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CS 601 Computer Networks

Physical Level

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Overview of data (analog & digital), signal (analog & digital), transmission (analog & digital) & transmission media (guided & non-guided) TDM, FDM, WDM Circuit switching: time division & space division switch, TDM bus Telephone network

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Periodic Analog Signal

One Cycle
+ 0

Amplitude Time

Digital Binary Data and Signal

Data

Signal Time
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Analog Data Telephone Digital Data Modem

Analog Signal

Analog Signal

Analog Signal

Codec

Digital Signal

Digital Data

Digital Transmitter

Digital Signal

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Phase of Periodic Analog Signals

Signal A

Signal B

Signal C

900

2700

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Bandwidth
The range of frequencies that a medium can pass without losing the power contained in the signal is bandwidth. If the bandwidth of a medium does not match the spectrum of a signal, some of the frequencies are lost. For example, the square wave signal has a spectrum that expands to infinity and no transmission media has such a bandwidth. So, passing a square wave through any medium will always deform the signal. If we use a transmission line of bandwidth of 1000 Hz (between 1500 and 2500), we lose some frequency of our voice.
Voice Spectrum

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Unipolar In a Unipolar coding scheme, only a positive or a negative voltage (but not both) represent the data. Unipolar coding is typically used in TTY (teletype) interfaces and PC interfaces that are TTY compatible. Such coding requires a separate clock signal. Drawback DC component Lack of synchronization for a series of 0s and 1s. Susceptible to noise corruption
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Polar In a polar coding scheme, both positive and negative voltages are used. For example, a 1 may be denoted by 3V and a zero by +3V. Popular polar coding are: RZ (Return to Zero) NRZ (Non-Return to Zero) Manchester Differential Manchester

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Before a network service can be shared, networked computers must have a pathway to contact other computers. Computers use electronic voltage or electromagnetic waves or light pulses to send signals. The physical path through which the above travel is called transmission media. It can be classified as Cable (Guided Media) Wireless (Unguided Media) Cable media are wires or fibers that conduct electricity or light Cable media provides a conductor for the electrical signal whereas wireless media do not Cable media is typically used in LANs Wireless media is typically used in WANs
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Types of Cables(Guided)

Twisted Pair Cable

Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optic Cable

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Twisted Pair Cable: Copper wire is used Formed by two insulated copper wires that are twisted each other Multiple pairs are combined within a common jacket Following types are available: Unshielded - Set of twisted pairs within a simple plastic encasement (UTP) Shielded - Set of twisted pairs wrapped in a foil shielding (STP)
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UTP

Advantages
Relatively inexpensive Easy to install and manage

Disadvantages
Unsuitable for >100MBPS speed High rate of attenuation Sensitive to EMI

STP

Advantages
Higher bandwidth available than UTP Less sensitive to EMI than UTP

Disadvantages
More expensive Harder to install Unsuitable for more than 155MBPS

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Coaxial Cable: Made of two conductors that share a common axis The center is a insulated stiff solid copper wire This is in turn surrounded by a metallic foil as a shield from EMI Outer cover is usually made of non-conducting material such as teflon, plastic or rubber

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Coaxial Cable

Thinnet Diameter 0.25 inch Transmit signals up to 185 meter without attenuation Less cost

Thicknet Diameter 0.5 inch Transmit signals up to 500 meter without attenuation More cost

Advantages of using Coaxial cable: Simple to install Less sensitive to EMI than TP cable Disadvantages of using Coaxial cable: Moderately high attenuation Cabling is hard to manage and reconfigure Moderately susceptible to EMI Generally not used for more than 10MBPS
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Fiber Optic Cable: Made of a light conducting glass or plastic core This is surrounded by more glass called cladding The cladding is covered by a tough outer sheath The core provides the light path and the cladding is provided to reflect light back into the core Available in Single Mode and Multi Mode configuration

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Different rays of light bounce along the fiber at different angles. Consequently, different parts of the signal arrive at different times at the destination, resulting in some amount of signal dispersion and distortion during transmission. Multimode fiber suffers from attenuation. For these reasons, early multimode fiber was limited to 500 meters. Graded-index multimode reduces the problems and can function up to 1000 meters. Transmits a single beam of light through the cable. The light reflects in only one pattern. Allows faster transmission and longer distances - up to 100 kilometers. Uses lasers (rather than LEDs) and are therefore more expensive than multimode.
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An optical transmission system has three components Transmission medium Light source Detector The light source is either an LED (Light Emitting Diode) or a laser diode. The detector is a photodiode, which generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.

