Shell Bitumen Handbook, Shell Bitumen, U.K., 74-85. Budianto, H. (1984) : Permanent Deformation Characteristics of Hot Rolled Asphalt Containing Both 60/70 Penetration Bitumen dan Asbuton, III.1.7

Sistem dan Teknik Jalan Raya, Institut Teknologi Bandung. Cook, R.D. dan Young, W.C. (1985) : Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 7-11. Croney, D. dan Croney, P. (1992) : The Design and Performance of Road Pavements, McGraw-Hill International (UK) Limited, 14-16. Galivan, V. (2005) : Top Down Cracking, National Superpave News, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, 8-9. Haas, R., Hudson, W.R. dan Zaniewski, J. (1994) : Modern Pavement Management, Kreiger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, 64-67. Huang, Y.H. (2004) : Pavement Analysis and Design, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 301-304. IPC Ltd (1996) : Universal Materials Testing Apparatus For Asphalt and Unbound Speciments (UMATTA), Referensi dan Manual Operasi, Industrial Process Control Ltd., 4 Wadhurst Drive, Boronia, Vic. 3155, Australia. Rahman, H. (2000) : Konsep Pemeliharaan Jalan, Bahan Pelatihan MBT, Mektan Babakan Tujuh, Bandung, 12-16. Robinson, R., Danielson, U., dan Snaith, M. (1998) : Road Maintenance Management, Macmillan Press LTD, London, 14-19. Priest, A.L. (2006) : NCAT Studies Calibration for ME Pavement Design, National Superpave News, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, 6-7. Sugeng, B., Rahman, H. dan Kusumawati, A. (2001) : Evaluasi Kinerja Struktural Perkerasan Campuran Aspal Buton, Institut Teknologi Bandung. West, R. (2006) : Measuring the Bond Strength of Pavement Layer, Southeastern Superpave Center News, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, 1-3. Yoder, E.J. dan Witczak, M.W. (1975) : Principle of Pavement Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 269-271.

Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Scheme In Transportation Infrastructure Provision (Case Study of Indonesian Toll Road Development)
Rudy Hermawan Karsaman Syafaatun Naimah
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Bandung Institute of Technology Abstract: Public-Private Partnership or PPP scheme is becoming a trend in providing services and infrastructure development which were usually carried out by government alone in many countries in the world including Indonesia. The services include the provision of transportation infrastructure such as toll road. In Indonesia, basically there are 3 models adopted for toll road development, depending on economic and financial viability of the projects, and one of them is PPP application. Several problems are still exist in the implementation, but on the other hand, there are also some possibilities for improvement available. This paper elaborates those improvement possibilities through exploring opinion from some stake holder, such as government/regulator, operator/private sector and academic. The exploration is carried out by conducting questionnaire survey and in depth interview as well as giving its application to Toll Road Solo Kertosono Development as an example. Keywords: PPP Scheme, Infrastructure Provision, Toll Road Investment 7 INTRODUCTION Indonesia, as a developing country, needs to expand its infrastructure development to increase national economic potential. Indonesian Law notes that infrastructure development is under government obligation. Road, as part of transportation network, is included in infrastructure category, therefore, it is under state obligation. However, the decreasing of government financial ability to funding road development, it is then neccessarry to invite private sector to share the role in road development. Through this mechanism, private sector is given concession to build the road and take toll fee from road users. This money is expected to recover the investment plus reasonable profit. Funding mechanism through joint effort of Government (Public sector) and Private sector is called Public Private Partnership (PPP) and now is used as an alternative and effective methode to mobilise additional funding source and benefit from private sector efficiency. PPP is not the only funding mechanism, but it can be used with suitable project and clear profit. At the moment, PPP is mostly applied in toll road development, because toll road emphasised financial profit. In fact it could also be adopted for other sector, e.g railway, seaport etc. PPP in the toll road project has been adopted in many other countries, however, it is still considered new in Indonesia. Therefore it needs further study to have a successful adoption. For that purpose, several comparative studies have been carried out. The countries used as comparison are India, Korea, and United Kingdom. Part of the study is carried out using Delphi method (subjective knowledge/expert judgement) to have perception about PPP implementation in Indonesia, and taking judgment from some respondens as representative from stakeholder, i.e Diretorate General of Highway, Indonesian Toll Road Authority, PT. Jasa Marga, University, KKPPI, BAPPENAS, Ministry of Finance (Risk Management Unit), and investor tol Solo Kertosono (PT. Thiess Construction Indonesia). 2 PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP SCHEMES)
Generally, Public Private Partnership (PPP Schemes) is defined as : a contractual agreements, formed between a public agency and private sector entity, which expand on the Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre: III.2.9
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Scheme In Transportation Infrastructure Provision (Case Study of Indonesian Toll Road Development) Rudy Hermawan Karsaman, Syafaatun Naimah
traditional, private sector role in the delivery of transportation projects (Federal Highway Administration). According to William J. Parente from USAID Environmental Services Program, (Katahira & Engineers Intl., 2006) PPP is an agreement or contract, between a public entity and a private party, under which : (a) private party undertakes government function for specified period of time, (b) the private party receives compensation for performing the function, directly or indirectly, (c) the private party is liable for the risks arising from performing the function and, (d) the public facilities, land or other resources may be transferred or made available to the private party. In some type of PPP, Government uses tax revenue as an investment capital, with implementation is carried out by government and private under contract. In other type, investment capital is provided by the private under contract with government to provide service that had been agreed. PPP term including some mechanism used in project implementation, viz: short term management contracts (with little or even without capital); concession contract (including design, build and financing and operational); joint ventures and partial privatization where there are project ownership sharing between public and private sectors. Figure 1 shows that PPP fills the gap between government project built using traditional method and full privatization. In PPP, there are several advantages available, viz : a. Accelerating infrastructures development PPP enables public sector (government) to change provision of capital in initial project to become payment during project implementation. Hence the project could be implemented although government fund is limited. b. Accelerating project implementation time Private sector is responsible in design and construction stage, combined with payment that related with provision of service, which will push private sector to shortened implementation time. c. Saving total cost of project
III.2.10
PPP project needs operation and maintenance certainty, so private sector could save some cost of project during implementation, which is very difficult to be done in traditional public sector funding. d. Better risk allocation Basic principle of PPP is to allocate risk from both parties, especially cost risk. The objective is to optimise risk transfer and ensure each party can acquire benefit. e. Support better performance Risk management can give support to private to enhance management and project performance. Full payment can only happen if service standard has been met. f. Increasing service quality International practice shows that service quality received by PPP scheme, is very often better than traditional scheme.
Source. Strategy and Methods of Privatization, Yumiko Noda
Figure 1. PPP Structures 2.1 PPP types The types of PPP and their comparison are shown in Table 1, whereas Table 2 give the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
Table 1 Comparison of PPP types

Type Traditional Turnkey Form Contract with private to design and build public facility Contract with private to design and build public facility Funding Government Private Role In design construction In design construction and and Risk Transfer Design Construction Design Construction Operational development Duration of Cooperation During design and construction period During design and construction period 10 20 years
LDO (Lease- Developed-Operate)/BDO (Build-DevelopedOperate) O (Operation) dan M (Maintenance) Conssesion
From government and given to private after project finished Agreement long term leasing Governement in construction or buying the existing facility stage and private in operation by private to operate and de- and developement stages veloped Cooperation in which gov- Governement in construction ernment give operation and stage and private in operation maintenance right to private and developement stages Agreement to have service Private provision right
In Operational and development
Operational
Operational
2 10 years
In In Design Construction Operational Financial Design Construction Operational Financial
Divestation
Agreement to sell fully or Private partly infrastructure asset to private
BOT (Build-OperateTransfer)
Agreement with private to Mostly on private build and operate the infrastructure facility
Design and Construction Operational Financial
Design Construction Financial Asset management and maintenance Revenue Design Construction Financial Asset management and maintenance Revenue Design, Construction & Financial Asset management and maintenance Revenue
25 30 years
25 30 years
25 30 years

