1

EPIDEMIOLOGY
Epidemiology is derived from three Greek words. Epi Upon Demo People Logos Discussion or study According to above combination of the words, epidemiology may be defined as the study of specific disease in a given and specific population in a specific period OR Epidemiology is the study of frequency, distribution and determinants of disease and measures to control the disease. Epizootology: The study of the disease in a specific animal population in specific time and area called epizootology. Epidemics: Outbreaks of diseases in a human population are called epidemics. Epizootics: Outbreaks of diseases in an animal population are called epizootics. Zoonosis: Transmission of infectious disease from animal population to human population or human population to animal population called as zoonosis and the disease is called zoonotic disease. Epornitics: Outbreak of disease in birds population is called epornitics. E.g. bird flu, N.D, chicken pox etc. Endemic Occurrence: Regular occurrence of disease in a population is called endemic disease. e.g. H.S outbreak occurs regularly in august and September in cattle population in plain and semi hilly areas of Pakistan. Pandemic Occurrence: Constant presence of disease in a population is called pandemic. e.g.Actinobaccilosis and action mycosis in some Districts of Punjab. Hyper endemic: Presence of disease in population in a very high level is called hyper endemic. Sporadic: Irregular and haphazard occurrence of a disease in a population is called sporadic. Frequency: Amount of disease, level or magnitude or volume of disease. it is measured by measuring Morbidity No of disease cases. Mortality No of animals die due to a disease. Case Fertility No of animals Dead out of the affected animals.e.g.

01. EPIDEMIOLOGY TERMINOLOGY. 02. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY 03. TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY. 04. ZOONOSIS AND ITS TYPES. 05. DETERMINANTS OF DISEASE. 06. DETERMINANTS ASSOCIATED WITH ENVIROMENT. 07. INTERACTION DETERMINANTS. 08. DETERMINANTS ASSOCIATED WITH AGENT. 09. MAINTENANCE OF INFECTION. 10. MEASUREMENT OF DISEASE FREQUENCY. 11. VETERINARY MEDICINE COMBATING HUNGER AND MALNUTRATION. 12. CAUSE OF DISEASES. 13. USES or OBJECTIVES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY. 14. ROLE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN COMBETING HUNGER AND MALNUTRATION.

No of animals = 4000 No of Affected animals = 500 No of Death animals = 200 Morbidity Rate = Affected animals /Total animals = 500/4000*100= 12.5% Mortality Rate = Dead animals/Total animals = 200/4000*100 = 5% Case fertility Rate= Dead animals/Defected animals = 200/800*100 = 40% Prevalence: No of new+old cases Types: Point prevalence:- No of diseased animals at a point of time. Periodic prevalence No of cases at start + No of cases during period of study. Incidence No of new cases during period of study. Morbidity: Amount of disease in a specific or various species of an area in particular time is called morbidity. Mortality: No of deaths occurred in a known population due to any specific disease is called as mortality. Temporal Occurrence: Temporal occurrence means time of occurrence of any specific disease. Spatial Occurrence: Means spot, place or area when disease occurs or occurred. Geography Or Demography: The measurement and description of size and characteristic of any particular population is called geography or demography. Variable: Any observable events that can be vary. Examples of variable are weight and age of an animal and variation in No of cases of disease. Death Rate: It is the total mortality rate for all diseases rather then one specific disease in a population. Host: Plant, animal those are capable of being infected with infectious agent e.g. primary, secondary, intermediate and final hosts. Definitive Host: Parasitological terms describing a host in which an organism undergoes its final sexual phase of reproduction. Primary host: An animal that maintains an infection in initial development stages of causal agent. Secondary host: Specie that is additionally involved in the life cycle of an agent.