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Advantages of using Fiber Optic cable: Supports very high bandwidth (many GBPS) Low attenuation Immune to interference it will not corrode and is unaffected by most chemicals. usually much smaller and lighter in weight than a wire or coaxial cable with similar information carrying capacity. Disadvantages of using Fiber Optic cable: Relatively expensive cable and hardware Connections require high precision manufacturing and complex installation Relatively complex to configure and install

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Wireless Connectivity: Wireless media transmit and receive electromagnetic signals without an electrical or optical conductor Various forms of electromagnetic waves are used to carry signals

Wireless Media

Radio Wave

Micro Wave

Infrared Light

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Radio wave: Lies between 10KHz to 1GHz of the Electromagnetic spectrum Advantages: Stations can be stationery or mobile. Easier to set up and establish. Disadvantages: Require frequency licensing and approved equipment Highly susceptible to external interference and jamming Only low bandwidths are possible (<=10MBPS)

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Microwave:

Can exist in two forms : Terrestrial Satellite

Terrestrial: Uses directional parabolic antennas that require unobstructed line


of sight Advantage: Much more easily and cost effectively established than cable in inhospitable terrain or congested area Disadvantage: Complex installation and line of sight required

Satellite: Uses beamed line of sight between directional parabolic antennas


located on earth and geosynchronous orbiting satellite Advantage: Can cover extremely large distances Disadvantage: Extremely expensive setup, but end user cost may not be that high
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Infrared System:
Used LEDs to exchange data. Signals may be picked up by line of sight receivers or after reflection from walls and ceilings Susceptible to high intensity light and atmospheric conditions Easy to install but signals can not penetrate opaque objects

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During Data Transmission Signals can be affected by

Disturbances

Attenuation

Crosstalk

EMI

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Attenuation: When Signal travels over Cables, the resistance of cable wire interferes with signal transmission. Therefore, the signal becomes weak and distorted. This distortion of Signal is called Attenuation.

How to Overcome: Regenerate or Amplify the Signal For Digital Signal use REPEATER For Analog Signal use Amplifier

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EMI (Electromagnetic Interference): During transmission, Signals can get corrupted due to Electromagnetic waves emitted by adjacent cable. This phenomenon is called Electromagnetic Interference. How to Overcome: Use Fiber-Optic Cables

Crosstalk: Crosstalk occurs when signals of one cable get mixed with signals of adjacent cable due to EMI. How to Overcome: Use STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cables
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Media Connectivity Hardware: The interfaces and devices that are used to connect computing devices and transmission media are called Media Connectivity Hardware. Media Connectivity Can be classified as Network Connectivity Hardware Internetwork Connectivity Hardware Network connectivity hardware connect individual devices to a single network. e.g., connecting a computer or printer to the LAN Internetwork connectivity hardware connect multiple independent networks together. e.g., two campus LANs or multiple cities

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Network Connectivity Hardware

Connectors

Interface Card

Modem

Internetwork Connectivity Hardware

HUB

SWITCH

ROUTER

MULTIPLEXER

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Transmission Media Connectors


Every medium has one or more physical connectors to which various devices can be attached

SC/ST or MT-RJ for Fiber Optic Cable RJ-45 - UTP Cable


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BNC - Coaxial Cable

Network Interface Boards


Installed in a computer (typically) to connect it to the transmission media through the transmission media connector

Network Interface Card (NIC)


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Connection between NIC and transmission media (UTP cable)

Connection between PCS using NIC & transmission media (Co-axial cable)