III.2.11
Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of PPP types

Type Traditional Advantages Risk avoidance is available Can accelerate duration. Lowering cost and support construction innovation Risk transfer is available Can accelerate construction Can increase construction quality Eficiency in construction stage or Government could earn money from leasing or buying the facility Government no need to spend capital to develop or up grade the facility Financial risk is transfered to private party Both parties can take revenue from this agreement Service quality increase in line with facility increament Quality increasing, cost and time efficiency during facility development Potentially increasing service quality and efficiency that can decrease cost Wide contract structure Disadvantages Ther is operational risk Life cycle analysis is not counted Not interested private More complicated procedure to determine the winner of tender There is additional cost if operational facility is changed after the contract agreed There is financial risk from government side Government can lost cotrol over existing facility Difficult to determine asset value when leasing or buying
Turnkey
LDO BDO
O&M
Government only act as regulator In partial divestation, government still have control to the asset Attract private sector to financial sector Increasing asset management efficiency and keep public interest Partial risk transfer is available Difficult to replace incompeten private BOT party Can accelerate construction Contract complication Can increase operational and mainte Need contract management system nance quality Eficiency lead to saving Government control still exsist Asset still belong to government Source:Guidelines for Successful Public Private Partnership (2003) Divestasi
There is additional cost if private performance is not very good Government control and ability is less in respons to public need Tariff monopoly could happen
2.2 Implementation of PPP Schemes in some other countries United Kingdom British government adopted government support in the form of shadow toll, i.e tol paid by government based on vehicle-km counted automatically. With this support, the advantages happen for operation aspect. Korea Some of Korean government support in
III.2.12
PPP implementation is as follows Construction subsidize (less than 30% for road sector. Minimum Revenue Guarantee (MRG). Some of Tax free for certain infrastructure projects. Payment termination, if force majeure or bancrupty occur India

Indian government carry out several activities, administratively, law or fiscal to implement Public Private Partnership in road sector. Concessioan agreement is done as investor friendly, with reasonable risk allocation and government support in the form of grant. Principles of government support are : Government responsible for land aqcuasition and pre-construction activities; Capital subsidize up to 40% so that project become feasible.
Tax free 100% for 10 consecutive years. Import tax free for equipment and construction material. Tender procedure is clear and transparance. All PPP implementation support types of other countries that might be adopted in Indonesia are summarized in Table 3
Tabel 3 Summary of PPP Implementation in other countries Type of Support Land acquisition Capital subsidise Minimum revenue guaranTax free Import tax free Shadow toll United Kingdom Not Available Not available Not available Not available Not available Available Korea Not available Not available 65 75 % Available Not available Not available India 100% Up to 40 % Not available 100 % Available Not available
tee
2.3 Presidential Regulation No. 67/2005 To accelerate infrastructure development, government took some comprehensive steps to create investment climate that could push private sector to take part in infrastructure provision by issuing Presidential Regulation No 67/ 2005 about Government and Private company co operation in infrastructure provision. In that regulation, it is mentioned about the adoption of user paying the service principle and also considering user ability to pay. The infrastructure type that could be provided together are as follows. a. Transporation infrastructure, such as seaport, airport, railway and terminal; a. Road infrastructure, including toll road and toll bridge; b. Irrigation infrastructure ; c. Water supply infrastructure; d. Sewerage infrastructure ; e. Telecommunication infrastructure; f. Electricity infrastructure g. Oil and Gas infrastructure.
Based on this regulation, the co operation should be done using fair, open, transparant and competitive proccess. 8 TOLL ROAD
In Government Regulation No15/2005, Toll road is defined as a public road and part of national road network in which its user has to pay toll. Toll road development is proposed to increase distribution service efficiency to support economic growth, especially in high developed area. Based on Law No 38/2004, it was stated that toll road authorization is on government which consists of regulation, policy, concessioning and monitoring. Toll road is developed to accelerate expressway network realization and implemented by State/Local or Private Own Enterprises. In some circumtances, government can also take special action to implement the development, such as acquiring land for toll road by using national budget. The advantages of Toll roads development are as follows. a. Opening big scale job creation. b. Increasing the usage of country resources. III.2.13

c. Supporting banking function for productive sector to sustain economic growth. d. Increasing economic activity in toll road corridor area. e. Awakening real sector by creating multiplier effects for National economic. f. 3.1 Toll Road Development and Financing models There are 3 (three) models in toll road development and financing applied in Indonesia, depending on the economic and financial viability of the projects. In the scheme 1, where the economic viability of the toll road is good but its financial viability poor, the government take over the finance and construction of the toll road, but after the completion, then it will be
TOLL ROAD ECONOMIC (+) FINANCIAL (-)
tendered for its operating & maintaining to private sector. This has been applied in Surabaya - Madura Bridge case. In the scheme 2, where the economic viability of the toll road is good but its financial viability is marginal, the Government can support Land Acquisition and partly construction cost and the private sector has to finance and constructing other part and then operate and maintain the toll road. This scheme is applied as PPP scheme. In the scheme 3, where the economic and financial viabilities of the toll road are good, the private sector has to finance and construct all of the road and then operate and maintain it through the concccession period. This scheme is applied in most of the toll road development in general These models are shown in Figure 2.
INVESTOR
APLICATION
GOVERNMENT
EE GOV
ECONOMIC (+) FINANCIAL (Marginal)
GOV & ENTERPRISE ENTITY
EE GOV EE EE EE
ECONOMIC (+) FINANCIAL (+)
ENTERPRISE ENTITY
Example: Case 1: Surabaya Madura Bridge Case 2: Solo Kertosono Case 3: BOT on Toll Road in general
Opera-
GOV
Government
Financing
EE
Enterprise Entity
Figure 2. Toll road development models
III.2.14
2. 2 Funding mechanism through PPP Funding through concession mechanism is based on risk sharing between government and private sector. Government gives right to the private to build, rehabilitate, maintaince and operate road for certain period (usually 20 to 30 years). Private sector takes the technical risk (during construction and maintainced), operation and commercial risks as well as financial risk. To make the privates eager to participate, they have to get some benefit/profit from the implemented projects. Other advantages that makes the Government of Indonesia develops toll road network using PPP schemes are : Policy to encourage road network development and its benefits, as well as balanced inter-regional development.
To accelerate economic growth and deliver prosperity Government budget priority is utilized in less developed regions to encourage regional development or even can be used for other sectors as well To have source of fund for road development from their user (user pay principle); Revenue from toll road could be used as cross subsidize for development and maintenace other roads;
3.3 General analysis of PPP in toll road sector In terms of risk factors, there are 4 factors that have very high risk, viz :
Issue
Item Land Acquisition Certainty of cost
Certainty of time available Construction Cost of Money Certainty of construction time Certainty of construction cost Interest rate applied Time of started payment Volume Lalu Lintas Traffic volume risk related to other toll road segment Acces and alternative/competitor roads
On the other hand, from other countries experience, there are some government support that might be adopted in Indonesia, as shown previously in Table 4 4 CASE STUDY OF SOLO KERTOSONO TOLL ROAD Solo Kertosono toll road is included in Trans Java Toll Road, located in Central and East Java provinces (see Figure 3). The main
characteristics of this road are shown in Table 4. The objectives of its development are as follows. Increasing accesibility and capacity of road network in that corridor. Increasing socio economic and corridor-impact in eastern of Java Island. Increasing productivity by lowering distribution cost.

III.2.15
Table 4 Main characteristics of Tol Road Solo - Kertosono

Segment Solo Ngawi Ngawi Kertosono Length (km) 90,1 87,02 Traffic Volume (veh/day) 7,725 9,320 Cost (Rp M) Land 823,6 565 Const 2.220 1.876
Source. FS Tol Solo Kertosono Ditjen Bina Marga Dept. Pekerjaan Umum, PT Cipta Strada 2006 (olahan).
S erang
DKI Jakarta Cikam pek
10 LINKS OF TOLL ROAD TRANS JAWA MAIN PRORITY 652,32 KM 397,20 KM 177,12 KM 78,00 KM
Banten
Bogor
Palimanan Pejagan Ciranjang Kanci Bandung Jawa Tengah Solo (K) Batang Ngawi Mojokerto Kertosono Yogyakarta DIY (K) Surabaya Pemalang Semarang Demak
S ukabumi
Jawa Barat
Gem pol Pandaan
P asuruan Probolinggo
Jawa Tim ur
M alang
Solo-Ngawi
Banyuwangi
Ngawi-Kertosono
Source. Interim Report The Study On PPP Scheme for Trans Java Toll Road
Figure. 3 Location of Toll Road Solo Kertosono 4. 1 Determination of Initial Tariff Determination of initial tariff is carried out based on three points of view, viz : a. Willingness-to-pay (WTP)/Ability to pay (ATP) Basic theory of WTP is an amount of money or compensation ready to be paid by consumer to consume some product or service required. On the other hand, this willingness is also sometimes restricted by their ability to pay (ATP), which depend on their income. b. Saving of Vehicle Operating Cost (SVOC) Formula used to estimate SVOC is as follows: SVOC = [(VOC x Dn) - (VOCt x Dt) + (Dn/Vn Dt/Vt)] x Tv
III.2.16
Where : SVOC = Saving of Vehicle Operation Cost (Rp) VOCn = Vehicle Operating Cost in Non Toll road (Rp/km) VOCt = Vehicle Operating Cost at Toll road (Rp/km) Dn = Distance of Non Toll road (km) Dt = Distance of Toll road (km) Vn = Vehicle speed at Non Toll road (km/jam) Vt = Vehicle speed at Toll road (km/jam)
c. Cost Recovery Amount of investment and length of concession period will determine tariff that has to be applied, because it has to