Paratenic Host: A host in which an agent is transferred mechanically without any further development. Intermediate Host: An animal in which an infectious agent undergo some development frequently with asexual reproduction e.g. miracedium of liver fluke in snail (Lymnia trancatula). Vector: An animate transmitter of an infectious agent or invertebrate animal usually arthropod that transfer infectious agent to vertebrates e.g. tsetse fly in trypnosomiasis. Biological vector: A vector in which an infectious agent undergoes either a necessary part of its life cycle or multiplication before transmission to the natural or secondary host.

General Concepts of Epidemiology

1. Endemic 2. Epidemic 3. Pandemic 4. Sporadic 1) Endemic Occurrence: Regular occurrence of disease in a population is called endemic occurrence. e.g. H.S outbreak occurs regularly in a august and September in cattle population in hilly areas and plains. Usual occurrence of disease in a population The constant presence of disease in population when endemic disease is present constantly in population at high level affecting all ages of susceptible animals then it is called hyper endemic. When endemic disease is described specification of affected population and its location must be specified e.g. HS is endemic in buffalo in central areas of Punjab, well irrigated areas of N.W.F.P, BQ is endemic in cattle of District Attock, Rawalpindi, Tank, Mianwali, Jehlum, Khushab and Bhakkar. Anthrax is endemic in sheep and goat in areas of Baluchistan and N.W.F.P. 2) Epidemic Occurrence: Outbreak of disease/diseases in an area in a specific time. e.g. epidemic of HS in buffalo in central areas of Punjab in rainy season. FMD oftenly shown epidemic occurrence (in bovine) during autumn and spring season in Pakistan.

ND is endemic in rural poultry in Pakistan but show epidemic occurrence most frequently. 3) Pandemic: Constant presence and wide spread of disease in vast area in a population is called pandemic occurrence. e.g. Actinobaccilosis and action mycosis. In large areas which may comprise on districts, provinces and countries. Outbreak of transbounding disease. Pandemic occurrence of rinderpest, FMD, ND, bird flu, swine flu causing huge economic losses. 4) Sporadic occurrence: Irregular and haphazardly occurrence of a disease in a population is called sporadic occurrence. E.g. FMD is not endemic in UK but sporadic occurrence thought to be associated with importation of infected birds from South America in October 1967. Birds malaria material is endemic in Sri Lanka but out breaks occurs in poultry imported from other countries by sea. Anthrax is sporadic in cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat in central area of Punjab but is endemic in sheep and goat in areas of Baluchistan and N.W.F.P.

TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
There are four major types and eight sub discipline types of epidemiology. Major types of epidemiology a. Descriptive epidemiology b. Analytical epidemiology c. Theoretical epidemiology d. Experimental epidemiology Descriptive epidemiology: It is subjective form of epidemiology including No of cases, disease record and also casual hypothesis of disease. in this type of epidemiology there is description of animal affected and died due to some peculiar disease in the specific period. This type epidemiology also provides information about time (year, month, and season, day) of occurrence of disease. It is first part of epidemiological investigation. Analytic epidemiology: Analytical epidemiology is the analysis of observation using suitable diagnostic and statistical tests. This type epidemiology is based upon testing and analysis of causal hypothesis as well as confirmation.

In this type epidemiology, the data is analyzed mathematically and statistically, Causal hypothesis are also confirmed by lab examination. Experimental epidemiology: This types of epidemiology is applied upon the lab animals, clinical trails etc for the confirmation of any specific strain, pathogenesis, vaccine efficiency etc. It help in close monitoring of programme, observations, control of disease e.g. (rat, rabbit, guinea pig etc). Theoretical epidemiology: This type of epidemiology consists of representation of disease using mathematical models that attempt to simulate natural pattern of disease occurrence. E.g. H.S, B.Q occurs in not rainy months of summer season. Sub discipline types of epidemiology: a. Clinical epidemiology b. Computational epidemiology c. Genetic epidemiology d. Molecular epidemiology e. Micro epidemiology f. Macro epidemiology g. Environmental epidemiology h. Nutritional epidemiology Clinical epidemiology: Clinical epidemiology is based upon those observations of an animal which are brought to the clinics or as indoor kept in clinic. Data collected from clinical records is analyzing statistically and mathematically. Computational epidemiology: Use of computer and other information in the epidemiological study to make it easy. Genetic epidemiology: Genetic epidemiology is the study of cause, distribution and control of the disease in relation to individual and of inherited defects in the population. Molecular epidemiology: It help in the study of causal organism using new biochemical techniques which have replaced previous or conventional serological techniques. E.g. peptide making nucleic acid, finger printing, hybridization, Restriction enzyme analysis, mono cloner antibody and PCR. Micro epidemiology: It is the study of disease in a small groups of individuals. Macro epidemiology: It describes the national pattern and social economic, political factor that influence it. E.g. FMD is frequently present in Pakistan. It has also worldwide distribution.

