Hydrocarbon Processing January 2011

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JANUARY 2011
HPIMPACT SPECIALREPORT 2011FORECAST
GAS PROCESSING
DEVELOPMENTS
Improved technologies
treat sour gas
Refinery construction
costs on the rise
Shale gas could affect
Middle East LNG
HPI MARKETDATA 2011
Summary reviews
spending and trends
shaping the global HPI
XX Dewitt petrochemical-
conference out look
XX Six strategic business
technologies to watch
XX Australia making
crucial GTL decisions
XX IEA assesses energy poli-
cies of U.S.
XX Creating more value in
capital projects
HPIMPACT
Cutline for fig.
00
cutline for fig
00
cutline for fig
00
JANUARY 2011 VOL. 90 NO. 1
SPECIAL REPORT: GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS

37
Consider different alternatives
for enriching lean acid gases
New developments improve operation of Claus sulfur recovery units
B. ZareNezhad
41
Avoid condensation-induced transient pressure waves
Case studies give an indication as to probable causes for water hammer
G. Mani
45
When is CO
2
more hazardous than H
2
S
Data shows potential harmful effects to workers due to acid gas exposure
K. Tyndall, K. McIntush, J. Lundeen, K. Fisher and C. Beitler
49
Use online analyzers for successful monitoring
Improved analytics measure moisture and dew points for natural gas components
A. Benton and C. Valiz

55
Advanced chemical process for treating sour gas
Technology avoids huge capital investments while speeding up results
C. A. Ortega Peralta and M. J. Ortega Casteln
Cover The PERU LNG production
complex in Pampa Melchorita, Peru,
was officially inaugurated in June 2010.
With a nominal capacity of 4.4 million
tons of LNG per annum, it is South
Americas first baseload liquefaction
plant and represents one of the largest
industrial projects ever undertaken in
Peru. Photo courtesy of CB&I.
HPIMPACT
17 Refinery and petro-
chemical construction
costs continue
measured rise
17 Moving beyond the
meltdown in the Gulf
20 Global energy
outlook to 2035
COLUMNS
9 HPIN RELIABILITY
Packing not best
practice for firewater
pumps
11 HPIN EUROPE
European consumers
mull their options as
oil companies quit
the market
13 HPINTEGRATION
STRATEGIES
MPC vs. ARCNot an
either/or decision
90 HPIN CONTROL
Process control
practice renewal
select CVs
PLANT SAFETY

57
Safe detection of small to large gas releases
Look at these advantages in using ultrasonic leak detectors
E. Naranjo, S. Baliga, G. A. Neethling and C. D. Plummer

63
Considerations for blast-resistant
electrical equipment centers
Guidelines explore protecting critical systems from disaster
D. Cole and D. Austin
ENVIRONMENT

69
What are the strategies for sustainable chemical production?
New environmental challenges require a new way of thinking
by the hydrocarbon processing industry
M. P. Sukumaran Nair
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

79
Going green with FCC expander technology
New options recover waste gas energy as steam and electricity for plant use
B. Carbonetto and P. Pecchi
ENGINEERING CASE HISTORIES

85
Case 60: Socket-weld failures
A risk analysis can determine which critical welds to repair
T. Sofronas
DEPARTMENTS
7 HPIN BRIEF 27 HPINNOVATIONS 31 HPIN CONSTRUCTION
35 HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
86 HPI MARKETPLACE 89 ADVERTISER INDEX
HPI 2011
FORECAST
21 HPI Market Data 2011
Executive Summary:
This summary reviews
spending for the
global HPI. Will 2011
be a better year
for the refining,
petrochemical and
natural gas industries?
What lies ahead for
the energy industry?
4

EDITORIAL
Executive Editor Stephany Romanow
Process Editor Tricia Crossey
Reliability/Equipment Editor Heinz P. Bloch
News Editor Billy Thinnes
Associate Editor Helen Meche
European Editor Tim Lloyd Wright
Contributing Editor Loraine A. Huchler
Contributing Editor William M. Goble
Contributing Editor Y. Zak Friedman
Contributing Editor ARC Advisory Group
(various)
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING JANUARY 2011

