HET312 Control & Automation

1. Introduction To Control System

1. Control is the process of making a system variable to follow some desired value in some desired manner. 2. To control the system variable, the system under control must be understood. 3. Control theory is not just applicable to science and engineering. The concept may also be applied to business, social and political systems 4. The process to be controlled may be represented by a block diagram A. Open-loop control system Input Controller Process/Plant Output

5. Some processes may be inherently unstable e.g. balancing inverted broomstick. Fortunately some of them can be made stable using closed-loop control. 6. Closed-loop control: Measures the output of the process Compared it with the desired output (= input) If output and input are not equal, then an error results The controller will force the error to zero, i.e. output = input. 7. If the control, measurement and feedback are done by machine rather than human, then the control is termed Automatic Control. 8. The main objective of a control system is to make the process to follow the input as close as possible. Reading list: Chapter 1 of both Dorf and Ogata

B. Closed-loop control system Input

Compare Controller Process/Plant

Output

Example 1.1: Many luxury cars have thermostatically controlled air conditioning systems. Sketch a block diagram of an air conditioning system where the driver sets the desired temperature on the dashboard panel. Identify (either process, controller, measurement, output, input) of each element of the thermostatically controlled cooling system.

Measurement

Example of control system: Driving a car

i. (Input) Driver desires to drive at 60km/h ii. (Controller) Driver depresses the accelerator iii. (Process) Car accelerates iv. (Measurement) Speed increase shown on the speedometer v. (Controller) driver compares the speed of the car with the desired speed, depressing / pressing the accelerator if necessary for closed-loop

eg. 2: Cooking, unmanned vehicles

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2. Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

1. To understand and control complex system, usually a mathematical model of the system must first be obtained relationships between system variables. 2. The mathematical model is usually in the form of differential equation as it contains information about the system behavior as time progresses Dynamics. 3. Laplace Transforms (LT) can be used to simplify the solution, i.e. finding the response as time progresses. 4. Usually, assumptions are made during the derivation of the mathematical model to simplify solution without severe inaccuracy. 5. Generally, in solving a control system:

2.1 Differential equations of physical system 1. The differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a physical system (mechanical, electrical, fluid, business etc) can be obtained: a. Mathematically by using physical laws, b. Empirically by measuring the output and input of the system. 2. Examples will be shown to demonstrate the approach used to develop models using differential equations. Basically the equation relates the output with the input. The rest are all constants. Example 2.1: Spring-mass-damper system Assuming that the system is operating at the linear region, an external force, u(t) is applied to the system, causing a change in the displacement of the mass, y(t). Input = force u(t) Output = displacement y(t) Force produced by spring = ky Force produced by damper = b dy/dt Acceleration of the mass due to force = m d2y/dt2 Since the total force must be zero (physical law),

Define system & components

Formulate mathematical model + assumptions

& u = m&& + by + ky y
Writing differential equation

Solution of differential equation

Example 2.2: RCL circuit

Examine solutions & assumptions

i (t )
vi (t )

L
C

v o (t )

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Input = voltage vi(t) Output = displacement vo(t)

The Taylor Series expansion of the function g(x) at operating point x0 is:

& From Kirchoffs Voltage Law, vi = Li + vo (1)

v & From Kirchoffs Current Law, i = Cvo + o (2) R
Differentiate equation (2) and then substituting it into equation (1) gives:

g ( x) = g ( x0 ) + (x x0 )

dg dx

+
x = x0

( x x 0 )2
2!

d 2g dx 2

+K
x = x0

For a small range, x x0 << 1 and hence the expansion can be simplified to a linear equation:

& v && v i = L C v o + o + v o R L && & vi = LCvo + vo + v o R

3. The above example are for linear time invariant (LTI), single input single output (SISO) control system. Other types of system may exist and can be modelled by similar manner.

g ( x) g ( x0 ) + (x x0 ) g ( x) g ( x0 ) = (x x0 )

dg dx dg dx

x = x0

x = x0

y = m x

Example 2.3: Pendulum Oscillator model

Reading list: Section 2.1, 2.2 of Dorf, and Chapter 3.1, 3.2 & 4 of Ogata. 2.2 Linear approximation of physical systems 1. A linear system satisfies the properties of superposition.

x1 (t ) + x 2 (t ) y1 (t ) + y 2 (t )
2. Most physical systems are linear within some range of the variables. E.g. spring-mass system. However all systems ultimately become non-linear as the variables are increased without limit. 3. To linearize non-linear elements over a range of the variables, Taylor Series expansion about the operating point is utilized.

The torque on the mass, T ( ) = MgL sin To linearize the model about the equilibrium point at = 0, the Taylor Series:

T ( ) = T (0 0 ) + ( 0 0 )MgL cos 0 0 T ( ) = MgL

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2.3 Solving differential equation 1. If the system is linear time-invariant, Laplace transform can be used to simplify the solution of the differential equation. The solution of the differential equation let us know how the system behaves as time progresses.
System modelling Differential Equation Laplace Transform Solution by Inverse LT

6. To demonstrate the use of LT, consider the spring-mass-damper system in example 2.1. The differential equation describing the system is given by:

& u = m&& + by + ky y

Taking the Laplace transform of the differential equation,

& U ( s ) = m(s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0) ) + b(sY ( s ) y (0) ) + kY ( s )

2. Signals that are physically realizable always have a Laplace transform. The Laplace transformation for a function of time, f(t), is:

F ( s ) = L{ f (t )} =

If the input and the initial conditions are given by (HOWEVER, in almost all control design, all initial conditions are assumed 0): & u (t ) = 0 , y (0) = y 0 and y (0) = 0 The equation becomes

f (t )e
0

st

dt

and the inverse Laplace transform is written as:

1 st f (t ) = F j (s )e ds 2j
3. When using Laplace transform, we are actually solving the control system differential equation in the frequency domain, as opposed to the time domain. 4. Instead of using the mathematical equations above to perform Laplace transformation, a standard Laplace transforms table, as that shown in table 2.1, is available for time functions that will frequently appear in linear control analysis. 5. The Laplace variable s can be considered to be the differential operator so that:

+ j

0 = ms 2Y ( s ) msy 0 + bsY ( s ) by 0 + kY ( s ) (ms + b ) y 0 Y (s) = ms 2 + bs + k

The equation is now in algebraic expression and hence the solution is simpler. 7. The Laplace equation can be simplified using partial fraction and the time response obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of each term. Let k/m = 2, b/m = 3 and y0 = 1, hence

Y (s) =
By partial fraction,

(s + 3 ) (s + 1)(s + 2)

d s dt

&

1 dt s 0
n2

Y (s) =

2 1 (s + 1) (s + 2)

