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CHAPTER-I

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The study of Proterozoic basins has become important as it gives much insight about the crustal evolution in that part of earth. Beside academic interest, from the mineral economics point of view these basins are equally important as most of the worlds high grade, large tonnage uranium deposits are located within it. One-third of worlds uranium comes from Proterozoic basins where is occur as unconformity related deposits. The Proterozoic basins are exposed in several isolated patches, found throughout India unconformably overlying the crystalline Achaean or Palaeoproterozoic basements. The rocks are mainly shallow marine, platform type, undisturbed and undeformed sediments developed in shelf environment, proximal to cratonic margins. The only deformation these rocks have undergone is local metamorphism and penecontemporaneous faults. Presently these basins are prime target of ongoing uranium exploration programme in the country. The small, Neoproterozoic Bhima Basin located in the northern part of Karnataka and western part of Andhra Pradesh, India is one such basin. The basin is characterized by long linear basement related faults and the present disposition of Bhima sediments is largely attributed to these faults. With the discovery of uranium mineralisation at Ukinal and Gogi along Gogi Kurlagere fault (1995-96) which subsequently lead to the establishment of a high grade low tonnage uranium deposit, richest grade in India, at Gogi, the whole of Bhima basin has become prime target for uranium exploration. The work carried out by Atomic Minerals Directorate for
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Exploration and Research (AMD) in subsequent years (1997-2010) lead to the discovery of several uraniferous anomalies in the basin. Uranium mineralization in the basin is only metallic resource in Bhima basin. The non metallic resource found in Bhima basin is cement- grade limestone estimates to 1000-1500 million tons (Venkoba Rao et al., 1967). Uranium mineralization so far known in the basin is typically associated with the tectonised zones closer to the sediment-basement boundary. Mainly

mineralization occurs in phosphatic limestone, non phosphatic limestone, Shale and in basement granitoids, and migmatites and shear zones. The phosphatic limestone type of occurrence is confined to altered phosphatic portions of limestone in the immediate vicinity of fault/fracture zone. The mineralized rock is identified as micritic, siliceous limestone and siliceous phosphorite. This type of occurrence is predominantly seen in the following two areas; Along Kurlagere-Gogi fault, Along Wadi-Ramthirth-Bhimanahalli fault. The non-phosphatic limestone type of mineralization is structurally related, epigenetic, vein- type. The main phases of uranium are pitchblende and coffinite. They occur in close association with pyrite and carbonaceous matter. Uranium mineralization at Gogi, Halbhavi and Halkal are a few example of which Gogi occurrence in type locality. The Shale type of uranium mineralization is in shales that immediately overlie the basement crystalline rocks. In the Gogi area, moderate to feeble radioactivity is recorded in the shales that immediately overlie granites.

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Kasturipalle uranium occurrence is the only example of outcrop showing shalehosted uranium mineralization. Uranium mineralization in the basement granitoids and migmatites along shear zone is recorded over considerable extent. Granitic rocks rimming the Bhima basin south of Hunsigi, Wajhal and other areas are a few such examples. Tirth-Thintini fault is one more example of this type. In the Gogi area biotite granitic rocks lying within the tectonised zone of the cross fault contain several fracture filled with pitchblende and coffinite.

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CHAPTER-II

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2.1 AIM AND SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION

A low tonnage high grade uranium deposit has already been established at Gogi area along Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault. Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault is an E-W trending 40 km long fault along the southern margin of Bhima basin. Gogi is located at the center of the east-west trending Gogi- Kurlagere fault. The fault zone takes NW-SE and NE-SW swing at Gogi due to cross faulting. Kurlagere Gogi fault is further traced eastwards through Hulkal Halbhavi Madnal and further beyond Dornahalli to Gundahalli where it continues in the basement crystallines for a distance of nearly 20 km. The fault zone is marked by steep dipping of the limestone beds towards the basement and brecciation. Clasts and fragments of granite, basic rock, limestone, shale and quartzite are embedded in grey blocky / massive limestone characterizing the breccia zone. The mineralization at Gogi is structurally controlled, vein type. The present area of investigation lies in the eastern part of Gogi-KurlagereGundahalli fault between Madnal and Doornahalli in south and up to Sirwal in north (between Latitude 164300N to 164830N and the Longitude 765100E to 765800E). In the eastern part, most of the area is soil cover was not mapped in detailed and radiometric survey data was meager. To

understand the geological/structural behavior of rocks and find out any possible extension of uranium mineralization of Gogi area in eastern part this investigation was taken up. This investigation aims at detailed radiometric survey, geological cum structural mapping on 1:25000 scale, in addition to

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characterized the rocks petrographically, to understand nature of rock and associated mineralisation.

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CHAPTER-III

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3.1 LOCATION ACCESSIBILITY

Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault is located in Shahpur Taluq of Yadgir district of Karnataka, India. It is located about 210km southwest of Hyderabad, 525 km north of Bangalore, 625 km southeast of Mumbai and 450 km east of Panaji, Goa. As the area is criss crossed by major railway line and roadways it is easily accessible. This area being an important region for agriculture, cement and associated industries, the infrastructural are well developed. Nearest railway station is situated at Yadgir which is about 20km away from present area of study.