I

7

The outlook for the US chemicals
manufacturing sector is improving
gradually and global production is set
to increase in the coming year, thanks
in part to dramatic growth in export
markets for the products of chemis-
try, according to a report from the
American Chemistry Council (ACC).
For 2010, US chemistry exports will
be up by 17%, shifting the trade
balance for the industry from a $0.1
billion deficit to a $3.7 billion surplus,
its best performance in 10 years. The
growth in export markets also has
partially offset soft domestic demand
for chemical products.
Domestically, chemical production
volumes have increased across all
regions of the US in 2010 following
steep declines in 2008 and 2009. The
largest gains have occurred in the
Gulf Coast and Ohio Valley regions,
boosted by export demand for
basic chemicals and plastics. Output
is expected to grow moderately in
all regions in 2011 and continue to
improve through 2012.
Growth in export markets is driven
by several factors, including favorable
energy costs, resulting from develop-
ments in extracting natural gas from
shale; and growth in emerging mar-
kets, where recovery, and now expan-
sion, has been strongest.
US natural gas markets have seen
a dynamic shift over the past five
years as a result of increased capacity
to extract natural gas from organic
shale deposits. Reserves have risen by
one-third, resulting in lower prices
and greater availability of ethane, a
feedstock material derived from natu-
ral gas that is the basis for hundreds
of manufactured products. This low
price for natural gas compared to oil
has enabled US chemicals manufac-
turers to become more competitive
than producers in much of the rest of
the world.
Growth in emerging markets, most
notably in China, India and Brazil, is
increasing demand for chemistry feed-
stock materials. Production of chemis-
try products in emerging economies
increased by 12.2% in 2010, and fur-
ther gains are expected. HP
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
HPIN BRIEF
Sunoco, Inc., will sell its 170,000-bpd refinery in Toledo, Ohio,
to Toledo Refining Co., a subsidiary of PBF Holding Co., for approximately $400
million (consisting of $200 million in cash and a $200 million two-year note). In
addition, the purchase agreement includes a participation payment of up to $125
million based on the future profitability of the refinery. The buyer will also purchase
the crude oil and refined product inventory attributable to the refinery, which will be
valued at market prices at closing. The transaction is expected to be completed early
in the first quarter of 2011.
The Alliance for Climate Protection and the Center for American
Progress released a joint report that calls on the US to take the lead on international
climate financeeven under the current difficult political and economic condi-
tions. The report says that it is in the US best interest to help developing nations
reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and build clean-energy economies. It calls on the
US to lead a global partnership to mobilize new investments in developing countries
between now and 2015, and urges the country to explore new ways to help develop-
ing countries pursue clean-energy growth. The report suggests the US can finance
investments through public budget resources, carbon markets, development bank
lending and private financing.
ABB will acquire Baldor Electric in an all-cash transaction valued
at approximately $4.2 billion, including $1.1 billion of net debt. The transaction closes
a gap in ABBs automation portfolio in North America by adding Baldors NEMA
motors product line. Baldor also adds a mechanical power transmission business to
ABBs portfolio. The US market for high-efficiency motors is expected to grow 10% to
15% in 2011 on the back of new regulations, effective in December this year. Similar
regulations in Canada, Mexico and in the European Union are expected in 2011.
The chairman of the US Chemical Safety Board (CSB) applauded
the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) for its recent decision to establish a
new technical committee to develop a comprehensive standard for gas processing safety,
including the cleaning of fuel gas piping systems. The NFPA acted in response to an
urgent recommendation issued by the CSB following a catastrophic natural gas explo-
sion at Kleen Energy, a power plant under construction in Middletown, Connecticut, on
February 7, 2010. In that incident, workers were conducting a gas blow, a procedure
that forced natural gas at high volume and pressure through newly installed piping to
remove debris. The gas was vented to the atmosphere, where it accumulated and explod-
ed, killing six contract workers and injuring many others.
Early December marked a major milestone for the US transition
to ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel, as all highway diesel fuel in the US now
complies with the 15-ppm sulfur standard. This represents a 97% reduction in sulfur
content from diesels 2006 levels. The December 1, 2010, deadline was mandated by
the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, according to the EPAs
pump survey, the highway transition to ULSD was actually completed a few weeks
ahead of schedule.
BASF and PETRONAS are studying the possibility of producing
specialty chemicals in Malaysia, a move that would extend the two parties existing
business collaboration in the country. The partners are considering a potential joint
investment sum of approximately 1 billion, along with operating facilities for the
production of specialty chemicals including non-ionic surfactants, methanesulfonic
acid, iso-nonanol as well as other C4-based specialty chemical products. A decision is
expected in 2011. HP
Improved outlook
for US chemicals
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HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
HPIN RELIABILITY
HB@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