Environmental epidemiology: This type of epidemiology Is related to ecology and ecosystem of diseases, it provides information about season/month of the occurrence of any disease. it facilitates the pre time interception using comprehensive measures like vaccination, sanitation, transportation and quarantine methods. Nutritional epidemiology: It deals and describes the nutritional factors influencing any disease. E.g. goiter in iodine deficient areas. Haemoglobinurea in phosphorus deficient area. Rickets or bone deficiency in Ca, P, vit D deficient areas. Uses/Objective/Application of Epidemiology: There are five objective/uses of epidemiology. Determination of cause Investigation and control of disease whose cause is either unknown or poor by known. Etiological and natural history of disease. Planning and monitoring of disease control programmes. Assessment of economic effects of disease. Determination of cause: Determination of cause has prime importance so several types of studies are performed by determination of species, age group, sex group etc by taking blood, urine, feces, and skin scrapings. The samples are scientifically analyzed and organism is identified. If unknown disease is spread in population it is quietly difficult task to study its property, so first of all the exact cause is known either that is bacterial, viral, protozoal or an others. In respects to determine the actual causes of the disease. It should be studied multidimentionally e.g. history, clinical sign, symptom, mortality and morbidity rate etc. epidemiology tells us about such study. Investigation and control of disease whose cause is either is unknown or poor by known. If an exact cause of the disease is unknown but can either be classified as bacterial, viral, protozoal or any other. The epidemiological studies are conducted to take maximum information about predisposing, primary, secondary, tertiary cause of disease. Disease may be controlled by applying the following techniques. Vaccination Medication

Strict hygiene Vector control Biosecurity measures Rx of predisposing factor Quarantine measures Etiological and Natural History of Disease: Etiological history means information about actual cause and natural history means predisposing factors like breed, species, sex group and environmental condition of disease and location of area. Etiological and natural history of the disease means that how it is caused and what is the causative agent and also morphological and etiological features of causative organism. It also study which season is suitable for the survival of causative pathogen. Planning and monitoring of disease control programme: Disease control programme should be well planned from each side but it should be efficient, economic and rapid. It is preformed by strict watching normal procedure, normal implementation of planning programme to avoid any hazard. A well planned and well implemented project is ever successful. Assessment the economic effects of disease: Disease control management team, Treatment cast, prophylactic cast, should be least as possible but it should be efficient, accurate and complete level of expenses be kept at such a level that should not effect the efficiency of management. This may be attained if Accurate data collection of population. Accurate data analysis Known cause Known predisposing factor/factors Efficient team Proper managemental tools etc are variable

Zoonosis and Its Types:

Zoonosis: Transmission of disease from the animal population to the human population or from human population to the animal population in natural conduction is called zoonosis and diseases are called zoonotic disease. There are many major of bacterial, viral, protozoal and parasitic and fungal diseases which are transmitted from the animal population to the human population by any means of horizontal transmission.