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Fig: 1 Location Map of Study areas.

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Fig: 2 Political Map of India showing the location of Karnataka.

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3.2 CLIMATE

The study area experiences a monsoon type climate as it is situated in the central part of the peninsular India. The area experiences three seasons namely summer, winter and rainy season. March to May is summer months and temperature may go up to 450C in some places and December is the coldest month with temperature going down as 8 - 100C. Summer month is best suited to take up a geological field work in the area as vegetation cover will be scarce and streams will be dry.

3.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY

The land forms developed in and around Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault is mainly plain to undulating topography with most of the area under cultivation. The ground level varies from +367m to +449 m above MSL. There are clear

indications at several places that once the Deccan plateau basalts have covered the entire basin, even overlapped the Peninsular Gneissic complex and presently have receded due to erosion leaving behind mesas and buttes capped by basalt. Hence the present plain topography has developed over exhumed Bhima sediments during post-Eocene times. River Bhima drains the area. The area is characterized by medium dendritic drainage pattern with several ephemeral streams water courses. Soil has poorly developed over argillites and silicieous limestone. The soil profile

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thickness, range from nil at higher elevation capped by flaggy limestone to 2-4m at lower level and 4-5m along the banks of rivers with combination of alluvium and soil. But blanket of black to deep black soil with calcrete and occasionally gypsum occurs over both the rock types with a sharp contact, except along weak zones. Much of the soils over the Bhima formations appear to be transported with its source from Deccan Trap area. Three types of land use pattern have been observed i.e. settlements, agricultural and mining. Groundwater condition is poor over the horizontally disposed sediments. Few fault zones and fractures near the proximity of perennial and few seasonal major streams are being trapped for irrigation. Due to the irrigation projects (Upper Krishna Project) which irrigates vast area and supports the agriculture. The black cotton soil supports cultivation of Cotton, groundnut, chilies, rice, sugarcane, wheat, pulses, sunflower, hybrid varieties of jowar and kusube (for oil).

3.4 PREVIOUS WORKS

The first description about unmetamorphosed sediments lying unconformably over the basement granite in the region was given by Captain Newbold (1842-45). He compared this formation to Kurnool and identified the flaggy limestone near Talikota and red sand band at Muddhebihal. It was in 1872 William King who mapped the basin but his work was restricted to erstwhile Madras presidency. He named the sediments as Bhima series which is

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deposited on the either side of river Bhima a tributary of river Krishna. William King did not cover significant areas around Shahbad which was then part of erstwhile Maratha and erstwhile Hyderabad. Bruce Foote (1876) studied nearly all the areas of the basin and proposed a two fold classification based on the importance of the coarse clastic component. The lower Bhima constituting mainly of conglomerate, sandstone and shale, the upper Bhima comprising of shale and Limestone. He correlated Bhima sediments with Kurnools of the Cuddapah basin. Mahadevan (1947) revised the stratigraphy of Bhima basin based on depositional history and Paleo-geographic considerations. He proposed a three fold classification division comprising Lower-mechanically derived sediments represented by conglomerate, sandstone, flaggy limestone, green and purple shale. Middle-Chemically precipitate marked by limestone of different colour. Upper-consisting of mechanically derived sediments like sandstone, buff, purple and red shale and flaggy limestone. Janardhan Rao et. al. (1975) adopted the morden code of stratigraphic nomenclature and gave the Bhima series a status of Group and adopted a five fold classification with formational status given to the different units having distinct composition. He divided the upper Bhima into three formations, while retaining the middle and lower Bhima as separate formations. Mahadevans lower and middle series was renamed as Rabanpalle and Shahbad formations while the upper series was split in to Hulkal shale, Katamadevarahalli limestone and Harwal shale formations. Mathur (1977) suggested modification in this scheme by renaming the Shahbad formation as the

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Kurkunta and Gogi formations respectively. 1n 1987 Mishra et.al. sub divided the Bhima group into Andola sub group comprising of Harwal-Gogi shale, Katamadevarahalli limestone and Hulkal shale formation and Sedam sub group comprising Shahbad limestone and Rabanpalle formation. The break in sedimentation between the Sedam and Andola sub group, recognized on the basis of the arenite at Hulkal has been interpreted to be a paraconformity. Kale et. al. (1995) came into a conclusion that the Sedam and Andola group are nothing but lateral change in facies of one another and the entire sedimentation in the Bhima basin is a product of a singular short lived transgressive event. He grouped the entire clastic as Rabanpalle clastic formation and the carbonate sediment as Shahbad limestone formations. The latest litho stratigraphic succession was proposed by Jayaprakesh A.V. (1999) of G.S.I. where he dropped the nomenclature of two sub-groups and put them in one Bhima group with five formations. In late 1980s radiometric survey in the Bhima basin by P.S. Naidu had led to identification of a number of spot activities in granities in the YadgirWadi tract, however a few were also recorded within the basin also. During 1995 radioactive anomalies were reported for the first time in Bhima basin near Ukinal, in the vicinity of Gogi-Kuralgere fault, by ASRS Group, AMD (1995 96). Subsequent to this discovery preliminary radiometric survey carried out at Ukinal has led to the identification of interesting radioactive anomaly over a strike length of about 600mts intermittently at the limestone/shale contact

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(Natarajan. V. 1995). Since the discovery of uranium mineralization Gogi-Kurlagere fault in 1997 extensive exploration activity is going on.

along

3.5 GEOLOGY OF BHIMA BASIN

The Karnataka craton is broadly divided into two tectonic stratigraphic blocks, separated by the Chitradurga boundary fault close to western margin of the linear Closepet granite (Swaminathan et. al. 1976, Swaminathan and Ramakrishanan 1981). The two blocks The western block comprises tonalite-trondhjemite-grandiorite (TTG) gneisses with enclaves of the sargur complex intrusive granititoids and a thick cover of the Dharwar supracrustal belt.