9
Statistics show that for every 1,000 pump failures in hydrocar-
bon processing plants, there will be a fire. Fig. 1 shows a typical
visible outcome, and the final bill for remedying such disastrous
results can amount to hundreds of millions of dollars.
Since roughly 60% of pump fires involve mechanical seal
failures, it has been assumed that the majority of mechanical seals
are somehow flawed. However, this conclusion is quite incorrect.
Many pumps have been in service for years without seal fail-
ures. The entire experience points to the need to carefully select
the right mechanical seal designs and to follow up by adhering to
appropriate work processes and installation procedures.
Braided packing or mechanical seals? There is still
the occasional assumption that critically important pumps will
benefit from braided packing. Firewater pumps are mentioned
in this context since they are expected to be available at all times
and because, with water, a small amount of leakage is deemed
tolerable. It might surprise some readers that, even here, packing
is not the first choice of experienced professionals. Best practice
in modern firewater pumps has been (since about 1968) to use
single-spring mechanical seals. As was mentioned in the July 2010
HPIn Reliability column, these mechanical seals are to be backed
up by a floating throttle bushing and a deflector guard.
Reliability professionals interested in designing out mainte-
nance always check into the feasibility of systematically upgrading
their equipment. In fact, the very best HP companies mandate
viewing every maintenance event as an opportunity to upgrade.
For process pumps, one of the many cost-effective upgrade mea-
sures involves replacing the plain deflector guards that had been
introduced in the 1950s. It is of more than historical interest to
review what led to the recommendation and to use single-spring
mechanical seals instead of packing.
In the 1960s, accurate statistics were kept (for insurance pur-
poses) by a major multinational oil company. The statistics for
firewater pumps showed that leaking packing tended to ruin bear-
ings. Well-designed mechanical seals were then selected because
they generally leak much less than packing and are considerably
less likely to allow water spray to enter the adjacent bearing hous-
ing. Of course, we know that brittle mechanical seal faces might
shatter when abused. However, seals that are properly designed,
selected and installed are highly unlikely to shatter. Moreover,
floating throttle bushings represent a second line of defense in
firewater pumps.
Testing your firewater pumps. Proper operating and
maintenance best practices require periodic testing of all standby
equipment. Periodic testing is mandatory, and testing once every
two weeks is not unreasonable. Each firewater pump would then
be allowed to run for about an hour. Different rules may pertain
to process pumps in other services.
For process pumps, the question is often asked differently.
Some facilities believe that switching the A and B pumps and
running each for a given time (months) is best. Another group
believes that simply turning on the standby pump once a month
and then running it for 46 hours is a better alternative. Which
of the two is preferred?
When people arguedmany decades agothat plants might
get away with testing pumps as infrequently as twice a year,
responsible reliability professionals took the position that testing
only twice a year would not be acceptable and monthly testing was
needed. Depending on lubricant selection and lube application
method, switching A and B every two months is considered
best practice. This then keeps the bearings lubricated, prevents
the rolling elements from sitting in exactly the same position and
prevents seal faces from sticking.
Back to the issue of firewater pump sealing practices. Knowl-
edgeable engineers do not advocate using packing in modern
firewater pumps. The reasons are technical and were described
above, but the reasons are also workforce and experience-related.
Consider the difficulty of grooming and retaining top-notch
maintenance personnel in some plants. Taken together, decades
of experience and an examination of present-day workforce avail-
abilities support the contention that packing no longer represents
best practice at the most advanced companies. HP
Packing not best practice for firewater pumps
The author is Hydrocarbon Processings Reliability/Equipment Editor. The
author of 18 textbooks and over 490 papers or articles, he advises process plants
worldwide on reliability improvement and maintenance cost reduction opportuni-
ties. For more details, see his Practical Lubrication for Industrial Facilities, ISBN
0-88173-579-5.
Scene of a refinery pump fire (Source: Release No. 2004-
08-I-NM; US Chemical Safety Board; http://www.csb.gov).
FIG. 1
Natural Gas
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TIM LLOYD WRIGHT, EUROPEAN EDITOR
HPIN EUROPE
tim.wright@gulfpub.com