6. For the nth derivative of a function f(t), the Laplace transform is:

dn & L n f (t ) = s n F ( s ) s n 1 f (0) s n 2 f (0) K sf dt

From the Laplace table, the output response/solution is

(0) f

n 1

(0)

y (t ) = 2e t e 2t

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2.4 Poles, zeros and transfer function 1. Generally, the Laplace equation describing a control system is in the form:

(s + b0 )(s + b1 )(s + b2 )...(s + bm ) (s + a0 )(s + a1 )(s + a 2 )...(s + a n )

Zeros Characteristic equation Poles

7. Transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be zero. 8. For example, in the earlier spring-mass-damper system, if all initial conditions are zero,

U ( s ) = ms 2Y ( s ) + bsY ( s ) + kY ( s )
and the transfer function is given by:

2. The denominator when set equal to 0 is called the Characteristic Equation (CE) because the roots of the CE determine the nature of the time response. 3. The roots of CE are called the poles of the system. 4. The roots of the numerator are called the zeros of the system. 5. Both poles and zeros can be of complex conjugate pairs. They can be plotted on the s-plane. Figure 2.1 shows the poles () and zero (o) of the spring-massdamper system discuss earlier. j

Y ( s) 1 = 2 U ( s ) ms + bs + k
Example 2.4 Find the time response for a system represented by the differential equation

d2y dy + 4 + 3 y = 2r (t ) dt dt
with the conditions

y (0) = 1 ,

dy (0) = 0 and r(t) = 1 dt

o -3

-2

-1

Example 2.5

s-plane

Figure 2.1

M 1 s + b1 + b2 Given b1

V ( s ) R( s ) . Find the transfer k 1 = M 2 s + b1 + V2 ( s ) 0 s

b1

6. From the previous example, it can be seen that: a. poles: determine the form of the time response b. zeros: set the magnitude of each response component (the residues of each component)

function relating the input r(t) and output v1(t)

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2.5. Time response

2. This theorem applies if and only if f(t) settles down to a definite value for t . If all the poles of F(s) lie in the left half of the s-plane, then final value exist. 3. But if F(s) has poles on the imaginary axis or in the right half s-plane, f(t) will contain oscillating or exponentially increasing time functions, and hence there will be no final value. 4. Consider the previous spring-mass-damper example, the final value is:

lim f (t ) = lim sY ( s ) = lim s

t s 0 s 0

(s + 3) = 0 3 = 0 (s + 1)(s + 2) 1 2

Figure 2.2

which is in agreement with the sketched result. 5. Initial value theorem is used to find the initial value of f(t) directly from the Laplace transform of f(t).

1. Figure 2.2 shows the general output time response of a control system. The response is due to two components: a. Forced response: resulting from input stimulus b. Natural response: resulting from system dynamics 2. The time response is consists of two parts: a. Transient response: response from initial state to final state b. Steady state response: response at final state 3. During transient, natural response dominates. 4. During steady state, natural response dies out and forced response dominates.

f (0) = lim sF ( s )
s

6. In applying initial value theorem, the locations of the poles are not important. 7. Consider the previous spring-mass-damper example, the initial value is:

f (0) = lim sY ( s ) = lim s

s s

(s + 3) = 1 (s + 1)(s + 2)
1 . Verify your s (s + 1)

Example 2.6: FVT and IVT 5. If the natural response never dies out when t , instability occurs. Find the initial and final value for the function F ( s ) = answers by finding f(t).

2.6 Initial and final value theorem 1. To find the final value of the time response (the steady state value), the Final Value Theorem is used.

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t s 0

Reading list: Section 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 of Dorf, and Chapter 2, 3.2 - 3.6 of Ogata.

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2.7 Block diagram representation 1. Block diagram can be used to represent control systems relationship. It consists of unidirectional operational blocks that represent the transfer function of the variables of interest. For example, the spring-mass-damper system,

E ( s) = R( s) C ( s) H ( s) C ( s) = G ( s) E ( s)
So,

U(s)

G (s) =

1 Y (s) = 2 U ( s ) ms + bs + k

Y(s)

E ( s) = R( s ) C ( s ) H ( s) C ( s ) = G ( s ) R( s ) G ( s )C ( s ) H ( s ) C (s) G ( s) = R( s ) 1 + G ( s) H ( s )

2. To represent system with several variables under control, an interconnection of blocks is utilized. From example, block diagram in figure 2.3 represents the set of equations:

This is the closed-loop transfer function (CLTF). 4. With the CLTF, the block diagram in figure 2.4 can be reduced to a single block representation. There are many other block diagram transformation, some are given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2

Figure 2.3

3. Consider the closed-loop negative feedback system shown in figure 2.4. The system transfer function can be found by:

R(s)

+ _

E(s)

G(s)

C(s)

H(s)

Figure 2.4

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5. For a complex system, the block diagram approach can be a burden. An alternative method of representing the system uses line segments (often referred to as signal flow graphs). 6. The transfer function of the system can be determined using Masons Rule. 7. Definitions for the application of Masons Rule: a. forward path: a path from input to output such that no node is included more than once b. loop: any closed path that returns to its starting node c. loop path: a path that leads from a given variable back to the same variable d. loop gain: the product of gains in a loop e. gain: a multiplying factor (constant or a transfer function) 8. Masons Rule: The transfer function associated with a signal flow graph is given by:

Example 2.7 Find the transfer function: A.

G(s) =
where

1 Gi i
B.

Gi = path gain of ith forward path = system determinant = 1 - (all individual loop gain) + (gain products of all possible two loops that do not touch) - ( gain products of all possible three loops that do not touch) + i = ith forward path determinant = value of for that part of the block diagram that does not touch the ith forward path.

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3. Transient and Steady State Response Analysis

3.1 Feedback System 1. An open-loop system operates without feedback and directly generates the output in response to an input signal.

4. Sensitivity A process is subject to changing environment, aging and other factors that affect a control process. Sensitivity is the ratio of the fractional change in the transfer function to the fractional change in the parameter for a small incremental change. Sensitivity of transfer function T with respect to process G is defined as:

Y ( s) = G(s) R( s)
In the limit, this becomes: S G 2. Closed-loop feedback system uses the error between the desired and the actual response to control the process. Hence, for open-loop, S G = 1
T

T T SG = T G G G T = T G

And for closed-loop, S G =

T

1 G (1 + GH ) 1 + GH GH = 2 1 + GH G (1 + GH )

Since GH is usually >> 1, the sensitivity of closed-loop system is better than open-loop system.