There are numerous numbers of zoonotic disease which are highly fetal to the human lives. Major examples are rabies, bird flu, swine flu and SARC etc. In prevention of such disease a veterinarian play a key role. Source of Transmission: There are two major source of transmission of zoonotic disease. Animal source Agriculture source If comprehensive efforts are made by livestock and agriculture departments then it is possible to control90% zoonotic diseases. Types of Zoonosis: Zoonotic disease are classified by the No of the intermediate host Nature of intermediate host There are four types of zoonotic diseases. 1) Direct zoonosis 2) Cyclo zoonosis 3) Meta zoonosis 4) Sapro zoonosis 1>Direct Zoonosis: It is that type in which disease are directly transmitted from animal population to the human population without involvement of any intermediate host. Mostly these diseases occur by direct contact with infected animal or their herd. Major examples are rabies, bird flu, swine flu, pox, scabies and sars. This type of zoonosis occures very rapidly and cause high mortality, morbidity and economic losses, and remain a challenge for the health workers to have control on it. 2> Cyclo Zoonosis: It is that of zoonosis which requires at least two vertebrate hosts for completing and maintaining its life cycle e.g. hydrated cyst of echinococcus granulossus need two vertebrate intermediate host to approach to human population. Toxocara gondicystcarnivoresexerted in the feces in the form of cysteaten by sheep and goatinfected meat eaten by human beings. 3> Meta zoonosis: In such type of zoonosis the diseases are transmitted by invertebrate host from animal population to the human population. As the invertebrate play a role of bridge for the completion of zoonotic cycle, such type of zoonosis can easily be controlled by breaking the bridge. E.g. rift valley fever is transmitted by mosquitoes. Human plague cause by yersina pest is transmitted by flies.

Looping ill Q fever by meat Malaria by mosquitoes 4> Sapro Zoonosis Sapro zoonosis is that type of Zoonosis in which diseases are transmitted by in animate host sources of transmission are soil, water, wind and contaminated materials. E.g. tetanus, glanders, HS, anthrax are the example of Sapro zoonosis.

Determinants of Disease:
Determinants are the characteristic that effects the health of population e.g. diet is a determinants in nutritional disease. Determinants are the multiple factors which influence the onset, frequency and distribution of diseases. e.g. hypomagnesaemia is due to low magnesium level in blood, or in soil or in feed or related to rapid grass growth. The knowledge about determinants facilitates identification and categories of animals that are at particular risk of developing diseases. So their study helps in diagnosis and prevention of disease. Classification of determinants: Determinants are classified into three different classes. a) Primary and secondary determinants b) Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants c) Agent, host and environment related determinants Primary and secondary determinants: 1) Primary determinants: These are the basic causes of diseases. Their presence or absence has prime importance. e.g FMD virus, pasturella multocida, and clostridium perfrengens. These are also called the necessary causes of diseases, their variation (pathogenically) in a population directly influences on frequency and distribution of diseases. 2) Secondary Determinants: These are also called predisposing factors. They play a vital role on the occurrence, severity and distribution of diseases. e.g. canine heart valve in cotenance , meat value diseases, incidence is high in female and low in male. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Determinants: a. Intrinsic or Internal determinants: Means factor which are internal to host or animal due to intrinsic determinants are the determinants which are related with body of patient that may be genetic makeup.

e.g. genetic abnormality which influence the onset of genital disease. intrinsic determinants are also called endogenous determinants. b. Extrinsic or external Determinants: (Means a factor which is external or outside the host) Extrinsic determinants also called exogenous determinants. These are related with factor which influence outside of the body e.g. TransportationTraumawoundtetanus SmokingLungs infectionCancer Decreased iodineGoiter c. Agent, Host and Environment Related Determinants: Agent Related Determinants: How agents effect the environment? Agent pullets the environment, Agents are the basic causes of disease that is bacterial, viral, parasitic or any other. Agent has great influence on frequency and distribution of disease. Host: These are the determinants which are closely related to host influence upon the occurrence of various diseases. These determinants may be species, breed, age, sex and color. Environment: Has significant effect on the onset of disease e.g. Hot humid environment will decrease the resistance of an animal and promote the onset of HS. Rains will effect on the clostridium spore and promote the onset of BQ. High incidence of traumatic pericarditis in industry areas Increased metallic objects Promote traumatic pericarditis. Determinants associated with the host: Same determinants are closely related to the host and influence upon the occurrence of various diseases, these determinants may be: Specie, breed, age, sex and color. Species of host: Some diseases are host specific e.g. Strangle and Glanders Equine FMD and HS Cattle, buffalo but decrease effects on all the species. e.g. Brucellosis Breed: Some breeds are not susceptible or less susceptible to the diseases. e.g. FMD incidence high in exotic breed. Age: Mostly diseases have different frequency in different age groups. e.g. diarrheahigh incidence in young animal. Strangleshigh incidence in young horses. TB high incidence in old animals. Glanders high incidence in old animals