recover all cost spending to construct, operated and profit margin which all are burdened to the user. Investment viability projection including cost of capital, interest rate, traffic volume estimation, tariff, operation and maintenance cost, concession period and reasonable profit. Solo - Kertosono toll road is part of toll road network and generally has similar social economic characteristic, therefore the initial tariff is based on average tariff of the two segments. 4.2 Cost Estimation and Financial Viability Cost of land aqcusition is estimated based on land price survey along the alignment and cor-
ridor area. This cost is also meet the market price for building, trees and utility. Financial parameters Benefit/Cost ratio (B/C), Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) and Net Present Value (NPV) are calculated based on traffic demand and project cost. Operation and maintenance cost is estimated based on similar toll road (i.e 5% for routine and 10% for periodic) of construction cost. It is assumed that concession period is 35 years and price level at 2006. The result of analysis is shown in Table 5 :
Table 5 Original Financial Analysis

Segment Length (KM) 90.10 87.02 Cost Land 823.60 565.10 Construction 2,226.90 1,875.40 Investment 4,438.63 3,609.51 LHR (2010) 7,725 9,320 IRR On project 13.64 14.21
Solo-Ngawi NgawiKertosono
In financial aspect, this project has low viability (IRR around 14%), so it is not meet Minister of Finance regulation about Limit of Project Viability. Therefore, this toll road needs a subsidize scheme and a new funding mechanism to make it viable. 4. 3 Actualization of Solo Kertosono Toll Road
To implement this project and to make it viable, then the PPP scheme is applied and the government has to support land cost (100%) and part of construction cost (40%). The result of recalculation (including traffic estimate revision) is shown at Table 6. By this scheme, the IRR project is increase to about 17.5 %, that means the project is viable now.
Table 6 Financial Viability of Solo Kertosono Toll Road using PPP scheme
Segment
Length (KM)
Cost Share Land Government 823.6 Investment 1,430.60
LHR (2010)
IRR On project 17.40%
Solo-Ngawi
90.1 Private
6,949 3,216.84

III.2.17
Segment
Length (KM)
Cost Share Land Government 565.1 Investment 1,248.10
LHR (2010)
IRR On project 17.5
NgawiKertosono
87.02 Private
5,680 2,201.07
Source. Bussiness Plan Solo KertosonoToll Road 2009 (compilation).
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Looking at the case study, it is clear that by using government support in funding land acquisition and part of construction costs as the adoption of PPP scheme, the project could become viable and could be implemented. However, based on other countries experience, there are some possibilities to increase the successful of PPP scheme through applying some more policies to attract the private sector to involve in this scheme, such as : A. Minimum Revenue Guarantee In minimum revenue guarantee a certain fraction of projected annual revenue from traffic level may be guaranteed if the actual level of traffic falls considerably short of the projected level prescribed in the contract or business plan agreed by both parties. B. Tax benefits This tax benefits could take form as exemption from construction services (0% VAT) or application of free tax rate for imported equiptment and material of PPP projects. C. Capital/Credit subsidize and guarantee fund Credit guarantee fund provides capital for PPP project finance to enhance timely payment of debt. It can be in the form of guarantee for investment loans, working capital loans etc. REFERENCES
Law Republic Of Indonesia No 38/2004 about Roads
III.2.18
Government Decree of The Republic of Indonesia No 15/2005 about Toll Road Presidential Regulation No. 67/2005 about Cooperation between Government with Private Company in Infrastructure Provision Min of Public Works Decree No 295/PRT/M/2005 about Toll Road Regulatory Body Guidelines for Successful Public Private Partnership (2003) Interim Report The Study On PPP Scheme for Trans Java Toll Road (Katahira Intl)
Identification of Accessibility Measurements in Association With Urban Form Toward Sustainable Transport
Siti Nurlaela, ST, M.Com in Transport Management
Urban and Regional Planning Studies Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia
Abstract: This article focuses on the association between accessibility, land use pattern/urban form and sustainable transport. The evidence showed that the urban form has very strong linkage with mode pattern, thus finally they give impacts on the accessibility and sustainability transport. It is believed that the role of government policy to alter the land use and transport system is very important. Suppose land use policy could optimally support the certain kind of mode transport, then it could provide best accessibility for the users and brought more sustainable transport.This paper based on literature review to explore some importance concept of land use and transport integration. The concept of accessibility provided in the system of transport and land use evaluation context. This involved three different approaches, i.e. centrality, opportunity, and network approach, being illustrated by some case studies. Finally, the paper offered a framework research of investigating the impact of land use/urban form to mode pattern and its level of accessibility. Keywords: Accessibility, mode pattern, sustainable transport, urban form.
9 INTRODUCTION Sustainable transport referred to transport development in conjunction with the environment and energy issue [7]-[17]. Transport known as a sector consumed a lot of energy, hence the terms of sustainability indicated by the level of energy efficiency [17]. Furthermore, in environment aspect, transports account for 26% of global CO2 emission and it is one of the sector public transport policy than private transport [8]-[17]. Although the sustainable transport become very popular whereas most of countries agreed upon the need to implement it, yet the trend of urban transport policy especially in developing countries showed vice versa. As of the data by [15], motor vehicle fleets are growing faster than GNP - with 14 per cent yearly growth in China and 30 per cent in Korea, for example. In Thailand between 1989 and 1990 alone the ve-
where its level of emissions are still growing [7]. Sustainable transport will be achieved by a policy that in the long run is rely on technology, and behavioral aspects in the short/medium run [7]-[8]. Therefore, the indication whether or not transport is sustainable showed by whether there are policies to reduce reliance on the car and promote more sustainable mobility through public transport, walking and cycling [23]; or pro hicle fleet grew by 40 per cent. In Indonesia the motor vehicle fleet has been increasing at 8 per cent per year since 1982, and particularly in Jakarta the growth is closer to 15 per cent a year. Besides cars, the number of motorcycles is also increasing rapidly, particularly in India where ownership is growing at 17 per cent annually. In Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and India motorcycles account for 70 per cent of the total vehicle fleets, and are responsible for a large and growing proportion of total air pollution. On the
III.3.19