The eastern block comprising TTG with enclaves of Sargur complex, volumetrically large proportion of intrusive granitoids in comparison with the western block and a series of sub parallel belts of greenstone

The Bhima basin is located on the northern edge of the eastern block, NESW trending linear basin sandwiched between the Archaen granite greenstone terrain of the eastern Dharwar craton in the south and the Deccan trap volcanic province in the north. The Bhima basin (named by W King 1872) receives its name after Bhima River a major tributary to River Krishna flowing through basin. It is smallest

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(in term of area) and youngest (in terms of chronology) of Proterozoic basins spreading over 5300 Sq. Km in Peninsular India in parts of Gulbarga, Yadgir, Bijapur Districts of Karnataka and Mahaboobnagar and Rangareddy districts of Andhra Pradesh,India. It lays between Latitude 162000N to 174030N and the Longitude 753000E to 773000E in the Surveys of India topo sheet Nos. 56C, D, G and H. Bhima basin is having a North East South West trending, epicratonic, extensional basin, formed due to gravity faulting (Dhana Raju et.al. 2002). The S shape of the basin is attributed to the large scale fault systems that dissects the Bhima in to different segments. The total thickness of sediments is about 300mts. Fine to coarse grained arenite unit ranging from few centimeters up to 5 mts forms the basal portion immediately overlaying the Archaean granite green stone terrain with a marked unconformity. Glauconite shale, grading in to purple colored, fissible ferruginous shale ranging in thickness from less than a meter up to about 30 mts makes the next sedimentary unit. Grey to dark colored micritic limestone locally cherty ranging thickness up to about 200 mts from the uppermost sedimentary unit characterizing the basin. The Stratigraphy of Bhima basin was first proposed by Bruce Foote (1876) since then it has been studied by many works. The latest litho Stratigraphic succession was proposed by Jayaprakesh A.V. (1999) of G.S.I.

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Jayaprakash A.V. (1999) MEMBER LITHOLOGY Basic flows with intertrappean sediments Brown, pink to vermellion shale Harwal (45) Katama Deep grey, occasionally Devarahalli stylolitic flaggy limestone (40) Grey, blackish buff, dull and pale pink shale, occasionally Hulkal with fine grained thin silty beds at the base (30) Mulkod Deep grey to black flaggy Limestone limestone (100) BHIMA Akin to Wadi limestone, yet Gudur GROUP slightly inferior in chemical Limestone composition (20) Sedam Variegated medium to thickly Total Shahabad Limestone bedded siliceous limestone (60) Aggregate Thickly bedded, stylolitic, Thickness Wadi relatively superior cement 297m Limestone grade limestone (15) Flaggy limestone with Ravoor prominent fissility (Shahabad Limestone slabs) (10) Fine silty base, grades into green shale, followed by Korla shale chocolate brown shale with prominent parting (50) Fine grained quartz arenite, Rabanpalli Kundrapalle subfelspathic arenite, Sandstone ferruginous cemented medium grained quartz arenite (15) Pebbly orthoconglomerate, Muddebihal locally or at the top matrix Conglomerate supported and also granular (2) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ BASEMENT Younger Granites, Eastern Block Greenstone CRYSTALLINES Belts, Peninsular Gneisses. GROUP DECCAN TRAP
FORMATION

Kale V.S (1995) B) Shahabad Limestone Formation ** Grey micritic impure limestone. ** Dark blue grey massive limestone. ** Variegated, siliceous and cherty limestones

** Flaggy impure (cherty/argillaceous) limestones

-Gradational and transitional ----- Facies changes--A) Rabanpalli Clastics Formation B) Ekmai Shale Member (ferruginous & calcareous shales) C) Kasturpalli Glauconitic Member D) Kundrapalli QuatzArenite Member a) Adki Hill Conglomerate Member.