Y (s) G ( s) = R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
3. Feedback, if used properly will improve control system response as it: a. Reduces sensitivity to parameter variation b. Can easily change the transient response c. Reduces the effect of disturbance signal d. Reduces steady state error

Sensitivity also applies to other parameters in the system. Example 3.1: Calculate the sensitivity of the CLTF to changes in parameter a. How would you reduce the sensitivity?

C (s )

+ _

K s (s + a )

R (s )

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5. Transient response Transient response is a very important characteristic of control systems. In an open-loop system if the transient response is unsatisfactory then the process G(s) must be replaced or additional controller must be inserted. In a closed-loop system, parameter such as gain can be adjusted to yield the desired response. Consider a steel sheets rolling machine operating in open-loop,
V ( s) = 1 s

Disturbance signal is an unwanted input signal that affects the systems output signal, e.g. noise in electronic circuit. For the system in Figure 3.2, without the feedback loop, the output resulting from the disturbance input is:

( s) = G2 ( s)Td ( s)

( s)
V (s)

With the feedback loop, ( s ) =

K s + 0 .1

(s) =

1 K s s + 0 .1

G2 ( s) Td ( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )

The time response of the machine when an unit step voltage input is applied is (t) = 10K(1 e-0.1t), which is slow. To increase the response, a controller needs to be added or the machine has to be changed. If the machine operates in closed-loop,
V (s) = 1 s

Therefore, if G1(s)H(s) is made large enough, the effect of disturbance can be decreased. Some noise signal may be introduced into the measuring sensor, as shown in figure 3.3.

+ _

( s)
V (s)

K s + 0 .1

(s) =

1 K s s + 0 .1 + K

The time response of the machine when a unit step voltage input is applied is (t ) =

K 1 e (0.1 K )t . Therefore the speed of the response can be 0.1 + K

The effect of noise on the output is: Y ( s ) =

Figure 3.3

adjusted by adjusting K.

G1G2 H 2 N ( s) 1 + G1G2 H 1 H 2

6. Disturbance Signal H1 must be increased in order to reduce the effect of disturbance. This is equivalent to maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio of the sensor.

To improve both sensitivity and rejection to disturbance, the quality and constancy of feedback sensors must be assured!!
Figure 3.2

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7. Steady state error Steady state error is the output error after the transient response has decayed (not to be confused with steady state response!!). For open-loop system, the error between the input and the output is given by:

3.2 Test input signal 1. In real system, a set of standard input functions is used to test the system. The commonly used test input signals are shown in table 3.1. 2. The type of input signals used for analyzing system characteristics is determined by the input that the system will be subjected to most frequently. 3. Once a control system is designed on the basis of test signals, the performance of the system in response to actual input is generally satisfactory.

E ( s ) = R( s ) Y ( s ) = R( s ) G ( s ) R( s ) = (1 G ( s ) )R( s )

Using the final value theorem, the steady state error when and unit step input is applied is:

1 e( ) = lim s E ( s ) = 1 G (0) s 0 s
For closed-loop system, the error between the input and the output is given by:

E ( s) = R( s) Y ( s) 1 E ( s) = R( s) 1 + G ( s)

Using the final value theorem, the steady state error when and unit step input is applied is:

1 1 e( ) = lim s E ( s ) = s 0 s 1 + G (0)
The value of G(s) when s = 0 is called the DC gain and its normally > 1. Therefore the closed-loop system will have smaller steady state error. Steady state error is in fact an important performance spec. It will be discussed more in later section. 8. However, feedback also has its disadvantages: a. Increases the number of system components b. Increases system complexity c. Sensors used in feedback are costly and are subjected to noise and inaccuracy. d. May cause instability
Reading list section 4.1 4.5 of Dorf Reading list section 5.1 of Dorf and 5.1 of Ogata

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3.3 Pole position and transient response 1. The transient response of a control system is characterized by the position of the poles. 2. If G ( s ) =

4. If G ( s ) =

s +2
2

, then g (t ) = sin t . Complex poles (and zeros) exist as

1 , then g (t ) = e at s+a

conjugate pairs. A conjugate pair of poles on the s-plane imaginary axis yields time response which is a sustained oscillation. The frequency is determined by the position of the poles in the j-axis.

3. If G ( s ) =

1 , then g (t ) = e bt . This is an unstable system as the output sb

5. If G ( s ) =

grows without bound as time progresses. Note that this only happen when there is at least a pole in the right-hand s-plane.

(s + a )

, then g (t ) = e at sin t . The response is a damped

oscillation with frequency of rad/s and a rate of decay of 1/a seconds. As a general rule, the real part of a pole indicates the decay rate of oscillation and the imaginary part determines the frequency.

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3.4 First order system 1. Consider a first order system (open or closed-loop) where the input-output relationship is given by:

C ( s) 1 = R( s ) Ts + 1

1 1 . Taking the inverse Ts + 1 s 2 Laplace transform, the time response is found as c(t ) = t T + Te t / T . As t
4. When a unit ramp input is applied, C ( s ) = approaches infinity, there will be an error T. 5. When a unit impulse input is applied, C ( s ) = transfer function) and the time response is c(t ) =

1 1 . Taking the inverse Ts + 1 s Laplace transform, the time response is found as c(t ) = 1 e t / T . T is the time
2. When a unit step input is applied, C ( s ) = constant (time for the response to reach 63.2% of its final value), and the smaller the time constant is, the faster the system response.

1 (which is just the Ts + 1

1 t / T e . T

6. Comparing the system responses to these three inputs, it is shown that the response to the derivative of an input signal can be obtained by differentiating the response of the system to the original system. eg. Impulse response is can be obtained by differentiating the step response.
Ramp input

3.5 Response of a second order system 1. Generally a 2nd order system is written standard as:

n C ( s) = 2 R ( s ) s + 2 n s + n 2 where n is the undamped natural frequency and is the damping ratio.

2

Step input

Response to step input 2. When 0 < < 1 (underdamped)

Impulse input

The roots of the C.E. = n j 1 2 n = n j d , where d is the damped natural frequency. When unit step input is applied, the time response is:

3. Mathematically, the steady state is reached only after infinite time. In practice the steady state is achieved as long as the output is within 2% of the final value, or 4 time constants.

e nt

1 2 sin d t + tan 1 1 2

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j n 1

j n 1
2

3. = 0 (Undamped case) There will be a pair of conjugate poles in the imaginary axis at s = jn. The response to unit step input is:

Figure 3.4

c(t ) = 1 cos n t

which means that the system will be undamped and oscillate indefinitely. 4. = 1 (Critically damped case) There will be two equal real roots at s = n. The response to unit step input is:

7. 2nd order systems that have the same damping ratio but different n will exhibit the same overshoot and oscillatory pattern. 8. The response of 2nd order system to impulse input can be obtained by differentiating the corresponding unit-step response since impulse function is just the derivative of step function.

c(t ) = 1 e nt (1 + n t )

Hence, there will be no oscillation. 5. > 1 (Overdamped case)

There will be two real roots at n 2 1 n . The response to unit step input is a combination of two decaying exponentials terms. 6. The time responses for undamped, underdamped, critically damped and overdamped are depicted in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.5
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3.6 Standard Performance measures for 2nd order system 1. The performance characteristics of a control system are specified in terms of the transient response to unit step input with all initial conditions at zero.