I

11

Although Ive watched it coming, it still feels like a historic
moment to see the oil industry pack up its things and leave. If
you sell catalysts, pumps, inspection services, display ads or anti-
static additives, then that low rumble is the ground movingyour
market is changing under your feet.
New supplier on the horizon. People who buy fuel are
waking up to a different logo on the tank truck and another voice
on the telephone. Some are realizing too late that theyll be los-
ing a supplier with a certain standing, a reputation to preen and
a level of expertise that theyve come to count on. And if youre
not supplying, but manning a refinery or a marketing operation
in Europe, then it isnt just you. Its happening all over. Youre not
the only one seeing a new set of suits wandering through your
workplace measuring you up.
Weve had a room in the center of the main floor set up as
a data room all summer, one oil major executive told me on a
recent visit. People have had their teams coming in and running
our numbers for months. The whole business is up for sale.
The international oil companies are bidding their farewells,
and a new breed of nontraditional suppliers is doing its due dili-
gence. For example, in the UK, half of the retail stations could
change hands in the next few years, the Financial Times reckoned
recently. Frances Total is selling its 780 stations in the country;
Murphy Oil is selling its 480 stations. The Chevron Texaco busi-
ness in the UK and Ireland is up for sale. It operates 1,300 stations
under the Texaco brand. Exxon Mobil wants to supply, but no
longer own and operate its Scottish forecourts. The sale or closure
of numerous European refineries by Shell, Total, Chevron Texaco,
ConocoPhillips and Petroplus is no longer a consultants projec-
tion, but an emerging reality.
New oil company. At a recent meeting of fuel buyers in the
global aviation industry, one of the companies investing now to
assume major oil market share was exuding confidence.
Ian Taylor is CEO of Vitol, one of the worlds largest trading
groups, a company that has come to be known to the airlines as one
of the new nontraditional suppliers. He effectively thanked BP and
Shell for their service and told the audience his company would take
over from here. He went on to restate Vitols ongoing plans to take
over Shell Aviation businesses all over Africa. Days later, Trafigura,
another very substantial trading group, announced it would take
over from BP in a number of southern African states. Chevron Corp.
has sold its Caribbean and Central American fuels and aviation busi-
nesses recently to Rubis, a French midstream group.
And its not just around the equator and in the southern hemi-
sphere that the nontraditional suppliers are moving in. Morgan
Stanley, the bank, is aggressively pursuing aviation custom in
European markets, having traded fuels for many years. One of
its executives shared a stage at the aviation conference with the
managing director of the newly launched Vitol Aviation.
In the UK, Greenergy, the company Ive followed since it was
a half-dozen desks gathered around an oversized Scalextric toy
car track, is bidding to buy up hundreds of service stations. It
has already built one of the UKs largest private businesses out of
taking over clean fuels niches and later marketing functions, from
major companies. Today, it delivers some 140 million liters (37
million US gallons) of fuel a week, but, like Vitol and Trafigura,
it all started with oil trading.
The oil companies arent getting out of supply roles across the
board. Shell is at pains to point out that it intends to grow in some
aviation markets as it leaves others. But the trend is unmistakable.
Look at an average major, a bank researcher friend told me.
They may have 100,000 people, of which 70,000 work down-
stream. Yet 80% of their profits are coming from the upstream.
Theyre running the numbers and concluding, why bother?
John Digby, an independent consultant and former boss at
Chevron Texaco, says that in the first half of 2010, upstream
income accounted for some $48.6 billion at six leading major oil
companies, while downstream income accounted for just $9.6
billiona ratio of five to one. But its more than nostalgia that
has some oil market end users flustered at the changes.
The chair of an International Air Transport Association techni-
cal meeting wanted to know recently where were the expert rep-
resentatives from the new suppliers in his working groups as they
try to understand the salt contamination issue that recently led to
a near disaster aboard a Cathay Pacific flight leaving Indonesia.
Well buy in expertise from the majors, one of the trading
groups told me. We cant afford to have any quality issues at all, he
added. Thats no doubt true, but one has to wonder what will be left
of the quality assurance and long-term research and development
function in the fuels supply industry. Admittedly, the oil companies
themselves shrank technical and research facilities like Thornton
and Sunbury very significantly during the 1990s, but will their
research and technical facilities in the region now fade to nothing?
And theres another thing. As the international oil companies head
off to spend the remaining decades of the oil age in more rewarding
upstream pastures, the oil products markets are being handed to trad-
ers and banks. Granted, therell be new competition among the new
suppliers with a nose for sourcing cost-effective streams of product.
But end users may well be wary of what they see as a change from
dealing with expert producers, to expert middle-men. HP
The author is HPs European Editor and also a specialist in European distillate
markets. He has been active as a reporter and conference chair in the European
downstream industry since 1997, before which he was a feature writer and reporter
for the UK broadsheet press and BBC radio. Mr. Wright lives in Sweden and is the
founder of a local climate and sustainability initiative.
European consumers mull their options as
oil companies quit the market
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HPINTEGRATION STRATEGIES
DHill@Arcweb.com