Identification of Accessibility Measurement in Association With Urban Form Toward Sustainable Transport Siti Nurlaela
other hand, the non-motorized vehicles such as Bicycle and pedicab utilization are now very low or rapidly declining in all of these mixed traffic cities. In Bangkok, pedicabs were extensively used until 1962 when they were banned. Today the mode share of bicycle and rickshaw together in Bangkok is in the low single digits. In Jakarta cycle rickshaws known as becaks used to account for 17 per cent of mode share as late as 1984, with over 100 000 vehicles were on Jakarta's streets. Since then they have been all but eradicated by systematic seizure and destruction. Bicycles are also not much present on Jakarta's streets. Similar restrictions on becak use are being imposed on Indonesia's secondary cities [15]. Moreover, the statistics of motorization in some of developed countries also showed pretty much the same situation. For example, reference [22] showed that public transport is used for just over 2% of all trips in Atlanta and Los Angeles, 4-5% of all trips in Brisbane and Perth, 7% of all trips in Melbourne and Sydney, 14-16% of all trips in Copenhagen, Hamburg and Toronto, and 26-31% of all trips in Barcelona, Vienna and Singapore. The trend of policy seems to accommodate the vast increase of motorization on one hand, and restricted the non motorization on the other hand. However, in sustainable development era, the new paradigms of transport planning nowadays should be moved from vehicular mobility to personal mobility, or from traffic congestion to accessibility provision [20]. It will be achieved by encouraging the use of public transport, non motorized transport, and by attempting to integrate transport and land use planning. Through this, transport planning would be able to out of its dilemma, i.e. the dilemma of congestion cycle. It happened in accordance with the greater emphasis on the distributional issue, and the evaluation of alternative land use/transport plan no longer based on efficiency criteria [20]. Similarly, reference [8] also suggested that the achievement of sustainable transport need to consider not merely the efficiency measurement that encouraged mobility, but the degree of connectivity of people and place. The indices of sustainable transport is not rely on how high the mobility levels, but it is rely on the degree of accessibility provided by the transport system [2]. It is understandable since
III.3.20
the level accessibility has impacts on the vehicles kilometers travelled; therefore it will affect the level of pollution, energy efficiency, and health issue. In addition, reference [27] also argued that once the policy only concern to the improvement of road level of service, the high LOS will only achieve the greater mobility without necessarily improve the accessibility level. In order to improve accessibility, one should also consider the land use system. The accessibility is a function of not only the level of service of the road but also the pattern of land use system [27]. Therefore, this paper discusses the concept of sustainable transport in point of view of accessibility measurements. The urban form had significant role since the integration of land use and transport is a function of accessibility. The good planning and integrated urban form provided more access due to reduction of the need to travel and the vehicle kilometers travelled, hence created the more sustainable transport. Based on the empirical situation described, this paper focuses on how the urban forms and the transport system that represented by the mode and network system will impact the sustainability and accessibility level. The framework of system evaluation need to be established especially based on accessibility indicator as one of the means to achieve sustainability. This paper concerns on building the accessibility measurements in that system evaluation context.
10 THE TREND OF POLICY, CASE STUDY:

SURABAYA CITY
Surabaya city has a vision on metropolitan civilization 2010. One of its aim is to achieve sustainable urban transportation [2]. The terms of sustainable transport suits the world vision on sustainable development (Earth Conference in Rio 1992; UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Its Protocols (1994/1997); Vancouver Conference on Sustainable Transport (1996); Vienna Declaration of the UN ECE on Transport and Environment (1997); Conference between Indonesia, Mexico, and Germany on Sustainable Transport (1999); WHO Charter on Transport, Environment, and Health (1999); International Conference on Clean Air and Sustainable Transport, Jakarta (2000); OECD Con-

ference on Environmentally Sustainable Transport Futures, Strategies, and Best Practice (2000); World Bank Urban Transport Strategy Review (2001), and also the World Bussiness Councils for Sustainable Development (2004) In Geneva, Swiss that come to the agreement of Mobility 2030: Meeting the challenges to sustainability. According to study by GTZ and also the formal document published by Surabaya Government [2], the sustainable urban transport vision 2010 has seven principles, i.e.: 1. Accessibility; 2. Equity; 3. Pollution prevention; 4. Health and safety; 5. Community participation; 6. Integrated Planning; 7. Cost Efficiency and economic. It seems to be important to evaluate the current performance of transport system of Surabaya Volume (Passenger car unit) 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 Morning peak hours 22982 18006 16333
city, is it on the right track toward the sustainable transport? Referred to statistics, it showed that the performance of road transport tends to be worse off. For example, along the corridor connected metropolitan Surabaya, i.e. prime artery street in A. Yani corridor, as shown in Fig. 1, the traffic volume from 2006 to 2008 increased at about 1,684 passenger car unit/hour on average in the peak hours. Suppose there is no improvement in transport system, the natural growth of population and vehicles will lead to the increase of the number in 2013 predicted to be 22,979 passenger car unit per hour on average in the peak hours, or it raised at 4,983 passenger car unit per hours. It grew almost 295 percent or 1.95 times higher than the prior growth in 2006-2008 [9].
21919 17150 15515
24037 18834 17083 2006 2008 2013
Noon peak hours Peak Hours Periods
Afternoon peak hours
Fig.1 The transport pattern by day of time on A Yani Street, 2006, 2008, 2013 Source: Reference [6]

III.3.21
Identification of Accessibility Measurement in Association With Urban Form Toward Sustainable Transport The average length of journeys of bicycle Siti Nurlaela
Interestingly, one study predicted what happened to the transport system in Surabaya in 2010 at the time of the achievement of sustainable transport vision. It showed that without significant improvement, road transport will consist of 77 percent private vehicles and only 23% of public vehicle users, yet the user of public transport is about 35 percent in 1995 [2]. It Momeans that the utilization of public transport as torised one key to achieve a sustainable transport is still very low and only minority among Bicyother l / modes. Modes of transport that environmentally friendly and would achieve more sustainable transport such as non motorized vehicles were also minority. The utilization of non motorized transport such as walking and bicycling still in Surabaya are very low compared to other cities in developing and developed countries. Fig 2 and 3 clearly showed the differences among the cities. It showed that about 60 percent of short travel still use motorized vehicle as main mode. Nevertheless, in Germany, people rely to non motorized vehicle that account for almost 90 per cent of modes utilized in short travel of 1 3 km. Based on above statistics and phenomenon, it seems that the direction of transport policy hardly support the utilization of modes for more sustainable transport.
Short journey (1-3 km) and the type of modes
Fig. 2 and 3 The utilization of NMT in Surabaya compared to other cities. Source: Reference [2]. The impacts of motorized vehicles dominance is the unsustainable transport. The high congestion level implied the low level of accessibility, the higher cost of pollution, fuel, and health. Data about traffic congestion in A.Yani street in Surabaya showed the DS value of 1.216 or the level of service F on street performance [10]. Fig. 4 illustrated the congestion on street in Surabaya.
Fig. 4 The traffic congestion on Surabayas street Traffic congestion wasted the fuel whereas the fuel consumption had increased from 5 to 7 per
III.3.22
cent [12]. Congestion also increased the pollutant in air because of the high level of cars

emission. The standard index for air pollution (Indeks Standar Pencemaran Udara/ISPU) that being measured from 5 points of observation in Surabaya 2002 2006 showed the performance
of air quality in Surabaya based on PM10 indicator, presented in table I.
Tabel I The ISPU year 2002 2006 (in days)

Category Fine Moderate Poor Ranges 0-50 51-100 101-199 Particles effect No effect The decreased of vision level Poor vision, health problems, aesthetic disturbance, and so on. 2002 40 314 11 2003 2004 2005 Number of days in a year 64 74 62 290 132 259 2 6 9 2006 26 334 5
Source: Reference [11]-[13]-[14]. To conclude, it seems that Surabaya still have to be struggle strongly to achieve the sustainable transport according to its vision in 2010. Surabaya that characterized with the high utilization of private cars and motorcycles, low provision of public transport infrastructure and NMT faced a challenge to alter this trend with more sustainable transport policy.
11 CONCEPT OF ACCESSIBILITY IN ASSOCIATION WITH SUSTAINABLE URBAN FORM AND MODES OF TRANSPORT The concept of accessibility is generally interpreted as a measure of the effort (or ease) of overcoming spatial separation [1]. The important concept of accessibility should not be confused with the terms of mobility. For example, reference [29] argued that what one should valued more, accessibility or mobility? While mobility is an efficiency measurement, accessibility is stronger reflect degree of connectivity of people and place. Meanwhile, reference [27] differentiated accessibility and mobility, i.e.mobility means the easy of movement or to travel while accessibility is the easy to reach a destination or a place. Reference [27] also differentiated both, i.e. mobility is measured by cost per km of transport and the later by cost per destination. Therefore, accessibility is a concept that involved the distribution of activities through space and transport system that connected them, while mobility is the function of transport system per se.
On the other hand, reference [29] differentiated accessibility and mobility specifically in terms of urban form or land use. Land use consists of urban workplaces, urban labour markets, and so on. Accessibility means the number of job opportunities available within the certain distances or travel time from home. However, mobility means the ability to move in order to reach these job opportunities. Therefore, the urban form/land use with less density in housing and jobs requires more mobility in order to maintain accessibility (Hanson, 1995, as cited in [29]). The transport system mainly consists of network and mode system. The integration of transport and land use is the key for an access. It is interesting how the urban form affect the modal system hence it has impact on the accessibility levels. Reference [15] believed that there are differentiations on the modal pattern between cities and it is also corresponds to significant different in land use pattern of those cities. The authors majorly explored the case study of the association between urban form and modal pattern among Asian cities. They described the associations between modal pattern and urban forms (table II).