Peak time, t p =

d
2 1

Percentage overshoot, %OS = e Damping, =

100%

ln (%OS )

2 + ln 2 (%OS )
1

Time constant,

n
4

Settling time, t s =

n
3

(2% criterion) (5% criterion)

ts =

2. In practice, it is usually desired that the damping ratio to be about 0.4 to 0.8. Small value of causes too much overshoot, and too large value causes too sluggish response. 3. The rise time and overshoot conflict with each other, i.e. both cannot be reduced at the same time. Example 3.1: Standard performance measures Find the peak time, percentage overshoot and settling time (2% criterion) for the following system (ans: 0.785s, 9.5%, 1.33s)

Reading list, section 5.2, 5.3 both Ogata and Dorf

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3.7 Higher-order systems 1. The response of higher order systems is the sum of the responses of 1st and 2nd order systems. 2. Generally, the output of a higher-order system for input r(t) is given by:

b+a c+a T (s) = b + c + c + b (s + b ) (s + c )

Hence, zero affects the residue or magnitude of the response components

b0 s m + b1 s m 1 + ... + bm 1 s + bm R( s) C ( s) = a 0 s n + a1 s n 1 + ... + a n 1 s + a n
r b (s + ) + c a q aj k k k k 1 k + + k 2 2 s j =1 s + p j k =1 s + 2 k k s + k

mn

If the zero is very far left to the poles (a is much larger compared to b and c), then:

3. Factoring and taking the partial fraction of the above equation gives:
2

T (s)

C ( s) =

q + 2r = n

(s + b )(s + c )

Hence, the zero looks like a gain factor. Example 3.2 Find the partial fraction of the following equation and comment on the effect of poles and zeros.

4. Poles determine the type of transient response, but the zeros determine the shape of the response (magnitude of the response components) 5. For those poles that are located far left from the j-axis, the responses that correspond to these poles decay rapidly to zero. 6. Therefore, if the real part of the poles exceeds 5 times the real part of the poles nearest to the j-axis, they will have negligible effect on the system response (assuming that there are no zeros nearby the nearest poles). 7. If there is a zero close to a pole, then the residue/effect of this pole is small. A pair of closely located poles and zeros will effectively cancel each other. 10. Assume a 2nd order system with an additional zero at s = -a:

G ( s) =

s+4 (s + 3)(s + 30)

T (s) =
By partial fraction expansion,

(s + a ) (s + b )(s + c )
Reading list: Ogata 5.3, 5.4, Dorf 5.3, 5.4

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3.8 Steady state error 1. Steady state error, ess, is another important performance measure. 2. Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state error in response to certain types of inputs. 3.Classification of control systems system type number Consider the unity feedback system:

K iM1 (ai s + 1) 1 = For type 0 system, lim G (0) = lim = K , hence ess = Q s 0 s 0 1+ K k =1 (bi s + 1)

K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = , hence ess= 0. For type 1 or higher, lim G (0) = lim N Q s 0 s 0 s k =1 (bi s + 1)
3.8.2 Velocity Error Constant With ramp input (magnitude A),

e ss = lim s
s 0

A 1 A = lim 2 s 1 + G ( s ) s 0 sG (0)
s 0

The velocity error constant is defined as K v = lim sG (0) . This constant is used The open-loop transfer function can be written as: to express the steady state error for ramp input.

K M (a s + 1) = G ( s ) = N iQ1 i s k =1 (bi s + 1)
The index N denotes the system type number. If N = 0, the system is type 0. If N = 1, the system is type 1, etc. 4. The error can be found by applying final value theorem to E ( s ) = 3.8.1 Position error constant With step input (of magnitude A),

K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = 0 , hence ess = For type 0 system, lim sG (0) = lim s Q s 0 s 0 k =1 (bi s + 1) K iM1 (ai s + 1) A = = K , hence ess = For type 1 system, lim sG (0) = s Q s 0 K s k =1 (bi s + 1)
For higher order system, lim sG (0) = s
s 0

R( s) . 1 + G(s)

K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = , hence ess = 0 s N Q=1 (bi s + 1) k

e ss = lim s
s 0

A A 1 = s 1 + G ( s ) 1 + G (0)

Type 0 system is incapable of following a ramp input in the steady state.

The constant G(0) is called the position error constant, Kp. This constant is used to express the steady state error for step input.

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3.8.3 Acceleration Error Constant With parabolic/acceleration input (magnitude A),

ess = lim s
s 0

1 A A = lim 2 3 s 0 s G (0) s 1 + G (s)

s 0

The error constants describe the ability of a unity-feedback system to eliminate or reduce steady state error. Generally, it is desired to increase the error constants, while maintaining the transient response.

The acceleration error constant is defined as K a = lim s 2 G (0) . This constant is used to express the steady state error for acceleration input.

Example 3.2: Steady state error Find the steady state errors for input of 5u(t), 5tu(t) and 5t2u(t) to the following system, where u(t) is a unit step function.

K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = 0 , hence ess = For type 0 system, lim s G (0) = lim s s 0 s 0 Q=1 (bi s + 1) k
2 2

120 ( s + 2) ( s + 3)( s + 4)

For type 1 system, lim s 2 G (0) = s 2

s 0

K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = 0 , hence ess = s Q=1 (bi s + 1) k K iM1 (ai s + 1) 1 = = K , hence ess = 2 Q Ka s k =1 (bi s + 1) K iM1 (ai s + 1) = = , hence ess = 0 N Q s k =1 (bi s + 1)
Example 3.3: Steady state error Given the control system shown below, find the value of K that gives a 10% error in the steady state when ramp input is applied.
K ( s + 5) s ( s + 6)( s + 7)( s + 8)

For type 2 system, lim s 2 G (0) = s 2

s 0

For higher order system, lim s 2 G (0) = s 2

s 0

Table 5.2: Steady state error in terms of gain K

reading list: 5.9 of Ogata

10

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4. System Stability
1. If, when a system is subjected to a bounded input the response is bounded in magnitude, then the system is said to be stable. 2. The location of the poles in the s-plane determines the transient response, and hence the stability too. Thus a necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be stable is that all the poles of the system transfer function must have negative real parts (left-hand side of the plane). 3. Marginally stable system is only stable for certain bounded input. E.g. system with poles on the imaginary axis (j). 4. For unstable system, the characteristic equation has a least one roots in the right-hand s-plane OR repeated j roots. 5. Apart from finding the C.E. roots to determine stability (which will be tedious for high order system), other simpler techniques exist.