I

13
Overview. In the 35 years since they introduced distributed
control systems (DCSs), automation system suppliers have pro-
vided the hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) and other
customers with far more than the ubiquitous piping and instru-
mentation diagram (PID) control-function block in their suite of
available function blocks. Many of the additional DCS function
blocks originated back in the days before multivariable or model-
predictive control (MPC) was commercially available. We now
refer to putting together functions such as lead-lag, dead time
or selectors to formulate advanced control as advanced regula-
tory control (ARC). ARC and MPC are both types of advanced
process control (APC).
While DCSs provide advanced control capabilities in the many
useful function blocks available, some end users in the HPI and
other heavy process plants moved away from function blocks in
favor of developing MPC models for APC.
Getting the foundation right. Before MPC, if the pro-
cess required advanced-control techniques, the process control
practitioners had to assemble the correct control functions to
achieve the required results. These evolved into what we now
call ARC. Modern process control assumes that the regulatory
control provided by the process control system is solid, with
well-tuned loops and controllers operating in the correct mode.
Without good basic regulatory control, APC will not perform
well. But what about ARC? Now that MPC is so widely accepted
and used, are control engineers and other practitioners still taking
advantage of the ARC capabilities built into most DCSs?
MPC isnt the only tool in the toolbox. An entire
culture has evolved around the use of MPC. MPC has earned
widespread respect and acceptance due to its often-spectacular
payback. Despite the considerable implementation cost often
involved, users have cited MPC projects that have delivered return
on investment in 18 months or less. As a result, the culture of
MPC might unduly influence some companies to implement
MPC, when, in some cases, ARC implemented right in the DCS
control blocks might actually provide the best solution.
Not highlighted as much is the fact that MPC requires a
continued investment. The models are built based on the set
of process conditions, feedstocks, ambient conditions, variable
interactions and business objectives that exist at that point in
time. However, any or all of these may change, requiring the
model to be modified or rebuilt for the MPC to continue driv-
ing value.
Balancing ARC and MPC. So heres a good question: If
all the process needs to perform better is feedforward, do you
really need to build (and maintain) a model to accomplish this?
In many instances, advanced control could be accomplished
by configuring function blocks and tuning each to remove
loop interaction and to provide feedforward action and other
advanced regulatory control techniques. If so, could this pos-
sibly be a better approach than MPC? More to the point, hows
a plant to decide?
There is no substitute for knowing your process and the skills
of your control personnel. The process control culture in any plant
or company has evolved over many years with deep roots in how
weve always done it. All plants must continuously maintain
basic regulatory control to provide the stable, well-tuned base
layer. However, above this foundation, plants have options for
performing APC functions.
Its important to note here that the choice of which technol-
ogy to use for APCwhether MPC or ARCis not an either/
or decision, but rather a matter of understanding which tool, or
combination of tools, is best for each application. But how do you
know if you have the right balance?
The decision to implement an advanced-control application
using MPC, ARC or some combination is more than a technol-
ogy decision. Both tool sets can perform well for a variety of
applications. Users must take support for the implemented appli-
cation into consideration. If the staff at the site is not trained in
maintaining MPC models, then ARC could be a better choice.
If uniformity across the enterprise is important, it is important
that the company considers how it will support remote locations,
regardless of whether it chooses MPC or ARC.
In the end, both MPC and ARC may be the right decision.
Some applications will lend themselves to using DCS function
blocks, while others are best solved using model predictive
controllers.
If you question whether youre using the right combination,
benchmarking can help you at least determine if you are alone or
with the majority. End users in process plants may find it worth-
while to participate in ARC Advisory Groups Benchmarking
Consortium, which addresses MPC performance and other key
issues. For more information, HP readers can visit http://www.
arcweb.com/Benchmarking. HP
MPC vs. ARCNot an either/or decision
The author is vice president of ARC Advisory Group, Dedham, Massachusetts,
responsible for developing the strategic direction for ARC products, services and
geographical expansion. He is responsible for covering advanced software business
worldwide. In addition, he provides leadership for support of ARC's automation
team and clients. Mr. Hill has over 30 years of experience in manufacturing and
automation. He has broad international experience with The Foxboro Company.
Prior to Foxboro, Mr. Hill was a senior process control engineer with BP Oil, develop-
ing and implementing advanced process control applications. Prior to joining ARC,
he was the US general manager of Walsh Automation, a major engineering con-
sulting firm and supplier of CIM solutions to the pulp and paper, petrochemicals,
pharmaceutical, and other process and manufacturing industries. He is a graduate
from Lowell Technological Institute with a BS degree in chemical engineering.
SD-CHEMIE
patricia.hesse@sud-chemie.com
www.sud-chemie.com
Industry executives, technical experts and analysts will be discussing the latest innovations and breakthroughs in catalysis, process
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Please mark your calendar and join us in Beijing!
Sd-Chemie Dening the Future V Conference
May 23-25, 2011 Beijing, China