III.3.23
Table II The association between modal pattern and urban form Modal Patterns Non Motorized transport dominated cities low GDP. These are cities where walking and nonmotorized vehicles (NMVs) account for a greater share of trips than public transportation or private motorized transportation Exp: Shanghai Non Motorized transport dominated cities high GDP Exp: Tokyo Urban Forms High density Land use pattern in the city centre A very steep decline in density outward from the centre The urbanized area within 10 km radius with 530,000 people per ha Low road space (34%) High densities even at a considerable distance from the central core Many high density satellite centres focused around rail stations About over 150,000 people per ha in centre city and 60 people per ha in periphery Land area for road space at about 10 15 % A sprawling land use patterns but at much higher densities than the private motor dominated cities Low land area for road space at about 8% High growth of motorization Policies are not supported to NMVs and pedestrians The urban form maintains high and relatively constant population densities
Modal Patterns
The private motor vehicle dominated city. These are cities where private motor vehicles, including motorcycles, cars and trucks, account for the majority of trips and where generally fewer than 20 per cent of all trips are made by walking or nonmotorized transport. Exp: Cities in Australia and USA Source: Reference [15]
Urban Forms throughout the urbanized area Over 60 - 300 people per ha of density at location as far as 16 km from city center Low density of urban form Rarely more than 20 people per ha overall with central city densities around 50 people per ha and outer areas of 10 people per ha.
The mixed traffic city: Those in which neither public nor private transportation dominates in the share of trips, and where non-motorized modes generally account for less than a third of all trips Exp: Bangkok, Manila, Jakarta, Kuala lumpur The public transport dominated city Exp: Singapore, Seoul, Pusan, Hongkong
III.3.24
Although the four types of city as in table II were exist in Asian Cities, actually the cities experienced the similar phenomena, i.e. the rapid motorization. The contrast situation happened where majority of Asian cities have low land area for road space and the high of population densities but the vast increase of private motorization [15]. The high level of motorization will increase the general cost per km of travel. It reduced the LOS level hence reduced the mobility level. The accessibility level also decreased since the same number of destinations will be reached with higher cost level [27]. Therefore, to be able to support private motor vehicle dominance, it would require substantially greater road capacity, otherwise destroying much of the city [15]. However, in the long run, the increase of road service by increasing capacity will encourage people to travel more, hence gradually increase the cost to travel to them that already on the streets, hence reduced their accessibility.

A study by [5] in Asia also showed the similar pattern. The author demonstrated that public transport use and non motorized journeys increased with the increased in density. Fig. 5 and 6 showed the result of the study by [5] in Asian cities.
Fig. 5 Urban Density and Public Transport use (1990). Source: Data in Kenworthy and Laube et.al. 1999 as cited in reference [5], pp. 274
transport integration. The analysis provided by the author in terms of urban structure that affect public transport efficiency were consisted of residential density, intensity of activity, and the hierarchy of activity centres. Within the network city framework, land use and transport integration become more important (treated as core objective) rather than traffic efficiency merely. The author also finally noted that suppose sustainable travel is to be facilitated, there is a need to change both operation of public transport and the urban structure where these changes are mutually supportive. Lesson learn from Curitiba City in Brazil after the successful of busway implementation also showed that the urban form (urban density) and land use ordinance that planned carefully had very important roles in the successful of implementing the efficient transit system (bus rapid transit) [16]. It is the local government that initiated the policy in shaping urban form through densification policies since 1965. The plan encouraged the decongestion and revitalisation of the inner city and the shift from a radial concentric to a linear urban growth pattern. These created the effective density level in the land use system that supported the cost effectiveness of BRT implementation [16].
NMT Fig. 6 Urban Density and NMT use (1990). Source: Data in Kenworthy and Laube et.al. 1999 as cited in reference [5], pp. 276. Both [15] and [5] figure out the association of urban form and mode pattern. Generally, the association is exist. This means that the urban form could be planned to support the mode pattern that suits the sustainability goals. Based on reference [8], the effectiveness of certain type of mode is affected by the urban form. For example, [8] explored the role of urban form in shaping the more sustainable transport, especially in Perth city, Australia. The author suggested the concept of Network City that provided a wider perspective on land use and Transit Mixed transport i
530,000 people per ha in the city radius 10 km 150,000 people per ha radius 16 km
Fig. 7 Land use and transport policy association Source : Analysis as adapted from reference [15]. However, high density urban form presented both opportunity and challenge [4]. The opportunity included that it offers the opportunity for average trip lengths to be short and to foster economically viable public
III.3.25

transport. It also promoted a high level of accessibility for non motorized modes of transport and enable cities to have low levels of energy use per person [5]. On the other hand, high urban densities that experienced rising incomes and the rapid private vehicle growth are suffered from traffic congestion, even if vehicle use per capita remains low. This is due to road capacities are inherently low. Physically it is impossible for dense cities to match the road provision as high as level of low density cities. In addition, air pollution and other local traffic impacts can become severe problems for dense cities even at low levels of motorization. Reference [4] suggested that transport policies in dense cities should be compatible with the spatial realities of such urban areas. The rapid motorization and urban population growth, accompanied by policies hostile or indifferent to NMV uses will lead to be worsen the urban transport problems raised the issues of congestion, health, pollutions, and energy problems. Reference [27] concluded the basic principle of increasing the road capacity generally only increase mobility. While in the short run it indeed raised accessibility level, but in the long run the accessibility will reduced again. A policy supported private vehicles dominance will lead to the urban form that provided high level of mobility with low accessibility. These arguments become fundamental in formatting the concept of accessibility measurements. As shown by several literatures here, the mode system that supported mostly to the sustainability is the public transport and non motorized transport. However, one should evaluate the accessibility level achieved by different type of modes, especially between public transport and private transport. It is assumed that the mode system that provided more access should be encouraged to support sustainability. In addition, the building of accessibility measurements would lead to assessing properly urban spatial structures and the supported transport system (including mode choice) that connect them [20]. It also will help
to evaluate how efficient the system of integration between land use and transport were. The high urban densities or compact cities will provide higher accessibility level if it is supported by the public transport and NMT modes. Fig. 7 showed the arrowed upward means more sustainable transport and so long the motorization increased, the level sustainability is getting lower. Therefore, the non motorized and public transport in accordance with high density urban form supported the sustainable transport more than other type of mode and urban form. However, the high density does not necessarily guarantee the success of public transport due to imbalance land use and transport mode [4]. This leads to the accessibility level is in questioned, i.e. there is no proof that public transport guarantee higher accessibility than private transport, although the density urban form showed higher accessibility level than the sprawl or low density urban form 2 . This means that public transport policy solely without supported by the land use policy will not gain success. The development of accessibility concept and measurement is important to evaluate how far the system transport and land use provided the required accessibility level since the sustainable transport should maintain the level of accessibility. 4 THE ACCESSIBILITY MEASUREMENTS:SOME CASE STUDIES The concept of accessibility is fundamental to many studies in regional analysis and transportation planning (BAXTER and LENZI, 1975; KOENIG, 1980 in [25]. Reference [25] pointed out that accessibility and land use pattern are intrinsically linked. Reference [28] also pointed out the reciprocal activity between transport and land use. Accessibility referred to the easiness to access a location of activity form a given certain location using a particular transportation system [20].
The rate of accessibility directly related to the rate and intensity of land use in the area (Hansen 1959 in Stanilov)
2
III.3.26