Modems
Convert your computers digital signal to analog for use with telephone lines and vice-versa

Modem

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HUB:
A Piece of network equipment that connects PCs together It passes traffic to the network regardless of the intended destination Generate lot of unnecessary traffic into the Network May be used for very small Network

HUB

IB M

Server
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PC

Printer

Mainframe

Switch:
A Piece of network equipment that connects PCs together It passes traffic based on address information on each packet It learns which devices are connected to its ports & forward packets to appropriate port only It allows simultaneous communications , improving Bandwidth Reduces the amount of unnecessary traffic Normally used in large Network SWITCH

IBM

Server
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PC

Printer

Mainframe

Router:
A network equipment that connects two or more separate networks It passes traffic based on distance or cost It maintains a table of all available routes & then forward packets through the best path Used for large network

Router

Router

IP Address : 10.236.145.x

IP Address : 10.236.147.x

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Circuit Switching Circuit Switching is a connection technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path. With this type of switching technique, once a connection is established a dedicated path exists between both ends unless the connection is terminated. Circuit Switching network operates much the same way as in the telephone system. A complete path, end-to-end, must exist before communication can take place. The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a connection to the destination. Once the connection has been initiated and complete to the destination device, the destination device must acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a transfer.

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Advantages No congestion, because the communication channel (once established) is dedicated. Virtually no channel access delay, because the channel is dedicated. Disadvantages Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when the connected devices are not using it. Can be more expensive than other methods, because a dedicated channel is required for each connection. Possible long wait to establish a connection, during which no data can be transmitted.

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Message Switching With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations. Rather, when a station sends a message, it appends a destination address to the message. The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirely, from node to node. Each node receives the entire message, store it briefly, and then transmit the message to the next node. This type of network is sometimes called a store-and-forward network. A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device needs sufficient storage capacity to buffer the incoming messages, which may be quite long. A delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to the time required to find the next node in the transmission path and to queue and send the message.

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Advantages: Line efficiency can be greater than circuit-switched system because more devices are sharing network bandwidth. Traffic congestion can be reduced as message are temporarily stored-n-route. Message priorities can be established. Low-priority message can be delayed so that higher-priority messages can be forwarded first. One message can be sent to many destinations. Broadcast addresses can be appended to the message, specifying that at some convenient or logical place in the network, the message is retransmitted to more than one destination. Disadvantages: Message switching is not compatible with most real-time applications. Applications with a relatively higher rate of interaction may suffer from the store-and-forward imposed delay. For example, message switching cannot be used for voice connections. Store-and-forward devices are often expensive, because they must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.

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Packet Switching

Characteristics No requirement of establishing the Physical path Packets handled in two ways As Datagram in packet switching As Virtual circuits in Virtual Circuit Switching Advantages Resources can be shared Limitations Each packet has to carry entire address Ex. Internet (TCP/IP)

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A B C

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Packet Switching Advantages: Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive amounts of secondary storage. Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics, because there are no long messages in the queue and because switches can be tuned for optimal delivery given the maximum packet size. Packets can be routed around problems such as busy or disabled links. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making optimal use of link bandwidth. Disadvantages: Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex and can add some initial costs in implementation. Packets are more easily lost (for reasons explored in later sectors) when transmitted over non-dedicated paths, necessitating retransmission of some data.
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Virtual Circuits Virtual circuits involve the establishment of so-called local connections between the sender and the receiver. A logical connection is formed when a sender and receiver exchange messages at the outset of a conversation. The messages allow the sender and receiver to agree on conversational parameters such as maximum message size, path to be taken and other variables necessary to establish and maintain the conversation. Virtual circuits usually imply acknowledgements, flow control and error control, so one can often say that virtual circuits are reliable. That is, they posses the capability to inform upper protocol layers if a transmission problem occurs. Virtual circuits may be temporarily (lasting through one conversation) or permanent (lasting as long as the sending and receiving computers are up). The primary difference between Datagram packet switching and virtual-circuit packet switching is that virtual circuits entail establishing a logical connection. Datagram service is more flexible but inherently less reliable. Datagram service can also be faster, because hare is little administrative overhead.