3. Routh Array

where

4.1 Routh-Hurwitz (RH) stability criterion 1. This technique determines the stability of a system with C.E.:

G ( s ) = a n s n + a n 1 s n 1 + ... + a1 s + a0 = 0
2. For the system to be stable: a. All the coefficient must be of the same sign b. All coefficient must be non-zero c. No sign changes in the first column of the Routh Array. The number of changes = roots with positive real part. 4. There are few distinct cases: Case 1: No element in the first column is zero e.g. G(s) = s3 + s2 + 2s + 24

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Case 2: There are zeros in the first column e.g. G(s) = s5 +2s4 + 2s3 + 4s2 + 11s + 10

Form a polynomial from the s2 row and then differentiate it. Then replace the zeros row with the coefficient of this new polynomial and proceed as normal. The roots of the polynomial from the s2 row must also be tested for its stability.

Case 3:There are zeros in the first columns and the other elements of the row containing the zero are also zero. e.g. G(s) = s5 +6s4 + 12s3 + 12s2 + 11s + 6

4.2 Relative stability 1. Relative stability is measured by the relative real part of each root. 2. The RH Criterion can be extended to ascertain relative stability by replacing s = sn a, a being the shift of the imaginary to the left.

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5. Root Locus Analysis

1. The performance of a system is determined by the position of the roots of the transfer function in the s-plane. 1. The root locus is the locus of roots in the s-plane of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system, as a parameter (usually the forward gain K) is varied from 0 to infinity. 2. The main advantage of root locus is that closed-loop information is obtained from the open-loop transfer function, making the solution of the closed-loop characteristic equation unnecessary. 3. The root locus development in this course involves only the unity feedback system characterized by:

5.1 Root Locus Construction. Step 1: Writing the characteristic equation

1 + KG ( s) = 0
Step 2: Root locus on the real axis Mark the poles and zeros of G(s). Root locus on the real axis can only exist to the left of an odd number of poles + zeros, starting from poles ending at zeros (starting from gain K = 0 to gain K = ). Mark the root locus on the real axis.

1+ K

s + z s + p
j =1 i =1 n

=0

1 + KG ( s ) = 0

Step 3: Asymptotes The root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real axis because complex roots must appear as pairs of complex conjugate roots. Also, as K increases, those section of the root locus not bounded by finite zeros asymptote towards infinity. Number of asymptotes = no. of poles no. of zeros Centroid of asymptotes, A =

4. However, it is applicable to any system as long as the C.E. can be written as:

1 + KP ( s ) = 0
so that the parameter of interest, K, appears as the multiplying factor. 5. From the characteristic equation:

poles zeros
number of asymptotes

(only the real part)

KG ( s) = 1 arg[KG ( s)] = 180 k 360

which is true for every point on the root locus. This is the root locus criterion for which the root locus construction is based on.

Angle of asymptotes, A =

180 0 + n360 0 number of asymptotes

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Step 4: Imaginary axis Crossover Points RH Criterion can be used to determine this point. Compute the Routh array for variable K and find the value that results in marginal stability. Substitute this value into the C.E. and solve for j. Step 5: Real axis breakaway and break-in points If the locus exists on the real-axis, then the locus must breakaway or break-in. The characteristic equation can be rewritten as:

Step 7: Finding the gain K This step is NOT required for the root locus construction, but it will be useful to find the required gain to produce the poles at the desired location. The gain Kx required in order to locate the closed-loop poles at s = sx is given by:

Kx =

(s + p )
n j j =1 m

b( s ) 1+ K =0 a( s)
The point of breakaway and break-in can be found by solving for s in:

(s + z )
i i =1 s=sx

da db a =0 ds ds

Example 5.1: Root Locus Construction. Sketch the root locus for:

Step 6: Angle of arrival and departure If the C.E. (1+ KG(s)) has complex poles or zeros, the angle of departure or arrival of the locus at these poles must be found. This can be done by taking a test point very close to the complex pole of interest and using the angle criterion. The same technique is applicable for both arrival and departure angle. Using the condition: (sum of zero angles) (sum of pole angles) = 180 Example 5.2: Root Locus Construction. Sketch the root locus and find the dominant poles that produce a damping ratio of 0.5. Find the associated forward gain K and use it to find the third non-dominant pole.
2 .5 s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )

x 1

3 2

3 x 2 1 = 180

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Example 5.3: Root Locus Construction. Sketch the root locus for:

5.2 Effect of PI controller 1. Adding additional poles or zeros to the forward path may change the root locus of the system and hence the transient and steady state response of the system basis of controller design. 2. For PI controlled system, the following function is multiplied to the forward path:

K c (s + a ) s

From the root locus, there is a dominant single pole near the imaginary axis for a wide range of K and hence the system would behave as a first order system. Damping ratio and natural frequency in this case are not applicable!!.

K c (s + a ) s

3. The additional pole at the origin will increase the system type number, thus reducing the steady state error to zero. 4. A zero, s = -a, which is set close to the pole has the effect of canceling out the magnitude and angle contributions from the pole and therefore ensures that the root locus remains approximately the same, so that the transient response is maintained. 5. In fact this is called a PI controller, which can be written as:

Gc ( s ) = K P +
Note: Apart from satisfying the damping ratio, the gain can also be adjusted to satisfy other specification such as settling time and damped natural frequency.
Note: Table 6.1 in pg 357 of Ogata provides a very quick reference of what the root locus might look like for certain system. Reading list: 6.1-6.3 of Ogata, 7.1-7.3 Dorf

KI s

where KP = Kc and KI = Kca

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Example 5.4: Effect of PI controller Consider the system below, which is the same as that in example 5.2. There will be a steady state error when a ramp input is applied since it is a type 1 system.
2 .5 s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )

Find the velocity error constant and then steady state error to unit ramp input when K = 0.412:

K v = lim sG ( s ) =
s 0

2.5K = 0.515 2

The steady state error =

1 = 1.94 Kv

The steady state error can be reduced to zero, by increasing the system type number. This is possible by the use of a PI Controller. The zero is set near to the origin, say a=0.01. (a can be any arbitrary value as long as it is near the origin).
K c (s + a ) s

5.3 Effect of additional zeros (PD controller) 1. The previous controller improves the steady state response. PD controller on the other hand improves the transient response. 2. For PD controlled system, the following function is multiplied to the forward path:

Find the new steady state error to unit ramp input:

e ss = lim s
s 0

1 s2

1 =0 K c ( s + 0.01) 2 .5 K 1+ s s ( s + 1)( s + 2)

K c (s + a )

The root locus for both the controlled (Kc = 1) and uncontrolled system is shown in the following figure. Both have almost the same root locus and hence the same pole at the desired damping ratio, i.e. same transient response. The steady state error however is now reduced to 0.