The concept of accessibility becomes more complex not only because of the different methods to measure accessibility, but also including the different of its meaning. However, reference [21] proposed some alternative definitions of most accessible. It has consequences on the different method devised to meet the requirements of each definition. Based on argument by [27], accessibility is not only a concept of distance, but also the land use system. Similarly, reference [21] viewed the accessibility as a distance and a density function, whereas the later is practically related to land use/urban form. Reference [21] noted, a location pattern is most accessible to people when for any given number of destination (referred to nodes): ([21], p. 32) the total of the distances of all people from their closest destination (i.e. work places, public facilities, and other type of land use that represented by a node) is minimum. This is could be calculated based on average distance minimization or aggregate distance minimization. the farthest distance of people from their closest destination (i.e. work places, public facilities, etc) is minimum. This is also known as minimax distance criterion. Both definitions regard the distance function. Other definitions that closer to the density function are proposed as follows: the number of people in the proximal area surrounding each destination (e.g. facility) is approximately equal. This is the equal assignment criterion. the number of people in the proximal area surrounding each destination (e.g. facility) is always greater than a specified number. This also called the threshold constraints. the number of people in the proximal area surrounding each facility (or a node) is never greater than a specific number; call this the capacity constraint criterion. The varied of accessibility meaning and definition has its consequences, i.e. the broad variation of methods to measure accessibility. The next section shows some case studies about accessibility measurements. In order to be
consistent with the framework build in this paper, such methods here reviewed within the context of transport/land use system evaluation. Case studies First of all, in the context of transport system evaluation, reference [26] proposed two methods that are part of accessibility measurement, the central place method and the potential field method. The first method is based on the functional concept for a hierarchy of centres which requires certain level of accessibility, thus it guarantee the supply function of the centres for the respective areas of influences (catchment areas). The evaluation of the systems means that whether the certain hierarchy of place fulfilled the accessibility standard because it is of no use for the surrounding area if there is no access to the central place (higher hierarchy) that provided the goods and services to the lower hierarchy. The level of accessibility is depends on two aspects, i.e. the hierarchical position of a centre (degree of centrality) and the frequency of demand to a centre points. the centrality leads to a hierarchical structures such as national, regional, district, and local centres. The level of centrality of a centre is related to the type and number of services provided by this centre. The more specific the service function a centre provides, the higher its level of centrality and usually the larger its area of influence. Meanwhile, the frequency of demand varies according to the requested service function, i.e. basic central facilities are asked for daily, others are weekly or monthly. The most specialized functions are required only seasonally or the frequency of demand decreases with increasing level of specialization. After all, the level of accessibility determined by the number of modes available and the travel time from the supplied area to the centre (mode choice and travel time). The practical examples of centrality or central place methods are showed by the authors as in the table III.
III.3.27

Table III Some example for facilities of different levels of Centrality and the minimum accessibility requirement Level of centrality Characteristic facilities Community health office Community development office Agricultural and water extension office Rural roads service centre Industrial park Further education institute Universities International airports Low Medium High
Distric Regional t Centre Centre X X
National Centre
frequency of trips and required good access. The access to district centre is measured by means of travel time which should not exceed more than 1.5 hours as a maximum for one way.
X X X X X
network. required As the as frequenc minimum y of trips or at least increases one mode to is destinatio available ns to serve providing public lower transport level (bus or services, rail or air) travel and time has private to be passenger considere traffic and d in freight addition transport and by roads. should not exceed 3 hours for one way. Souce: Reference [26], p. 48
ce with at least two mode access for public passeng er transport and freight transport
X X
Minimum Accessibility level Links To Links Links Links Low level between between Between centers low and high and high medium medium level centres This centre The One good Between provided minimum quality national daily for link to the centre supply linking is nearest are therefore it a good national linked as has high road centre is backbon
III.3.28
The second method is of reference [26] called Potential field method (PFM). The method has been developed from the gravity model. PFM was originally used in economic geography to measure the spatial distribution of economic activities. The density concept measured by various parameters, such as population, employees, etc. Those described the potential travel demand. PFM will quantify the mutual influence between land use and its density (e.g. the number of population per area of settlement, or the number of employees per area of working place). The importance of a node/cell (i for production node; j for attraction node) that referred for being most accessible is inversely proportional to the distance between communities or land use type or node i and j. The formula as developed from gravity model is shown as (p. 56) ( 1) Where :

Pij Aj Rij Pij
= influence or potential of cell j on cell i where the higher value means more accessible. = attraction of cell j (e.g. measured in population and work places in cell j) = impedance (e.g. distance or travel time) between cell j and cell i. Pji
The potential of all cells exerted in cell i is referred to as spatial potential : ( 2) PFM allows researcher to quantify accessibility of a node and illustrated it in the form of equipotential lines, reflecting points of production and attraction in the study area in the form of peaks. The direction of traffic flows can be identified by following the ridges of the potential fields or linking of peaks. The logic being derived so far is that to increase accessibility, the urban transport policies should integrated with land use policies to achieve the efficient land use and transport system. The means to achieve this is by either to regulate urban form or land use in terms of the density (i.e. population, employees, and so on), and/or regulate the transport system/land use in terms of distances between nodes/activities centre, or also the travel time (known as function road velocity determined by the level of service of road which is the function of capacity and volume of traffic). Secondly, the utilization of accessibility index in the system evaluation was also brought by [22]. The index specifically measured centrality in urban movement networks with the approach called multiple centrality assessment. The author used the centrality or accessibility index in evaluating or assessing the implementation of network before and after the 72 km Perth to Mandurah railway that was opened in Desember 2007. The new service served an
urban growth route following the coast to the south of Perth with 10 station in the first stage. The multiple centrality assessment involved several different concepts of centrality. It is derived from the network properties (Latora and Marchiori, 2002 in [22]) that included: 1. the degree of a node: the number of edges converging in it. It expresses the number of other nodes that can be reached from the node in question by way of transfer free public transport trip. 2. the characteristic path length: the average distance or impediment (metric) or degree of separation (topological) between all possible paris of nodes within the network. It is best applied in assessing public transport networks, also suited for comparative network assessment or scenarios for network reconfiguration. 3. the global efficiency: the inverse average shortest path length between any two nodes in the network or the overall ability of the network to minimise spatial

III.3.29
4. resistance (travel impediment). It is a comparative measure for assessment of network centrality before and after alterations to the network structure of service levels. It is also useful to assess the efficiency of movement by public transport against that by car, for example in terms of travel time between nodes. The number of different centrality indexes then derived from those indicators whereas each is applied to individual nodes being assess. The indexes consist of: 1. Degree centrality: proportion of nodes directly connected to the node in question out of the totally of nodes within the network. This is a topological index. It measures the average minimum number of transfers of degress of separations that required to access every other node on the network. It is best answer the question of what is the degree of directness a node is linked into the network with? 2. Closeness centrality: the inverse average distance or impediment between the node in question and all other nodes within the network. This is a metric index. It can be adopted to public transport networks by using an impediment measure such as travel time divided by frequency. It is best answer the question of how closely to others a node is situated within the network. 3. Betweenness centrality: the average proportion of paths between any two
nodes within the network that traverse the node in question out of the total number of possible paths between these two nodes. It can capture the relative importance of transfer nodes within the system and assist in evaluating and modelling route and interchange capacity. It can be applied to network edges or nodes to measure the relative importance of route segments. It is best answer of how significant a node or segment is to facilitate movement across the network. 4. Efficiency or straightness centrality: the ratio of the actual inverse average shortest path length between the node in question and all other directly connected nodes to the theoretical average shortest path length within the samples that is determined by comparing metric distance along the network with distance as the crow flies, then assessing how the path relates to geographical desire lines or by using comparative data for the road system. It assessing the comptetitiveness of public transport versus the car. It also can be applied in assessing scenarios of network reconfiguration or expansion. It is best answer of how competitive a particular network is in comparison to other networks servicing the same spatial context. 5. The indicators and formulas are presented in table IV.
Table IV Indicators of centrality and its formula