(Figures in bracket indicates the thickness in meters)

Fig: 3 Stratigraphic sucession of Bhima basin

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The outcrops of the basin is exposed between Tandur in the North East and Muddebihal in the South West for a stretch of 160 Km across with a maximum width of 40 Km across Sedam. The Northern and Northwestern extensions are concealed under Deccan traps. The southern and Eastern margins of the basin mark the unconformity contact with granitic gneisses and younger granites of the Dharwar Craton. It exhibits a gentle northerly dip of about 5 except along fault zones where sediments are steeply dipping and brecciated locally. A number of fault zones have been identified in the basin displaying trends varying between East-West (Kulagere-Gogi-Gundahalli, Farthatabad, Tirth-Tintini and Rabanpalle faults), North-West to South-East (WadiBhimanahalli and Shahabad). Few minor North-South (Mullamari and Nirgund) trending faults are also identified. Primary sedimentary structures are well preserved in the Bhima sediments in tectonically undisturbed area. The Bhima basin is devoid of fossils, though the constituent beds are well suited to the preservation of organic remains. The Kaladgi lie to their west but no where come in contact with them, the nearest out crop is 50 Kms away. The lithology, horizontal disposition and unmetamorphosed nature of the Bhima indicate their equivalence to Kurnool formation. The present outcrop pattern and supported by palaeocurrent evidences, the depositional trend was in NE-SW direction. Sedimentation took place all along the southern boundary. In general deposition took place in an undisturbed quiet sea. The clastic members of the lower Bhimas show evidences of having been deposited in a shallow marine environment either along beaches or intra-tidal
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zone grading on to deeper tidal flat or sub-tidal environment. The overlaying Shahabad limestone, which is famous for its ability to split into thin slabs of a pleasing blue-grey colour, was obviously deposited in a quiet protected tidal flat environment. The purple colour of the sandstone and shale especially in the upper beds are indicative of an oxidizing environment. The Bhima sediments are separated from the underlying schistose and granitic rocks of Archaean age by a profound unconformity the Great Eparchaean Unconformity. Sediments of the Bhima Group are structurally least disturbed and preserve their horizontal bedded character originally impressed at the time of deposition. Dip of strata rarely exceeds 5. Deformation is observed only in the neighborhood faults. The primary structures like current bedding and ripple marks in the quartzite rocks are recorded. Other structures like joints and stylolites are also present. A number of dykes (mostly basics in composition) traverse the crystalline terrain in the environs of Bhima basin. No radiometric dating has been done on Bhima sediments. The resemblance of Bhima sediments with Kurnool Group sediments rules out the possibility of the Bhima Group sediments transgressing in to the Cambrian. The upper age limit may, therefore, be not less than 600 Ma. Salujha and Rehman (1973) recorded the occurrence of planktons from limestone quarries in different areas of Bhima basin. Out of the planktons described some plankton like Archaeofavosina and

Trematosphalsindium are restricted to late Precambrian age. From the palynological assemblages (by Venkatachala and Rawat 1973) assigned late Cambrian age to the Bhima Group of sediments. It is, however, significant to

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stress that the total lack of deformational evidences points to a distinct postcratonic age for the Bhima. It is, therefore, likely than an age assignment of uppermost Proterozoic (or just over 600 Ma) in the geological time scale could be adjudged as the best approximation for the Bhima Group deduced from biota and litho-Stratigraphy as vendian / Neo-Proterozoic age, i.e., older than 550 Ma but younger than 625 Ma. One of the most striking features is the absence of stromatolites in the Bhima Group, which are present in adjacent basins. This significant feature has been attributed to the emergence of Metazoa, which scavenged the stromatolite producing algal biota in shallow marine environment (Awarmik, 1990). For this, Moitra et al., (1999) refer to Groetziner (1990), who points to three principle periods of decline of stromatolites in the earths stratigraphic record, with one of them corresponding to the base of Cambrian i.e., Vendian Neoproterozoic. The carbonate rocks of Bhima basins were deposited in marine environment during Neo Proterozoic period. The 13 C enrichment associated with carbonates indicates increased burial of organic carbon in response to global tectonic processes at around 0.6 Ga.

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Fig: 4 Geological Map of Karnataka showing the location of Bhima basin.

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Fig: 5 Geological map of Bhima basin and location of Study area in basin.

LITHOLOGY
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Basement rocks

The late Achaean continental crustal crystalline rocks form the basement of the Bhima Basin. It shows a gently undulating peneplained topography, punctuated by isolated tors. Before the deposition of Bhima sediments the Archaean rocks subjected to the action of erosional forces in a continental environment. This unconformity is termed as Eparchaean unconformity. This forms the undulating terrain interspersed with hill ranges cinsisting schist belts and granitoids. These undifferentiated crystalline rocks include a variety of tonalitic and trondjhemetic gneisses (PGC), amphibolites, and schists of Eastern Block Green Stone Belts and other intrusive younger granitic rocks, equivalent to Closepet granite. From the gravity data, it is interpreted that a low density body, extending up to the depth of 6-7 Km below the Bhima sediments as emplacement of granite along weak/shear zone. The Bhima sediments are overlaying on basement crystallines on angular and erosional unconformity. The late Archaean granitoids are rich in accessory minerals which as sphene, allanite, apatite and zircon, which are the main carriers of uranium and thorium. Insitu gamma-ray spectrometric analysis reveals that these granitoids have higher abundances of Th, U, and K relative to granitoids occurring farther away from the basin. Thus, they belong to the class of fertile granitoids from the point of uranium mineralization. Rabanpalli Formation