Sex: There are different sex hormone in male and female e.g. In estrusincreases estrogen levels. So more prone to diabetes mellitus. Canine heart valve incotenance is higher in males rather then females. some diseases are sex limited e.g. mastitis Some diseases are sex influencing e.g. accidental injury Color: In some diseases coat, color plays the role of disease determinants such as white coat cat get cutenous squamous carcinoma most frequently then other. This is due to absence of melanin pigment in their skin and hence they get diseases. Hair coat colors are primary determinant of squamous cell carcinoma

Determinants Associated with Environment

Such as location, climate husbandry, housing, diet and stress. Location: It is also called the geological distribution of disease and considered as environmental determinants. Climate: Has two parts. 1) Macro climate: Such as rain fall, temperature, solar radiation, humidity and wind are the component of macro climate. e.g. solar radiations are the primary determinants of squamous cell carcinoma. 2) Micro climate: Is that climate which occur in a small defined space, may be as small as few milli meter or as large as calf horse. Husbandry: Husbandry of an animal and composed up (to take care of an animal) is also an important disease determinant. Diet: In husbandry diet is also a determinant especially in multinutritioned diseases deficiency e.g. vitamins and protein deficiency. Stress: Emotional, conflict and displeasure is termed as stress in case of human medicine but in case or veterinary medicine stress is a results of sudden

change with the normal state of an animal as weaning, shearing, overcrowding, hunger and thirst. Stress is another managemental determinant of many undiscribed diseases.

Interaction Determinants
The interdependent operation of factors to produce an effect is called interaction determinant. Interaction determinants are classified in two major classes. 1) Biological Interaction Dependants between two factors based on physical or chemical association is termed as biological interaction. As biological interaction factor mostly act as synergetic to each other as in low ventilation, bacteria are proan to get multiplication disease. 2) Statistical interaction Quantitative facts into two hour more then two factors. If these are two or more then two factors involved in disease occurrence, so when there quantitative amount are measured into different form may be in additive or man additive form e.g. Bitch in estrusincrease in estrogen. So more prone to diabetes mellitus. Coat color: In some diseases the coat color play a role of disease determinants such as white cat cutenous souamous carcinoma much more as compared to other. This is due to absence of melanin pigment in their skin hence they get infection.

Determinants Associated with Agent:

Pathogencity and Virulency: Pathogencity Means ability to cause a disease. Types of Organism Two types, pathogenic and non-pathogenic. Virullency: It is the degree of pathogencity. These may be, high virulence, moderately virulence, mild virulence and low virulence. E.g. ND or ranikhet disease. Lentogenic strain Mild virulence causes 510% mortality. Mesogenic strain Moderate virulence cause 50% mortality.