K c (s + a )

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3. The additional zero would change the root locus completely, hence the transient response. 4. In fact this is called a PD controller, which can be written as:

Gc ( s ) = K P + K D s
where Kc = KD and a = KP/Kc
69.28

96.23 86.70

120.25

Example 5.5: Effect of PD controller Consider the system below

1 s ( s + 4 )( s + 6 )

Design a PD controller that will yield 16% overshoot and 1.1s settling time.

Step 3: Locate the compensator (controller) zero Using the 180 Criterion, locate the zero. Then find the gain K required to achieve the required poles. The zero is at s = -3 and the gain K,

Step 1: Calculate the desired poles Based on the specified performance, find the required poles. Note that this will be a dominant 2nd order plant and hence the equation for standard 2nd order system can be used. Damping ratio, = Settling time, t s =

K=

s ( s + 4) ( s + 6) 1 = Gcomp ( s )G ( s ) ( s + 3)

= 47.98
s = 3.64 j 6.24

ln(0.16)

2 + ln 2 (0.16)
4

1.8325 = 0.5038 3.637

The following figure shows the new root locus plot for the system. Though this is not required, it is just to show how the root locus has changed.

= 1.1 , n = 3.64

Therefore, the desired dominant poles are at s = -3.64 j6.24 Step 2: Plot the RL of the original system The desired poles are not on the root locus. Hence, no matter what K is the desired poles will not be achieved. The only way is to change the root locus by adding in an additional zero.

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* As a general rule, steady state error is improved by PI controller and transient response is improved by PD controller. * Note that the PI and PD controllers discussed in here are just ONE configuration of the controller. There are many more other configurations, e.g. velocity feedback controller. * PI and PD controllers are difficult to realize in physical system. Instead, lag and lead compensators are used. More of these compensators will be discussed in HET489.

Reading list: 6.1-6.3 of Ogata, Chapter 7 of Dorf.

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6. Frequency Response Methods

1. Frequency response method is very useful as often the mathematical expressions for the system are not available. The frequency response of the system, which is measured experimentally, allows the characteristics and the mathematical model of the system to be obtained. 2. The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. 3. The output from the system will be sinusoidal in the steady state, differs from the input only in amplitude and phase angle.

y (t ) = A T ( j ) sin(t + T ( j ))
Thus, the steady state output signal depends only on the magnitude and phase of T(j) (called the sinusoidal transfer function) at a specific frequency . 4. The transfer function describing the behavior of a system to sinusoidal input can be obtained by replacing s with j in the system transfer function T(s). 5. From the root locus, what this means is:

Magnitude, T ( j ) =

( j z1 )( j z 2 )... ( j p1 )( j p 2 )...

Angle, T ( j ) = j z1 + j z 2 + ...

(j p1 + j p 2 + ...)

For example, consider a system Y ( s ) = T ( s ) R ( s ) With input r (t ) = A sin t , Y ( s ) = T ( s ) Expanding the partial fraction

A s +2
2

Example 6.1: For the sinusoidal input x(t) = X sin t, find the steady state output:

Y (s) =

kn k1 s + + ... + + 2 s + p1 s + pn s + 2

K Ts + 1

taking the inverse Laplace transform, as time t , only the last term is left as each exponential term decays to zero as t . This last term is a sinusoidal term given by:

Ans: y ss (t ) =

XK 1 + T 2 2

sin t tan 1 T

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6. As with any complex expression, the sinusoidal transfer function can be expressed by:

Gain = 20 log10 | G ( j ) |= For low frequency, << 1/, Gain =

G ( j ) = R( ) + jX ( ) = G ( j ) G ( j )
7. There are a variety of techniques for frequency domain analysis. 3 commonly used representation of sinusoidal transfer functions: i. Bode Diagram / Logarithmic plot ii. Nyquist plot / Polar plot iii. Nichols plot / Log-Magnitude vs phase plot
reading list: Section 8.1 of Ogata, 8.1, 8.2 of Dorf

For high frequency, >> 1/, Gain = At = 1/, Gain =

Phase is given by:

Breakpoint

6.1 Bode Diagram 1. Consists of two graphs plotted on semilog paper: a. Logarithm of the magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function (20log10|G(j)|, dB) vs frequency on logarithmic scale. b. Phase angle of sinusoidal transfer function G(j) vs frequency on logarithmic scale. 2. Consider the system shown below:

V2 ( s ) 1 = V1 ( s ) 1 + RCs 1 1 Hence, sinusoidal T.F., G ( j ) = = , = time constant 1 + jRC 1 + j

The transfer function, G ( s ) =

3. The frequency at which the gain plot starts to slope downward is called the breakpoint and at this frequency that the gain is reduced by 3dB. Beyond this point the gain reduces at 20dB per decade or 6dB per octave. 4. At the breakpoint, the phase angle is -45. As frequency is further increased the phase angle tends towards -90.

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5. If there are n poles at the break frequency, then the rate of reduction in gain and the phase angles are increased by factor of n. e.g. for 2 poles at frequency , the gain reduces at 40dB per decade and the breakpoint phase angle is -90.

6.1.1 Constructing the block diagram / plot 1. Instead of plotting bode diagram by calculating the gain and phase angle for every frequency, the bode diagram of a transfer function can be approximated, just like when plotting the Root Locus. 2. There are 4 main factors when constructing a bode diagram representing the 4 basic fundamentals of a system transfer function: a) Constant gain K - Horizontal straight line at 20Log K dB - No effect on the phase, i.e. = 0. b) Zero & pole at the origin (j) / derivative & integral factors - for pole, gain = 20 log c) First order factor zero & pole (1 + jT) - For pole, Gain = 0dB at low frequency, 20Log T dB at high frequency. This may be considered as two asymptotes, first is the constant 0dB gain and the other is decreasing at a rate of 20dB per decade. They intersect at = 1/T. This is the breakpoint, the corner frequency or the 3dB point. - Phase = tan-1 T, crossing the 45 at = 1/T. - for zero, the gain and phase angle are the same but of different polarity, i.e. gain = 20 log dB phase = 90 - For multiple poles/zeros at the origin, multiply gain and phase by n For zero, the gain and phase angle are the same but of different polarity. For multiple poles/zeros, multiply gain and phase by n The two asymptotes are a good approximation of the actual plot. Varying the time constant T shifts the corner frequency to left or right, but the shape of the bode plot remain the same. Act as low/high pass filter.