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It is the first sedimentation of Bhima basin composed of Conglomerates, Arenite, and Shale separated from the Archaean basement with a profound Eparchaean Unconformity. The base of the Rabanpalli Formation is made up of a matrix supported conglomerate comprising of quartz and feldspar and few rock fragments. The clasts in general are sub rounded. The conglomerate grades upward to coarse sand, fine sand or arenite, siltstone and shale. At places sandstone and siltstones directly overlie the basement. The matrix supported pebbly conglomerate comprising clast of Quartz and Feldspar and a few rock fragments constitute Muddebihal conglomerate. It is followed by the deposition of quartzarenite, feldspathic arenite and medium grained Quartzarenite cemented by ferruginous matrix called the Kundrapalle Sandstone. The fine silty particles grade into Green Shale, followed by the deposition of Brown Shale called Korla shale. The sandstone comprises of quartz, feldspar (10-30%) and few rock fragments. The sandstone is thick to thin bedded and the siltstone- shale thinly bedded to laminated. A variety of sedimentary structures occur in the formation. Gold occurs in the conglomerates of the formation in the Balashetehal area as heavy detrital grains.

Shahabad Formation

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The limestone of Shahabad Formation gradationally overlies the siltstoneshale in the upper part of the Rabanpalli Formation. The transitional zone is about 5 m thick. At This formation composed of different types of Limestones, it having thickness approximately 210m. Each types of Limestone deposition constituting as a member. Flaggy Limestone, Cement grade Limestone, Medium grade Siliceous Limestone, Limestone which has slight difference in chemical composition, deep grey Limestone are called Ravoor Limestone, Wadi Limestone, sedam Limestone, Gudur Limestone and Mulkod Limestone Respectively. Near to fault zones the limestone resting on granite has clasts of granite and schistose rocks. Cross bedding, scour and fill structures and stylolites are the sedimentary structures present in the limestone. Glauconite occurs in the limestone and especially in the sand lenses.

Hulkal Formation

The Grey Blackish buff and pale colored shale with thin silty beds are called Hulkal Formation. The limestone of Shahabad is gradationally overlain by the siltstone- shale of Hulkal Formation. The transitional contact is exposed in the Bhima river section between Ferozabad and Kolkur, and is about 4 m thick. The lower part of the formation has thin phosphorite bands and the upper part has minor occurrence of barite. Glauconite is present in the entire upper part of the formation; indicate local change in depositional environment during the late stages of deposition.

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Katamadevarahalli Formation

The 40 Km thick deep grey Limestone of Katamadevarahalli Formation gradationally overlies the Halkal Formation. The transitional zone is up to 4 m thick and is well exposed in the Katamadevarahalli and Kokur areas. The basal part of the formation has occasional small lenses and crystals of barite. Ferruginous concretions, chert nodules and pyrite occur in the limestone.

Harwal Formation

The Katamadevarahalli Formation is conformably overlain by siltstoneshale of Harwal Formation (pink coloured shales). The siltstone-shale is thinly bedded to laminated.

Hotpet Formation

In the Gogi-Hotpet area, a locally developed arenaceous unit occurs uncomfortably resting over both the Shahabad and Halkal Formations. This formation has a chert pebble conglomerate at the base followed upward by medium grained well sorted sandstone. Gulbarga Infra-trappean formation

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The hiatus between the Hotpet formation and the overlying Deccan traps represents nearly 400 Ma. It is rather difficult to conceive that nothing notable resulted during this period and one has to probe into this period of so called Geological Silence. At least it would be logical to believe some Pre trappean topography evolved resulting in undulating terrain. Depressions in this undulating topography might have supported some sedimentation. This is evidenced by the present disposition of Deccan traps of different elevations. Kale (1990) lists a few localities with elevations above the present day MSL (Mean Sea Level) of the base of the Deccan Traps. Just above the Bhima Group, impersistant, disconnected thin horizons of sediments termed Infratrappeans are known since long (Foote 1876; Pascoe 1965).

Deccan Traps

Deccan traps, essentially simple basaltic flows, are mostly fine-grained, compact but some of them are typically amygdaloidal. These traps, considered to be of Cretaceous to Eocene in age, are seen as outliers and are also present directly overlying the Archaean basement complex much to the south of Bhima basin. This clearly indicates that the traps were far more extensive than their present limits. It may not be completely wrong, if it is said that the entire Bhima basin at one point of time in the geological history was concealed under Deccan traps. Extension of Bhima basin below the traps is illustrated along the erosional valley along the Mullamari fault south of Chincholi. Road section between

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Kembhavi and Hunasgi exposes a small outlier of Deccan traps. Development of reddish, ferruginous boles is clearly seen.

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CHAPTER-IV

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4.1 METHODOLOGY

In order to achieve the defined objective the following methodology was adopted.

Literature Survey

Published literature on geology and uranium mineralization of Bhima basin in general and along the Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault area in particular was carried out by referring in journals and internet.

Geological Mapping

Geological mapping is the fundamental task on the basis of which all quantitative and qualitative geological studies are carried out leading to understanding of evolution of the area under study, with respect to space and time. It is a two dimensional representation of spatial and temporal relation among different geological features in a given terrain.