NO. Centrality measurement Formula
1.
Impediment Value Where: dij = impediment value of route segment between nodes i and j (average of both directions) tij = travel time between nodes i and j in minutes (average of both directions) fij = service frequency in departures per hour per direction between nodes i and j 8 is a constant
2.
Degree centrality
(8)
III.3.30
NO.
Centrality measurement
Formula
Where: CDi = Degree centrality of node i pmin,ij = minimum number of transfers required between nodes i and j, with jN and ij N = all activity nodes in the network 3. Closeness centraliy Where: CCi = Closeness centrality of node i Lij = cumulative impediment between nodes i and j, with jN and ij N = all activity nodes in the network 4. Efficiency Centrality
Where: CEi = Change in efficiency centrality of node i acti,07 = number of residents and jobs in defined local catchment of node i in 2007 acti,08 = number of residents and jobs in defined local catchment of node i in 2008 actj,07 = number of residents and jobs in defined local catchment of node j in 2007, with jN and ij actj,08 = number of residents and jobs in defined local catchment of node j in 2008, with jN and ij Lij,07 = cumulative impediment between nodes i and j in 2007, with jN and ij Lij,08 = cumulative impediment between nodes i and j in 2008, with jN and ij N = all activity nodes on the network 5. Catchment size of 30 minute travel time contour. Where: CIi = Contour catchment index of node i ci = 30-minute travel time contour of node i act(c) = number of residents and jobs within contour c (12) , congested (13)
6.
Straightness centrality
Where: CSi,f = Straightness centrality of node i (freeflow) CSi,c = Straightness centrality of node i (congested) tij,pt = travel time between node i and j on public transport, with i, jN and ij tij,rf = travel time between node i and j by road in free-flow conditions, with i, jN and ij tij,rc = travel time between node i and j by road in congested conditions, with i, jN and ij N = all activity nodes in the network 7. Betweenness centrality Where:
(14)
III.3.31
Identification of Accessibility Measurement in Association With Urban Form Toward Sustainable Transport Siti Nurlaela NO. Centrality measurement Formula
CBk,u = Betweenness centrality (unweighted) for route segment k Pij(k) = paths between nodes i and j that pass through segment k, for all i, j N and ij N = all activity nodes in the network 8. Betweenness centrality (15) Where: CBi,n = Nodal betweenness index for node i CBij,w = Betweenness index (weighted) for segment ij, with j N(i) and ij (see previous indicator) N(i) = network nodes adjacent (nearest neighbours) to node i
The author tests the spatial network analysis model across an entire metropolitan area and thus asess the impact of network improvements in one corridor on the performance of network elements elsewhere in the city. The detailed data of land use and employment for the Perth Metropollitan Area are need in order to provided a close correlation of public transport network structure and performance with the activity density and profile of the nodal catchment areas. Due to the aim to achieve high commercial speeds of up to an average 90 km/h in order to be competitive with car travel along an existing freeway parallel to the rail line, and also to save costs of travel time and infrastructure, the new service is not routing the rail line through some key established activity centres along the corridor (such as the town centres of Tockingham and Mandurah). Therefore, the route depends heavily on well functioning integration of connecting bus routes. Each of the ten new stations incorporates a purpose designed bus and train interchange, and the bus network across the entire southern half of the metropolitan area has been comprehensively reconfigurated to optimize coordination and connectivity between the two modes. Thirdly, reference [20] based on concept developed by Ingram, 1971, categorized accessibility indicators into two, i.e. the relative accessibility and integral accessibility. The first referred to the relation or degree of connection between any two points, whereas the later describes the relation or degree of interconnection between a given point and all others within a spatial set of points [20].
III.3.32
Similarly, reference [25] mentioned the integral and relative accessibility when explored the relationship between land use and accessibility. His research covered analysis of changing land use in the suburban areas of Great Seattle within over 30 years period. While relative accessibility was used to investigate changes in sub urban growth pattern relative to its distance to CBD, the integral accessibility was based on the concept of a network system where an accessibility indicator for any zone being measured is determined by the degree of interconnection of that cell (node) to all other cell (nodes). Hence the accessibility shown the association between the pattern of distribution of land uses and the pattern of the transportation network. The index of accessibility of any cell is the sum of the two values, i.e.: - Distance to the closest highway - Distance from the cell to the closest freeway interchange. Reference [25] used the concept of Euclidean distance to calculate accessibility. The study area consists of sub urban areas of Great Seattle that divided into a grid comprised of 100 x 100 feet cells for the purpose of distance calculation. The relative accessibility was measured by the simple distance that represented by a straight line from any cell within the study areas to the CBD. The integral accessibility was measured as a degree of interconnection of any cell to all other cells. Researcher used aerial photography as source of
land use data over 30 years and utilized GIS as an analysis tool. Fig. 7 showed the application of Euclidian distance measurement to calculate the accessibility index.
network based model. The empirical pattern showed little evidence of the relevance of centrality on the bid rent model on metropolitan macro scale. Meanwhile, the network based model indicated that the bid rent model is applicable on the miroscale of individual suburban nucleations occurring around nodes of highest integral accessibility. The example of one of the output of study by author shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 7 Integral accessibility measure Source: Reference [25] p. 789 The formula shown for calculation of integral accessibility, i.e. : (3) Where Ai is the measure of accessibility of cell i, Ii is its linear distance to the closest interchange, and Mi is its linear distance to the nearest arterial. The classical principle of law of distance minimization underlies the location decision. Location decisions were made as to minimize the frictional effect of distance. Therefore, as stated in reference [25], in mainstream urban theory, accessibility is regarded as the most important determinant of land use pattern. On the other hand, the distribution of urban activities has strong impact on accessibility. For example, the agglomeration of location that provides more destinations also means the higher level of accessibility. Therefore, the rate of accessibility is directly related to the rate and intensity of land use in the area (Hansen, 1959 in [25]). The finding showed that the ease of movement within the metropolis of Seattle is value more highly than the proximity to CBD. This is based on observed patterns of land use distribution within suburban areas. Moreover, the research also compared the model of accessibility between centrality based model and Fig. 8 Frequency distribution of land uses by integral accessibility, 1980 1990. Source : Reference [25], pp. 789 Fourthly, as moved from the relative and integral accessibility measurements, reference [1] suggested a new possibility in practice to extend the application of this concept. Reference [1] noted that the integral accessibility indices can be used to compare the access levels among different points within a region. Previous studies including, for example, Hansen (1959), Wachs and Kumagai (1975), Dalvi and Martin (1976), Burns and Golob (1976), and Hanson and Schwab (1987), (as cited in [1]) used the (modified) integral accessibility measures. However, reference [1] suggested that the integral measurements in previous research contained problem. The problem with these measures is that they only indicate the access levels among points within an area and are not comparable among different areas. Therefore, neither the relative accessibility nor the integral accessibility can capture the overall access level of an area and are comparable among areas. The concept brought by reference [1] just as the same as the previous, i.e. to develop further the Ingrams. Just as Ingram (1971) in [1] derived the integral accessibility index for
III.3.33

a given point by integrating the relative accessibility over all the other points, one can similarly develop a new accessibility index for a given area by integrating the integral accessibility index over the points within the area. This is illustrated as follows:
This basic formula had been modified along either behavioural dimension or considering trip linked [20]; Richardson and Young, 1982 in [25]). The various weight or attraction factors such as demand and supply distribution are not included in the equation 4. The author made an extension to the formula in order to able to measure the overall accessibility index. The aim is to make the index comparable among areas. Since the integral accessibility index of any point is the integration of relative accessibility over all other points, the overall index followed thismechanism. It is a new accessibility index for a given area by integrating the integral accessibility index over the points within the area. Hence, the formula is the normalization process of the value of Ai.
Suppose that aij is the travel time between i and j, then Ai is the average travel time between the location i and a random location within the area. The node with the lowest Ai is the median points of the network. Furthermore, Ai is averaged (integrated and then normalized) over location i where I = 1,2,.. N. The average yield as following and denoted as E:
E in equation (6) referred as a normalized integration of Ai over location i. Put another way, E is a normalized double integration of the relative accessibility 0 over locations i and j. Suppose a is the travel time between locations I and j, then E gives an estimate of the average travel time between two locations that are selected among the N locations randomly. Hence, E is the areas overall accessibility index since this gives a measure of the degree of interconnection among the locations within an area. The other interpretation of E is alo it represented the spatial separation among the locations in an area (called an area size effect) and also the effort of overcoming the spatial separation in the area if it is measured by travel time or travel cost (called a transportation quality effect). E is comparable among areas because it is normalized with respect to the number of locations in the area. The practical assessment of the author research applied in Philadelphia metropolitan area and the other largest U.S metropolitan areas. The basic relative accessibility being used is travel time that came from the data of the 1990 Census of population journey to work survey (the respondents estimates of origin to destination travel time). The output of the study is a new method of calculating accessibility index that comparable among regions. It then validated by changing the size of N and the results showed the stable of E value. For example, E for Metropolitan Pihladelphia area was 42.30 minutes. This was estimated over 350 locations (N=350). Then, with N=250, E is 43.51; with N = 32, E is 40.17.The result showed the advantages of overall accessibility index over the integral index, i.e the integral accessibility are usually very sensitive to the number of locations, whereas the E index is an average of the integral accessibility measures so then it is much more stable with respect to the aggregation levels. Evaluation The range of application of accessibility indicators may be identified, such as evaluation of the transport/land use system, modeling travel choice situations, modeling urban development, and also summarizing spatial structure
III.3.34
(Wachs, 1987 in [20]). The application also relevant both in the context of rural and urban, where it can be applied equally [20]). The context of its application is also varied. Furthermore, in empirical point of view, the accessibility measurement have been developed to solve problems including industrial location selections, vehicle routing and scheduling, travel demand forecasting, population distribution and growth, transportation system planning and many others [1]. The concept of accessibility brought in this paper particularly concerned about accessibility measure in the system evaluation. As described in the case studies, there are several methods in accessibility measurements. The varied of methods is caused by the wide range of definition of accessibility ([1]-[20]-[21]). In the context of evaluation of land use and transport system, accessibility is a function of both land use patterns and the performance of transports systems. In this context, accessibility is an appropriate criterion for evaluation the service provided by the transport system. For example, it shows the performance of transport system to different categories of users or different areas (Koenig, 1977, Black and Conroy, 1977 as cited in [20]). The example of application in this field is how to generate remedial solutions such as through reorganizing the distribution of activities in space and/or time and to influence the plans being developed by indicating which areas or groups are currently under provided [20]. As for evaluation of case studies provided above, we presented several notes to be highlight here such as: - The definition and method of measurement of accessibility in this paper are reviewed and their relevance to sustainable transport established. The wide variety of analytical forms illustrated in the case studies can be used to quantify different aspects of accessibility, i.e the accessibility of a single node such as CBD, the accessibility of a city or metropolitan area, the accessibility provided by certain type of modes in a given space, and so on. The different forms of accessibility index also differ-
entiated by conceptual basis, i.e. centrality approach, opportunity approach, network approach. Nevertheless, those three approaches are relevant as accessibility measures that concern more to the system evaluation of transport in relate to find out the sustainable urban form and urban transport. - The accessibility measurement is very useful to identify the problems in transport system. For example, regarding the development of accessibility measurement in terms of sustainable transport, one should recognize the properties and characteristics of sustainable transport. For example, how effective the public transport provision so far? Suppose the travel time as main impedance measurement in accessibility gained by public transport mode is always higher than that by private modes, the public modes will not be able to compete with the private modes. While public transport is the most suitable mode of transport to reduce vehicle km travelled, pollution, and congestion, its implementation need to be supported by the integration system of land use and transport. Therefore, the things that best answer by accessibility concept is that how the urban form or land use system and network system should be developed in order to support the efficient public transport. - Referred to case studies presented here, the concept of central place (centrality approach) is useful to reconfigurate the urban form or structure (to regulate the spatial distribution of activities, to regulate the level of densities. The concept of centrality in [22] also utilized in identification of the improvement of system network of public transport after the alteration of new policy on public transport. Other issues are included how to regulate the street system of hierarchy or class so then the minimum standard of accessibility level fulfilled
III.3.35