1 = 20 log dB j

The gain decays at a rate of 20dB per decade phase = tan-1 = 90

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n 1 The phase angle, tan 2 1 2 n

2

At = 0, the phase angle equals 0. At corner frequency = n, phase angle - 90 There are no simple way to sketch the actual curve without referring a standard curves for different damping ratio as shown below.

2 + 2 j d) Quadratic factors, j + 1 n n

- The gain,

20 log

1 1 + 2 j + n

2 = 20 log 1 2 + 2 2 n n j n

For low frequencies, gain = 0 dB

2 For high frequencies, gain = 20 log 2 = 40 log dB n n

Near the frequency = n, a resonant peak occurs which will be determined by the damping ratio .

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Resonant frequency r and resonant peak value Mr 1. The resonant frequency r is the frequency when the gain is highest. It only exist when damping ratio is 0 0.7071. It is given by:

1 + 0.1j 5
1/j 1/(1+ 0.5j)

r = n 1 2

Hence, the smaller the damping ratio, the resonant frequency is closer to the natural undamped frequency. 2. The magnitude of the resonant peak, M r =

2nd order

1 2 1 2
1 2 2

3. The phase angle when the peak occurs is: tan 1

1/j 1/(1+ 0.5j)

4. The resonant frequency and the bandwidth can be related to the speed of the transient response. Higher frequency translates to faster response. 5. Overshoot is related to the resonant peak since both are related to the damping ratio.

2nd order

Example 6.1: Bode diagram Sketch the approximate bode diagram for the transfer function:

G ( s) =
Solution: Setting s = j and factoring,

2500( s + 10) s ( s + 2)( s 2 + 30 s + 2500)

G ( j ) =

5 2500 (10)(0.1 j + 1)
2

j j 2( 2500 ) j (0.5 j + 1)( + j 0.6 + 1) 50 50

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System Identification 1. It is also possible to derive the transfer function from a bode diagram. 2. The bode diagram is usually obtained experimentally by applying sinusoidal input and the output is allowed to settle. The gain and phase are measured over a range of input frequencies. 3. If the gain plot shows a resonant peak, the system is likely to have a complex pole pair. Example 6.2: Bode diagram Estimate the system transfer function from the frequency response:

a. At low frequency, the gain curve has a gradient of 20dB/decade. The phase is initially at 90. Therefore, there is a pole at the origin. b. At = 1 rad/s, the gain is 14.7dB. Usually a single pole would cut the = 1 rad/s at 0dB. Therefore, there is a constant gain of 5.43 c. As frequency increases, the gain curve flattens, suggesting that there is zero to cancel out the effect of the pole at origin. Phase angle also increases from 90 to 50. d. As frequency further increases, the gain curve decreases at a rate of 20dB/decade, suggesting the existence of another pole at higher frequency. e. By sketching the asymptotes on the phase curve, the break frequency for both zero and pole can be estimated at 2.5rad/s and 11.5 rad/s. The estimated transfer function is therefore:

s 5.43 + 1 2 .5 s + 1 s 11.5
This is slightly different from the actual transfer function due to the fact that we are using asymptotes for the estimation.

=2.5rad/s

=11.5rad/s

s 5 + 1 2 s s + 1 10

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6.2 Polar plot / Nyquist Plot 1. The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(j) is a plot of the magnitude of G(j) versus the phase angle of G(j) on polar coordinates as is varied from zero to infinity. 2. The phase angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.

= 6.66 rad/s = 1.66 rad/s

= 0.83 rad/s

3. It is important to show the frequency graduation of the plot. 4. This is also a plot of the real and imaginary parts of G(j). Example 6.3: Nyquist plot 5. For example, consider the transfer function:

G ( s) =
Replace s = j, G ( j ) =

4 s(0.3s + 1)
Alternatively, we can evaluate the real and complex value of the sinusoidal transfer function of G(s) and plot the Nyquist diagram. The real and imaginary values are given in the same table.

4 4 = j (0.3 j + 1) j 0.3 2

The magnitude and phase angle are written as:

| G ( s ) |=

2 + 0.09 4

and = tan 1

3.33

G ( j ) =

1.2 4 j 2 1 + 0.09 + 0.09 3

The values of the magnitude and phase angle for a range of frequency are shown in the table below.

6. Normally, the gain and phase are used as these are obtainable via practical measurements.

|G(j)| G(j) Re G(j) Im G(j)

0 -90 -1.20 -

0.83 4.7 -103 -1.13 -4.54

1.66 2.2 -117 -0.96 -1.93

3.33 0.85 -135 -0.60 -0.60

6.66 0.27 -153 -0.24 -0.12

0 -180 0 0

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6.3 Log-Magnitude versus phase plot / Nichols plot. 1. A plot of logarithmic magnitude in dB versus the phase angle for frequency range of interest. 2. The curve is graduated in terms of frequency . 3. This plot actually combines the two plots of magnitude and phase angle vs frequency in bode diagram to one. 4. In Nichols plot, a change in the gain constant of G(j) merely shifts the curve up (for increasing gain) and down (for decreasing gain) but the shape of the curve remains the same. 5. The advantages of this plot are that: a. Relative stability can be worked out easily. b. Closed loop system can be determined quickly c. Compensation can be designed easily. 6. Plotting the Nichols plot for system in example 6.3,

To summarize the different plot, refer to the figures below which shows the different plot for system with transfer function:

H (s) =

1 s + 20s + 2500
2

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Transport Lag 1. Also referred to as dead time. It does not affect the magnitude but causes excessive phase lag at high frequencies. Transport lag normally exist in thermal, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. 2. It is modelled by:

1. Position Error Constant For type 0 system, the magnitude of G(j) at very low frequencies:
0

lim G ( j ) = K p

G ( j ) = e

jT

The magnitude and angle are:

Therefore, at low frequency the gain will be a horizontal line at 20log KP dB

| G ( j ) |= 1 G ( j ) = T
The gain of the transfer function is always unity or 0dB, but the phase angle reduces linearly with . 2. Velocity Error Constant For type 1 system, the magnitude of G(j) at very low frequencies:
0

lim G ( j ) =

KV

Determination of Error Constants Consider the unity feedback control system:

Therefore, at low frequency the gain will be a line decaying at a rate of 20dB/decade. When this line intersect with 0dB, KV =

The open-loop sinusoidal transfer function:

3. Acceleration Error Constant For type 2 system, the magnitude of G(j) at very low frequencies:
0

K iM1 (ai j + 1) = G ( j ) = ( j ) N Q=1 (bi j + 1) k

lim G ( j ) =

Ka

Therefore, at low frequency the gain will be a line decaying at a rate of 40dB/decade. When this line intersect with 0dB, Ka = 2

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6.4 Nyquist Stability Criterion 1. Before this Routh-Hurwitz criterion was used to determine system stability in the time domain. 2. Nyquist Stability Criterion can be used to determine closed-loop system stability from its 1open-loop frequency response and 2open-loop poles. 3. Consider the closed-loop system shown below. For stability, all the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 must lie on the left-half s-plane.