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Virtual Circuit vs. datagram

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PSTN Structure The PSTN includes the following distinct classes of components, each with its own ownership, responsibilities, and functions: Subscriber wiring and equipment Local phone company local loops and central offices (COs) Local phone company trunk lines and other switching offices Long-distance carrier facilities.

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How a Call is Made The CO provides some services we take for granted, like dial tone and busy signal. The phoning process is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The calling phones receiver is lifted, closing the hook switch. Current flows in the local loop, indicating the phone is off the hook. The CO outputs a dial tone to indicate that the phone is ready to dial. The phone number is dialed using signaling tones or pulses. The CO reads the digits and establishes a circuit that controls the number dialed. The dialed CO checks the state of the line being called. If the phone is off the hook, the dialed CO sends a busy signal to the local CO. If the phone is on the hook, the dialed CO sends two unsynchronized ringing signals: 90-volt AC ringing pulses to the bell of the phone being called and audio tone ring pulses to the receiver of the phone that is calling. 7. When the called phone goes off the hook, the CO stops the ringing signals and completes the circuit between the phones. Voice communication uses mechanical circuit switching. For the duration of any call; a pair of wires is literally connected all the way from phone A to phone B. Such a connection is circuit switched. You will most likely get a different set of connections each time you call the same number.

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Broadband Systems Broadband systems use analog signaling. Many different signals can occupy the cable. For example, one cable may support transmission of video, radio, and computer data. On a typical broadband network, each network device transmits over 75-ohm coaxial cable. Broadband networks span greater distances than baseband (up to tens of kilometers). Attenuation and noise do not degrade the modulated analog signals of broadband systems as much as they do the digital signals of baseband systems. In some broadband networks, the transmit and receive channels use the same carrier frequency, but the transmit channel is on one cable and the receive channel is on another cable. This is called a dual-cable configuration. In other broadband networks, the transmit and receive channels use the same cable, but the transmit channel is on one frequency and the receive channel is on another frequency. This is called a split configuration.
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Multiplexing Definition and Uses Multiplexing is uses to combine and transmit several low bandwidth channels across a single high-bandwidth channel. Demultiplexing separates out the input channels after transmission. The multiplexer and demultiplexer use the same rules (except that the demultiplexer applies them in reverse of the multiplexer) for combining and separating signals on the transmission line. A piece of equipment that multiplexes and demultiplexes is sometimes called a mux.

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Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) FDM uses separate analog carrier signals to establish multiple channels across the media. FDM can utilize any modulation system (ASK, FSK, PSK, or combinations) for any channel. Each channel centers on a different carrier frequency. For example, a CATV coax cable with a bandwidth of about 500 MHz can carry more than 80 television channels (of 6-MHz bandwidth each). Further multiplexed within each 6-MHz band are the channels own audio subcarrier, video subcarrier, and color subcarrier - plus a guardband on each side separating it from other FDM channels on the cable. These channels function almost like separate wires or circuits. Some telephone trunks use FDM to split the cables bandwidth into many 4-kHz voice channels and other higher-bandwidth channels. FDM is also used in broadband LANs to separate different direction traffic on the cable and to provide special services like dedicated connections between machines.
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Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) TDM systems interleaved pieces of slower channels into a single faster channel, and then reconstitute the slower channels at the other end. The data can be bits, blocks of bits, bytes, or large blocks. Time division is the only multiplexing technique that can be used on a baseband line. It could be used on an individual channel in an FDM system. The time division can be fixed when the muxes are set up. Such TDM systems are sometimes called synchronous TDM because the pieces of each input channel are always the same length and come at the same time in each frame on the multiplexed channel. The muxes synchronize, and in each frame on the multiplexed channel. The muxes synchronize, and all transfer is fixed. Many different synchronous TDM systems are in use. Conventional TDM wastes bandwidth if many of the time slots are unused. Statistical TDM multiplexers (usually called stat muxes) solve this problem by dynamically allocating time slots to active devices. A control field identifies slot owners.
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