Velogenic strain High virulence cause 100% mortality. OR Organism capsulated High virulence Non capsulated Low virulence OR Organism has timbre Virulence Organism has non timbre Non virulence Notepathogenetically and virulency is controlled by phenotypically and genotypically. Genetic makeup influences them. Genotypic characteristics are change by a. Mutation b. Recombination Mutation: Two types 1) Point mutation Mean change at one segment of nucleotide. 2) Deletion mutation Whole segment is missing. Recombination: Such as a) Conjugation Transfer of genetic material from donor to recipient through sex Pilli. In these phenomena the genes which are pathogenic are transfer from donor. b) Transduction Transfer of genetic material to recipient by lysis of donor cell which released, the genetic material in surrounding which is picked up by the receipt. Gradient of infection: Gradient of infection means that responses in combine form of agent against the host immune responses. In other word we can also say that in the presence of the host opposing responses quantity of infection is called gradient of infection. Gradient infection may be Silent infection: Means the lowest quantity of infection in matter detected from signs and symptoms or lab examination. Sub clinical Infection: If organism is present but signs do not appear. The signs appear may be mild signs, moderate signs, sever signs and death. Clinical Infection: Clinical infection can easily be diagnosed by clinical examination and lab aid. It may be acute, sub acute or chronic. Outcome of infection: There are two outcomes of any infection. Death or recovery.

Death: As death of the host is source of infection but recovered animal get immunity against infection and may act as 1) Carrier state animal 2) Latent infection animal Carrier State Animal: Broadly carrier state animals are those animals which do not show any sign but act as source of infection for other non immunized animals. The carrier animal may be Incubatory Carrier: Some animals spread infectious agent before showing and developing the clinical stage of the disease (during incubation period) e.g. rabies in dog from their saliva. Convulsant carrier: Those animals spread infectious agent during their recovery period, e.g. FMD, virus. Latent Infection: Latent infection means is that infection which presents in an individual without showing sign and symptoms and may develop in any stage of life in any form.

Maintenance of Infection
Maintenance of infection need infectious agent to be kept survives in the host body by providing their required environment in the host body. This is possible when hazard to infectious agent should avoided, which are, Host body environment External environment In the former one there should be depressed unable immune response to the infectious agent from the host body, hence it will be able to multiply and will continue and increase its pathogenic action without any opposing action. In the 2nd one there are two types of factor are responsible, decreased humidity and ultra violet radiations. These two in combine form kill them or reduce their multiplication. Maintenance Strategies: The way in which infectious agents are maintained called maintenance strategies. These are given as under 1) Avoid external environment: As in external environment two factors in combine form ultra violet light and desiccation are lethal to infectious agents. If a direct transmission way is

by vector transmission By ingestion of combinants+vertical turns Ventral turns Saraphasy resistant 2) Resistant Form: Those agents which are resistant to both external environment and host body environment are resistant forms which are more capable to maintain the infection such as some bacteria form spores e.g. clostridium species. 3) Rapidly in, Rapidly out Strategy: This strategy means that these organisms which are capable to enter rapidly into the host body to multiply rapidly and leave the host body before host response can maintain infections. e.g. many viruses in URT (upper respiratory tract) do this strategy. 4) Persistence in Host: If the infectious agents are capable to persist in the host body for long period it occurs when host defense system is failed to eradicate the agent. Different organism applies different methods and techniques for persisting in the host body to maintain the infectious maintenance. Such as Immunosupporation Copulation Mutation Cystation Resistance 5) Extension of Host Range: It is important and most common strategy of an infectious agent to have wide range hold on different host and causes infection in them. This is the greatest successful strategy to maintain the infection.

Measurement of Diseases Frequency

Prevalence: Number of new + old cases. Types: 2 types a) Point prevalence No of diseased animals at a specific point and time. b) Period prevalence No of cases at start + No of cases observe during period. Prevalence may be defined as amount of disease in a population at particular in point and time; Prevalence may be annual prevalence and life prevalence.