6. If the value of the C.E. of the CLTF, 1 + G(s)H(s), is evaluated for all value of s on the Nyquist path contour: a. if the contour encloses one pole of the C.E., there is one encirclement of the origin of the CE-plane in the counter-clockwise direction. b. if the contour encloses the zero of the C.E., there is one encirclement of the origin of the CE-plane in the clockwise direction. c. if the contour encloses both the pole and zero of the C.E. (or neither), there is no encirclement of the origin of the F-plane. 7. Note that before this, when plotting the Nyquist diagram, the value of the whole transfer function is evaluated for s = j0 j. 8. If there are multiple poles or zeros, the number of encirclement increases accordingly. 9. Cauchys Theorem: If a clockwise contour in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of the C.E., the corresponding contour in the C.E plane encircles the origin of the C.E. plane N = Z P times in clockwise direction.

4. Nyquist stability criterion relates the open-loop frequency response G(j)H(j) to the number of zeros and poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) that lie in the righthalf s-plane. 5. Let the contour for the value of s in the s-plane encloses the entire right-half splane in clockwise manner, as shown in the following figure. Such contour is called the Nyquist Path.

10.

Zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the CLTF <- stability Poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of G(s)H(s) Hence, the number of zero is what we are trying to determine using Cauchys Theorem.

11. 1 + G(s)H(s) is merely G(s)H(s) shifted to the right by 1. Therefore if 1 + G(s)H(s) encircles the origin, then G(s)H(s) must encircle 1. a. R.H. zeros (Z) result in clockwise encirclements of 1 b. R.H. poles (P) result in anti-clockwise encirclements of 1 16. P can be found from the open-loop information (R.H. poles of G(s)H(s)). 17. For the C.L.T.F. system to be stable, there must be no clockwise encirclement and number of counterclockwise encirclement of 1 must be the same as P.

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Sketching the Nyquist diagram 18. To sketch the Nyquist diagram, the magnitude and phase of G(j)H(j) for the range 0+ < < + must first be obtained, which is just the Nyquist plot of G(j)H(j). 19. The contour for the range - < < 0- is just the complex conjugate (reflection on the real-axis) of the contour for the range 0+ < < + . 20. The magnitude of G(s)H(s) as r zero or a constant. in s = rej and will normally approach There are no 1 encirclement. Hence the system will have no closed-loop poles on the left hand s-plane, i.e. Stable system. Example 6.4: Stability via Nyquist Criterion. G ( s ) H ( s ) =

21. Note that we are constructing the Nyquist diagram for G(s)H(s) and NOT 1 + G(s)H(s). This is essentially the open-loop information. HOWEVER, in real life, Nyquist diagram are usually obtained from EXPERIMENTAL frequency response.
Reading list: section 8.7 and 8.8 of Ogata

K s (as + 1)

Example 6.3: Stability via Nyquist Criterion. Find the stability of the following system using the Nyquist Criterion.

100 (s / 10 + 1) 1 (s + 1)
Plot the polar plot for G ( s ) H ( s ) =

Example 6.5: Stability via Nyquist Criterion. G ( s ) H ( s ) =

K s (as + 1)(bs + 1)

100 ( s / 10 + 1)( s + 1)
2 10 20 100

|G(j)| G(j)

0.1

0.76 79.39 -41.5

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6.5 Relative Stability 1. Previously, using the s-plane, the relative stability of a system is measured by the relative settling time of each root. A system with shorter settling time (further to the left or larger negative real part) is considered to be more relatively stable. 2.Nyquist criterion can be used to analyze relative stability for the frequency response method. The closer the closed-loop poles are to the j axis, the closer the GH(j) locus is to the 1+j0 point.

3. Gain margin the increase in the system open-loop gain when phase = 180 that will result in a marginally stable system. Usually measured in dB. 4. Phase margin the amount of additional phase lag of the GH(j) at unity magnitude that will result in a marginally stable system. 5. Both gain and phase margins must be given together in the determination of relative stability. 6. The gain and phase margin can also be obtained from the Bode diagrams and log-magnitude-versus-phase plots of the open-loop transfer function, as shown in the following figure.

12

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7. Remember: For relative stability, only unity feedback system is considered. It is always possible to reduce a closed-loop system to unity-feedback config. 8. Unless otherwise stated, the systems that are studied here are minimum-phase systems, that is the open-loop transfer function has neither poles or zeros in the right-hand s-plane. For non-minimum phase system, the complete Nyquist diagram must be studied for stability determination.
Reading list: section 8.7 and 8.8 of Ogata

3. The phase margin, gain margin, resonant peak and bandwidth of the closedloop system can be determined. Example 6.6 Nichols Chart Consider the unity feedback system

1 s (s + 1)(0.5s + 1)

6.6 Closed-loop frequency response of a unity feedback system 1. Nichols Chart displays the curves for the relationship between the open-loop and closed-loop frequency response in Nichols plot. 2. If G(j) is plotted on the Nichols Chart, the gain and phase characteristic of the corresponding closed loop system can be obtained.

Plotting the open-loop frequency response in Nichols plot and superimpose it with the Nichols Chart gives the following figure. After that, the magnitude and phase angle of the corresponding closed-loop system can be read off straight from the chart, as shown below.

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HET312 Control & Automation

a. The bandwidth is the frequency of the intersection of G(j) with 3dB locus = 1.3rad/s. b. The resonant frequency is the frequency of the single intersection between G(j) with the Nichols chart locus = 0.8rad/s. c. The resonant peak is the gain for b. = 5dB 4. If the open-loop gain is varied, the shape of G(j) in Nichols Chart remains the same, but is shifted up or down according to the gain Example 6.7 Consider the unity-feedback control system whose open-loop transfer function is:

G ( j ) =

K j (1 + j )

Determine the value of gain K so that the peak resonant magnitude of is = 1.4 dB - First, construct the log-magnitude versus phase plot for G(j)/K (unity gain). - Superimpose the locus with Nichols Chart - Find the vertical shift needed to obtain the required resonant peak.

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