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4.2 PROCEDURE

A toposheet of Survey of India (56/D/13SW, SE and 56/D/14NW, NE) in the scale 1:25000 was chosen as the base map. A Field investigation was taken up for 30 days. During the investigation eighteen traverses across the strike of the formation was made this enabled to mark the lithological contacts precisely and to understand the field relationship of various lithological units. While taking traverses to find precise location of geological features, outcrops, sample location a Global Positioning System (GPS) Garmin 76CSx (using Map DatumIndian Bangladesh) was used, and around 300 points were taken in GPS. In order to find the attitude of beds (Strike, Dip and Dip amount) a brunton compass was used. These data was later plotted on base map back in field camp to prepare a detail geological map of study area. Along with this a radiometric survey was also carried out using a scintillometer. A Scintillometer is used to detect radiation energy released in the form of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays during the breakdown (decay) of radioactive minerals. The radiation values given by scintillometer were recorded in terms of milliroentgens per hours (mr/hr). From 170 locations radiation values were recorded and these values were used to prepare an isorad contour map. An Isorad contour is an imaginary line connecting parts of equal radiation. Thus, isorad map is one which shows variation in radiation from ore body by means of isorad contours. Isorad map helps in deciphering the richer ore shoots in an area and helps in guiding in subsequent exploration program.

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Scintillometer

The scintillation counter is superior to the Geiger counter in terms of efficiency and sensitivity and hence, more suitable for the detection and measurement of gamma rays. The instrument makes use of one of the several substance called Scintillators which, when struck by a single particle, converts some of the energy received in the process of collision into a tiny flash of visible light, known scintillation. Scintillation is caused by ionization and excitation produced in the scintillators by the incident nuclear radiation. It is possible to watch a scintillator and count the light flashes to light. Usually, however, a photomultiplier connected to the scintillator converts the light flashes into electrical pulses, which may then be recorded electromechanically.

Fig: 6 Parts of the Scintillation counter: 1. Scintillator: 2. Photo-Cathode; 3. emitters (dynodes) 4. Collector (anode) 5. Photo-multiplier tube

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Fig: 7 Schematic diagram of a simple scintillation counting system

As shown in the diagram the in-coming nuclear radiation produces a flash of light in the scintillator. By means of the light pipe and reflector, a large fraction of the light is transmitted to the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube, which converts the light flashes into electrical pulses proportional to the light energy. The amplifer amplifies the pulses to an amplitude suitable for the discriminator and pulse sharper, after which the pulses are counted by the electronic counter. The electronic counter would be replaced by a differential pulse height analyser (single- or multi-channel) for spectrometric work. A high voltage supply is required for the photomultiplier tube, for its electron multiplying device to produce a stable output. Radiation readings recorded from various locations are given below.

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CHAPTER-V

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5.1 LOCAL GEOLOGY

Geological mapping and reconnaissance radiometric survey was carried out in 100 sq. Km area, laying between Latitude 164300 to 164830 and the Longitude 765100 to 765800E in the Surveys of India topo sheet No. 56 D, 13 & 14. The area surveyed exposes basement crystallines comprising mainly pink granite (grey granite, gneisses also seen) and Bhima sediments consisting predominantly of limestone and shale.

Granite

Basement granite are mainly exposed in south of Madnal and Doranahalli. It is also found in areas around bidrani and Ibrahimpur. The pink granite variety belonging to younger granites occurs widely in study area. Granite quarries are found in eastern part mainly on the way to Ibrahimpur and in North of it also. In southern part it is mainly soil cover and exposures are very less. Fine to medium grained variety of pink granite is mostly found. In granite quarries it is clearly visible that in upper part it is coarse grained and in depth it is fine grained. Few anomalies have been spotted in granitic terrain. Near to fault zones veins of quartz are seen especially near to Doranahalli and Hurasagundigi area. Occurrence of granite as clasts in limestone widely seen in east of Doranahalli on the either side of Shahpur-Yadgir road and in Madnal also.. Few outcrops of grey granite can be seen near to Ibrahimpur area.

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Fig: 8

Fig: 9

Fig: 10

Fig: 11

Fig: 8 Xenolith seen is pink granite near Ibrahimpur Fig: 9 Kankak type of Limestone seen near Madnal Fig: 10 Lithological contact near Gogi fault showing granite, arenite and siltstone near Dornahalli Fig: 11 Massive Limestone having clast of granite seen near Dornahalli

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Basic Dykes

Dark green to brown colour basic dykes are seen having North East-South West trend can be seen in Doranahalli and Hurasagundigi. These Dolerite dykes have caused shearing of in basement granites.

Arenites

Arenite belonging to Rabanhalli formation is seen in study area. It is mainly exposured in fault zones between Madnal and Doranahalli. It has sand size grains, having buff colour.

Silt stone

Silt stone belonging to Rabanhalli formation is seen in study area. Exposures are found in fault zones north of Doranahalli. Its colour varies from purple to green, Individual grains are not visible and have thin lamination. The attitude of the siltstone varies from place to place, it mainly bed depends on faulting.

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Fig: 12

Fig: 13

Fig: 14

Fig: 15

Fig: 12 an hand specimen of purple limestone with granite clast seen near Dornahalli Fig: 13 an hand specimen Fig: 14 Granite quarry near Ibrahimpur Fig: 15 Limestone quarry located in Sirwal

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Shale Shale belonging to Rabanhalli formation is seen in study area. It is mainly exposed along fault zones, wide exposures are found in north of Doranahalli. Normally purple variety is found, and green shale is also seen. Attitude of shale bed depends on strike, varying from east-west to north-south. Dip varies from 150 to 650.