Annul Prevalence: Annul prevalence means no of cases of disease occur in a given population within a year while life prevalence is the No of individuals known to have disease for at least a part of their life. P= Number of diseased animals/total No of animals. For example total population is 200 animals out of which 20 are ill, Probability is given below. P= 20/200=10% Incidence: (New case during period of time) The No of new cases occurs in a known population in a specific time. it has two types: a) Cumulative incidence: Also known as risk. It is proportion of non disease individual which become affected during a course of observation study, such as C.I No of diseased individuals become/disease during a particular period/No of healthy individual at the beginning. b) Incidence rate: Measure the rate of development of new cases in particular time. Attack Rate: Description of the proportion of animals that develop the disease is called attack rate. But this is for short period of time. The 2 nd attack rate is the numbers of individuals exposed to primary case which develop the disease in range. A.T= No of individual developing disease/Total no of population exposed to primary case Relation Between Prevalence and Incidence Rate: Cross sectional study has revealed that prevalence P depends on duration D and incidence rate I and directly proportion to D. P=ID This means change in prevalence due to Change in incidence rate Change in both incidence rate and duration Change in average duration of disease Mortality: Number of deaths occurs in known population due to any specific disease. Mortality may be a) Cumulative Mortality (C.M): It is ratio between died individuals with the total No of individual at the beginning of that period. CM= No of individuals die in specific period/Total No of population b) Mortality rate: Is the percentage rate death of individuals over the some of all individuals at risk. M=Death/Total No of individuals at risk.

Death Rate: Is the total No of mortality for all diseases rather then one specific disease in a population. Case Fertility Rate: Percentage of death out of affected animals is called case fertility e.g. Total No of animal=4000 Affected=500 animals Death=200 animals Case fertility=Death/effected animal=200/500*100=40% Survival: Survival is the probability of an individual with a specific disease remaining alive for a length of time. S=N-D/N N=No of diagnosed cases D=No of dead animals

Veterinary Medicine Combating Hunger and Malnutrition

Veterinary science is the second largest department of agriculture which is playing an important role in hunger and malnutrition in human population by producing major nutrients to human by different method. As we know that the amount of protein in human nutrition is obtained from meat and eggs or an animal product and also vitamin and important minerals in the form of milk also an animal product. This is all due to veterinary medicine. As now a days, quality and quantity product obtaining is a challenge for increasing population. The quality means contained standard composition an pathogen feed products while quantity means which to provide sufficient amount of products to the increasing population to fulfill their needs. In past we can say that due to in sufficient facilities but after getting some development in the same field, there are in continuous struggle to control the maintained problems in human population. As know we can say without any hesitation, that net only achieving target for combating, this time of its on side as produce animal products for human population. But now a days it assist other, agriculture department and crossed its goals.

10

Veterinary medicine has achieved the target by applying different techniques such as Disease control and eradication in human population Decreases economic losses due to disease by prophylactic measure Introduction of new applying techniques for quality and quantity products Has provided important jobs for human Has decreased important disease condition in human transmitted from animal and ultimately decreases expenses via health Introduce new productive breeds

Cause of the diseases

Different biologist had described the cause of disease differently but two of them are most effective. 1) Koch postulates: Postulate Anything assumed without proof. Koch in 19th century described the infectious agent and given his postulates. These postulates state that an organism is causal of disease if a) It is presented in all cases of diseases b) It does not occur in other diseases c) It is isolated in pure culture from diseased animal But after experimental work done by other microbiologists, reveal that disease is cause by mixed microorganism can not be isolated purely from diseased animal if not inoculated to SPF lab animal. 2) Evans postulates: Evans (1976) has produced a set of postulate that is consistent with modern concept of causation. a) Proportion of the causative agent or organism should be high. b) Exposed to supposed cause should be present more commonly then those which are healthy c) No of causes of disease should be significantly high in those individual exposed to the cause first time then those which are already exposed. d) The disease should follow after exposure to the causation but have an incubation period. e) The host response from mild to sever should followed exposure to the causative by biological gradient.

f) The host immune response should appear regularly after exposure to the cause and will be most efficient if reexposed to the cause. g) Experimental reproduction of a disease should occur with greatest frequency. h) Removal or modification of the cause should decrease the occurrence of disease. i) Preventive measures against the cause in host should decrease/Eliminate the supposed cause. j) All relationship and association should be biologically and epidemiological credibly.