[25] based on its level of centrality of places, to regulate the attraction factors in order to be equal between the distribution of supply and demand (PFM concept), such as the equity in distribution of population and job opportunities. Accessibility concept also useful in identification of network in the network assignment for public transport. Accessibility indicators may also be used to monitor changes in the urban system, irrespective of whether such changes are planned or unplanned (Black and Conroy 1977 in [22]). - We conclude that the development of the model is need to be combined with other concepts and tools to be conjunct with the sustainable transport issue, for example with regression techniques or simulation techniques to gain the optimum alternative within the fulfillment of sustainable transport indicators. This is true for example, if the different forms of accessibility index are then related to underlying theories which link evaluation or assessment of transport policy, e.g. in terms of transport policy that impact on mode pattern that want to be developed in a city. In addition, reference [20] suggested the several requirements in model development, especially to meet the technical requirements. The principal differences in selecting suitable measures of accessibility for evaluation rather than for some other purposes, are: - The level of aggregation of the population and activities, - The weight given to ease of operation and interpretation of measure. Reference [20] also suggested the four general guidelines that may be identified to assist in the selection of accessibility indicators for evaluation, i.e.: 1. the indicator should incorporate an element of spatial separation which is responsive to changes in the performance of transport system.
III.3.36
2. the measure should have sound behavioral foundations. 3. the indicator should be technically feasible and operationally simple. 4. the measure should be ease to interpret and preferably be intelligible to the layman. 12 TOWARD TRANSPORT SUSTAINABLE
The terms of sustainable transport viewed the way in which people travelled whether or not they are more sustainable. Reference [8] pointed out that the common approach to achieving sustainable transport is to seek a shift away from single occupant private car travel towards high occupancy vehicle (both private and public), cycling, walking, and the replacement of some trips with teleshopping and telecommuting. In the context of accessibility measure, the achievement of sustainable transport actually is founded in two approaches: - alteration to the transport system configuration, i.e. mode types or network system, - alteration to the activity or land use system or urban form. In the first alternation, reference [20] suggested that the mode of transport available to individuals is a particularly vital element in calculating accessibility. The study of accessibility means the effort to highlighted discrepancy between the number of opportunity which may be reached by the public transport compared to car or other modes such as NMT within a given time periods. Toward the sustainable transport, the first alteration brought in this paper especially to promote the public transport system and the building of network connectivity [22]. The first and second alteration are linked each other. Reference [22] suggested that the public transport system will perform better and attract a greater share of trips in parts of the city with greater centrality. The centrality is determined by [22]:
- in the geographical sense, it is a spatial proximity to a high number and range of urban activities. This means that the configuration of spatial distribution is very important. - In the network sense, it is measured according to the configuration of a movement system around nodes and edges and their distribution over space, and their relationship to the actities within the urban space. Meanwhile, the building of network connectivity is an approach to developed the efficient network (of public transport) against its ability to increase levels of centrality over greater parts of the network and against the congruence of this centrality pattern with that depicted in strategic land use distribution [22]. The second alteration, reference [6] suggested that urban form could reduce/re-shape travel demand, in their terminology namely a 3D ways, i.e. changes the density, diversity, and design of built environment. They suggested a sustainable transport development indicator that is developed by making use of the concepts of accessibility and geographical information systems. A set of accessibility indicators developed, that consisted of the difference between the accessibility indices of public and private transports whereas it then determined by accessibilities to opportunities such as the number of population, jobs, shops, and school by private and public transport. The second alteration could be implemented by regulate those 3D factors. It would reduce the number of trips, the number of motorized trips (conversely the trip produced should be shared by the increased number of non motorized trips), and the number of miles travelled. It is true since density, land use diversity, and pedestrian oriented designs generally reduce trips rates and encourage non auto travel. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We are thanks Prof. Carey Curtis, the Curtin University of Technology, for giving valuable comments in the process of writing this paper. We also thank Ms. Sri Oka Rachmadita for
supplying data about transport in Surabaya. REFERENCES

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International Conference On Regional Development and Infrastructures: Trends, Issues and Challenges Confronting Regional Development, Infrastructure and

Environment in Developing Countries

Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre:

Figure 1. Location of Buton Island

4 x105 n = 0.83 log Sbit

Block/ Bulk Plastic Bag @ 40 kg

III.1.4 Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre:

= Complex Shear Modulus = Poisson Ratio

Basic Rheology Tests

Advance Rheology Test (Mechanistic)

Penetration Softening Point G* Sbit

Elastic Boundary Value

Evaluation of Basic Rheological Properties Figure 2. Methodology

Minimum Implementable Temperature

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40% ASBUTON (2) 0% ASBUTON

Anton Paar GmbH

Figure 3. DSR Result

Figure 6. Penetration ASBUTON

Figure 4. Penetration vs Proportion of ASBUTON

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III.1.8 Environmental Management, Regional and Infrastructure Development Research Centre:

Source. Strategy and Methods of Privatization, Yumiko Noda

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Table 1 Comparison of PPP types

LDO (Lease- Developed-Operate)/BDO (Build-DevelopedOperate) O (Operation) dan M (Maintenance) Conssesion

In Operational and development

In In Design Construction Operational Financial Design Construction Operational Financial

Agreement to sell fully or Private partly infrastructure asset to private

Design and Construction Operational Financial

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Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of PPP types

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ECONOMIC (+) FINANCIAL (Marginal)

GOV & ENTERPRISE ENTITY

ECONOMIC (+) FINANCIAL (+)

Figure 2. Toll road development models

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Item Land Acquisition Certainty of cost

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Table 4 Main characteristics of Tol Road Solo - Kertosono

DKI Jakarta Cikam pek

Gem pol Pandaan

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Table 5 Original Financial Analysis

Cost Share Land Government 823.6 Investment 1,430.60

IRR On project 17.40%

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Cost Share Land Government 565.1 Investment 1,248.10

IRR On project 17.5

Source. Bussiness Plan Solo KertosonoToll Road 2009 (compilation).

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10 THE TREND OF POLICY, CASE STUDY:

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21919 17150 15515

24037 18834 17083 2006 2008 2013

Noon peak hours Peak Hours Periods

Afternoon peak hours

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Short journey (1-3 km) and the type of modes