Limestone

Limestone is mainly exposed in northern and central regions of the study area. The limestone varieties like flaggy limestone, cherty limestone, and massive limestone are seen. They belong to shahbad formation. Near to contact purple limestone is seen. In places like north of Madnal, east of Doranahalli and along the Yadgir-Shahpur road we can see the granite clasts with in limestone, indicating the fault zone. Near to fault zone limestone is criss crossed by calcite veins of various sizes. Very few occurrence of khaki limestone is seen, mainly between Dornahalli and Bidrani. In south central part limestone is having eastwest strike, near to Dornahalli it is having north west-south east strike. The dips in the limestone are mainly due to faulting and thrusts, these are entirely local. There was no significant radioactive anomaly seen in limestone area. Normally limestone is having a light grey colour it is having a bluish tinge, buff to khaki (khaki limestone) colour also seen. The flaggy limestone is widely quarried for building and other purposes. The limestone beds have dip of 30-50.

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Stratigraphy Shahbad formation (Limestone) Shale Rabanhalli formation Siltstone Arenites ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Younger Granites, Eastern Block Greenstone Belts, Peninsular Gneisses.

5.2 PETROGRAPHY

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Specimen number: A1 Location: N160 48.750 E760 55.710 Megascopic studies: It is having equigranular texture, medium to coarse grained light pinkish in colour. Microscopic studies: Under microscope it is showing Quartz, feldspar, microcline. The quartz grains shows anhedral shape this is due to deformation recrystallised it is showing undulation twinning and coarse to medium grain sizes. Accessory minerals like sphene are also identified. Opaques are also present. Deformation and Alteration: It is moderately deformed, alteration of feldspar is seen. Flame perthite is also a signature of deformation. Rock Nomenclature: Pink Granite.

Fig: 16 Flame Perthite under TLXN 20X Fig: 17 altered Feldspar under TLXN 20X

Fig: 18 Recrystallised Quartz TLXN 5X

Specimen

Fig: 19 Showing sphene under TLXN 10X

number: A3
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Location: N160 43.917 E760 55.363 Megascopic studies: The rock is greenish in colour, it is compact, medium grained. Microscopic studies: Under microscope it is showing ophitic to sub ophitic texture. Major minerals observed in thin section are feldspar, pyroxene, Olivine. Euhedral to Subhedral grains of pyroxenes are seen. Opaques are present. Deformation and Alteration: Feldspar is altered to clay and pyroxene is altered to chlorite.
Rock Nomenclature: Dolerite

Fig: 20 Alteration of Feldspar to clay under TLXN 10X

Fig: 21 Ophitic texture under TLXN 5X

Fig: 22 Pyroxene(Augite) TLXN 10X

under

Fig: 23 Pyroxene(Augite) under TLXN 5X

Specimen number: A4 Location: N160 44.340 E760 57.342

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Megascopic studies: It is having Hypidiomorphic texture, fine to medium grained light pinkish in colour. Microscopic studies: Under microscope quartz, Plagioclase, microcline and orthoclase are identified. Minor minerals like biotite were identified. Opaques are present.

Fig: 24 Biotite alteration to chlorite under TLON 20X

Fig: 25 Biotite alteration to clay under TLON 20X

Fig: 26 Alteration of feldspar to sericite under TLXN 10X

Fig: 27 Ilmenite 50X RLON

Fig: 28 Pyrite 20X RLON

Fig: 29 Titanomagnetite 20X RLON Department of Studies in Geology, University Of Mysore

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Deformation and Alteration: It is less deformed, alteration of feldspar to sericite is seen. Biotite is altered to clay and chlorite. Ore Microscopy: In ore microscopic studies llmenite, Pyrite, Titanomagnetite were identified. Rock Nomenclature: Pink Granite The Radiometric assay of rock sample A4 was carried out and which gave the results as U3O8 = 0.01% and Th = <0.005.

Specimen number: A7 Location: N160 44.878 E760 51.800 Megascopic studies: It is Purple in colour, induivdial grains are not identifiable. The sample gives effervescences with dilute HCL. Microscopic studies: Under microscope quartz and calite is seen. The grains are very small to identify. Anhedral quartz is set in groundmass of clay and calcite. Rock Nomenclature: Shale

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Fig: 30 Calcite and quartz in shale 20X TLXN

Specimen number: A10 Location: N160 44.988 E760 53.627 Megascopic studies: It is dark redish in colour, very hard and compact. Microscopic studies: This rock is composed of chert, chalcedony, gluconite, chlorite and ferruginous matter. Chalcedony is present around gluconite material, calcite is present as vein, and ferruginous materials are redish in colour and are seen around the grain bountry. Biotite, Chlorite and quartz are scattered or dispersed. Rock Nomenclature: Chert Glauconitic rich rock
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Fig: 31