Uses or objectives of Epidemiology

There are 5 uses or objectives of epidemiology. i. Determination of cause ii. Investigation and control of disease whose cause is either unknown or poor known iii. Ecology and natural history of disease iv. Planning and monitoring of disease control programme v. Assessment the economic effects of disease 1- Determination of Cause: The need of determination of cause due to its economic losses so various types of studied of farm performed like determination of species, sex group, age group, by taking blood urine, feces and skin scraping. The samples are scientifically analyzed and organism is tried to be identified. If unknown disease spread in population it is quietly difficult task to study its property, so first of all the exact cause is known either that is bacterial, viral and protozoal etc. In respect to determine the exact cause of disease it should be studied multidimentionally e.g. history, clinical sign, symptoms, mortality and morbidity etc. epidemiology told us about such study. 2- Investigation and Control of Disease: Whose cause is either unknown or poor known. This seem to be very interesting that the cause of disease unknown but disease should controlled epidemiology study conducted to take maximum information about predisposing, primary, secondary and tertiary cause of disease. Edward Jenner control disease of small pox in human beings.

11

Cow pox virus is although at that time cause of the small pox in human being was not identified. The second example is squamous carcinoma in hair ford cattle. The exact cause of that disease was not known at that time. But epidemiological studies have shown that animal with unpigmented eyes. So on this basis breeder used such breed for breeding purpose whose eye lid was pigmented, so that chances of neoplasm are minimized in offspring. Epidemiological studies are also used to determine the causes of disease so that the most appropriate control techniques are applied. It may be controlled by applying the following techniques, vaccination, medication strict hygienic, vector control and bio security. 3- Ecology and Natural History of Disease: It is very much important to know about relation of disease with environment. Because causative agent of disease are disease carrying agent live in specific environment e.g. causes of fasciolosis usually occurs in poorly trained dumpy areas. It is because of snail live in moist surrounding and the causative parasite of fasciolosis. Fasciola hepatica spent part of its life cycle in snail. In this way if we have information about the ecosystem of causative agent then we can adopt the effective control and eradicative measure against that cause and this knowledge is only given by epidemiology. 4- Planning and Monitoring of Disease: Disease control programme well planned from each side. It should be economic, efficient and rapid. It is perform by strict watching normal planning procedure, normal implementation of planning programme, to avoid any hazard activity. So well planned and well implemented programmed are ever successful. 5- Assessment the Economic Effect of Disease: Disease control must learn prophylactic cost, Rx cost should be kept at best as level of expenses that do not effect efficiency of management team. Accurate data collection of population Accurate data analysis Known cases Known predisposing factor Efficient team Management level

Role of Veterinary Medicine in Combating Hunger and Malnutrition

Veterinary medicine is second largest department of agriculture playing an important role in combating the serious problems of hunger and malnutrition.Ever increase in the human population as a dire need of standard quality nutrition. The nutrition enriched in protein, vitamins, minerals, fat etc is keen necessary for the maintenance, growth and production of human being.Veterinary medicine, from the beginning of human life has a vital role. It has an objective of providing healthy animals to obtain maximum benefits from the animals. It is directly or indirectly involved in combating hunger to overcome the consequence of hunger like poverty and terrorism. It is also directly involved in combating the major problem of the malnutrition. Malnutrition has created some other serious problems like low resistance power, decreased working ability and increased expenditure on human treatment.Veterinary medicine is a broad term being used for medicine, vaccine, awareness and comprehensive measure to save the animals from serious health problems.Veterinary medicine has done and is playing following important roles. a) Veterinary medicine has produced quality products by applying new techniques and continuous research. b) Veterinary medicine has a significant role in the control of zoonotic diseases and other diseases. c) It has significantly reduced the economic losses by the reduction in morbidity and mortality rates in animals. d) It has provided a vast field of employment. e) It has increased the health in human lives with the control of zoonotic diseases. f) It has introduced new productive breeds. g) It has given incentives for keeping animals to improve human economy and show purpose.