Chert and Gluconite

Fig: 32 Chert and Gluconite showing under TLXN 20X

showing under TLXN 20X

Specimen number: A2 Location: N160 43.840 E760 55.471 Megascopic studies: It is gray in colour, fine grained and compact. White to buff colored Calcite veins are criss crossing it. The sample gives effervescences with dilute HCL. Microscopic studies: In thin section one portion is composed of micritic limestone. The grains are very small to identify. The other portion shows sparry calcite it is having rhombohedral cleavage. Calcite veins are also seen in thin section. Rock Nomenclature: Micritic Limestone
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Fig: 33 Micritic

Limestone with

Sparry calcite veins TLXN 10X

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CHAPTER-VI

6.1 CONCLUSION In general the granite shows higher background radioactivity due to high content of radioactive elements. The only radioactive anomaly is located in granitic terrain only. A sample collected from this location on analysis by radiometric assay showed 100pm of U3O8, so the granite is the main source for uranium in Bhima sediments. Several faulting has taken place in the vicinity of Bhima basin in the investigated area. Due to which Dextral movement has taken place along Gogi-Kurlagere-Gundahalli fault which is visible in the form of a
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caught up patch of limestone with in granite. A major constrain to radiometric survey in the studied area has been lack of exposures of outcrops. It is quiet likely that if mineralization is present it has been offsetted by fault.

REFERENCES ACHAR, K.K., PANDIT, S.A., NATARAJAN, V., KUMAR, MARY K. and DWIVEDY, K.K. (1997) uranium mineralisation in the Neoproterozoic Bhima Basin, Karnataka, India. Published in: Recent Developments in Uranium Resources, Production and Demand, IAEA, Vienna. Page no: 1-22.

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BRUCE FOOTE, R. (1876) Geological features of the South Maharatta country and adjoining districts. Published in: Mem. Geol. Surv. India, v.12 (2), page no: 70-138. DHANA RAJU, R., KUMAR, M.K., BABU, E.V.S.S. and PANDIT, S.A., (1999), Uranium mineralisation in the Neoproterozoic Bhima Basin and Gogi and Ukinal: Ore Petrology and mineral chemistry. in Field Workshop on Integrated Evaluation of the Kaladgi and Bhima Basins, Geological Society of India, abstract volume, page no.47-53.

JANARDHANA RAO, L. H., SRINIVASA RAO, C. and RAMAKRISHNAN, T. L. (1975) Reclassification of the rocks of Bhima Basin, Gulbarga district, Mysore state. Published in Misc. Publ., Geol. Surv. India, v.23 (1), page no.177184. JAYAPRAKASH A.V. (1999) Evolutionary history of Bhima basin. In Field Workshop on integrated evaluation of Kaladgi and Bhima basin. Published in Geol. Soc. India, abstract volume page no. 22-28. KALE, V.S., MUDHOLKAR, A.V, PHANSALKAR, V.G. and PESHWA, V.V. (1990) Stratigraphy of the Bhima Group. Published in Jour. Palaeont. Soc. India, V.35, page no. 91-103. KALE, V.S. and PESHWA, V.V (1995), Bhima Basin, Published by Geol. Society of India, Bangalore. page no. 45-48 KING, W. (1872) The Kudapah and Karnaul formations in the Madras

Presidency Published in Mem.Geol. Surv. India, v.8 (1), page no.1-346.

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KNOERR, ALVIN.W. & LUTJEN, GEORGE. P. Prospecting for Atomic Minerals. Published by Tata-McGraw-Hill Publ. Co. page no. 126 KRISHNAN, M.S. (1968) Geology of India and Burma (5th Edition); Published by Higginbotham (P). Ltd., New Delhi, page no.536 MAHADEVAN, C. (1947) The Bhima Series and other rocks of Gulbarga district. Published in Jour. Hyderabad. Geol. Surv., v.5 (1), page no.1-60. MATHUR, S.M. (1977) some aspects of the stratigraphy and limestone resources of the Bhima Group. Published in Indian Mineralogist, v.18, page no..59-64. MISHRA, R.N., JAYAPRAKASH, A.V., SUNDARAM, V. and HANS, S.K. (1987), Bhima Group of Upper Proterozoic A stratigraphic Puzzle, Purana Basins of Peninsular India, Published in Geological society of India, Bangalore, Memoir -6 , page no. 227-237. PASCOE, E.H. (1965) A manual of the Geology of India and Burma V.1, (3rd edition), Published by Geological survey of India, page no.56-59 PRACEJUS, BERNHARD (2008). The ore minerals under microscope, an optical guide. Published by Elsevier page no.644 RADHAKRISHNA, B.P. and VAIDYANADHAN, R (2008), Geology of India. Published by: Geological Society of India, Bangalore. Page no: 127-134. RAMAKRISHNAN, M. (1998) Evolution of Archaean Dharwar craton and the Adjoining Proterozoic Mobile Belts, Published in The Indian Mineralogist, v.32, No.1, page no.1-2

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VIRNAVE, S.N. (1999) Nuclear Geology and Atomic Mineral Resource, Published by Bharati Bhavan (Publisher & Distributers) page no.58. WADIA, D.N. (2004) Geology of India; Published by Tata-McGraw-Hill Publ. Co., New Delhi, page no.254.

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