I

15
HPIMPACT
Refinery and petrochemical construction
costs continue measured rise
The costs for designing and constructing downstream refining
and petrochemical projects rose 3% from Q1 2010 to Q3 2010,
according to the latest edition of the IHS CERA Downstream
Capital Costs Index (DCCI). It was the third straight increase for
the index since prices bottomed out at 9% below peak 2008 levels.
Costs are now just 4% below their 2008 peak.
The IHS CERA DCCI is a proprietary measure of project cost
inflation similar in concept to the Consumer Price Index (CPI).
It provides a benchmark for comparing costs around the world
and draws upon proprietary IHS and IHS CERA databases and
analytical tools. The current DCCI rose from 175 to 180 over the
past six months. The values are indexed to the year 2000, mean-
ing that a project that cost $100 in 2000 would cost $180 today.
Higher commodity prices and a weakening US dollar contin-
ued to be the driving force behind the steady rise of costs in the
downstream sector.
The momentum in the rise of costs back to prerecession lev-
els is really a slowmentum [sic] reflective of the broader global
economic recovery, said IHS CERA Chairman Daniel Yergin.
Activity is increasing and prices are rising, albeit with a healthy
dose of caution.
Commodities prices were driven by the global economys
recovery and increased construction activity as the impact of the
fiscal stimuli was felt by the wider economy. Steel prices continued
to show high degrees of volatility as iron ore producers switched
from adjusting prices annually to adjusting them every quarter,
reflecting market-based demand-supply fundamentals.
The continued weakening of the US dollar also contributed to
the rise of commodity prices while also driving up costs of equip-
ment, labor and engineering and project management costs. The
dollars fall was driven by the US Federal Reserves second round
of quantitative easing to reinvigorate the US economythe Fed
recently announced a $600 billion plan to purchase treasury
bonds over the next eight months.
Robust downstream construction activity in China, India
and the Middle East continues unabated, according to the index.
Record refining and ethylene capacity additions came online in
2009 and more projects are in various stages of engineering and
construction. This trend is expected to continue until 2015.
Government policies encourage investment in the downstream
sector in anticipation of increasing demand for transportation
fuels, plastics and fibers.
China plans to increase refining capacity by 50% in the next
five years. Similarly, the Middle East is emerging as a major hub
for petrochemicals with advantageous feedstock and government
policies that incentivize diversification into other industries sup-
ported by petrochemicals. Large complex refineries with integrated
petrochemicals are emerging as the new standard to position the
downstream sector for profitability.
The capacity additions in Asia will continue to put downward
pressure on margins as excess capacity emerges in the face of
tepid consumer demand. Refiners and petrochemical companies
in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) countrieswhich have been rationalizing refining
capacitywill continue to face rising pressure to shut down older
and less efficient plants with poor economics.
The economic outlook ahead appears to be mixed with rising
prospects that the recent momentum will give way to an impend-
ing slowdown, said Farooq Sheikh, lead researcher for the IHS
CERA Capital Costs Analysis Forum for Downstream. China
also appears to be slowing down as the government increasingly
restrains the fiscal stimulus and has recently increased interest rates
by a quarter percent in fear of a real-estate bubble.
Developing countries are showing increasing concerns about
capital flows into their markets creating an asset bubble. Capital
controls and higher interest rates are being employed to temper
unbridled growth.
As a result, the IHS CERA DCCI concludes that another mod-
est increase is expected in downstream capital costs in the near
term as recovering construction activity and further increases in
raw materials prices push costs closer to their pre-recession highs.
Moving beyond the meltdown in the Gulf
According to Deloitte Center for Energy Solutions recent study,
the Gulf of Mexico deepwater drilling remains vital to the US
economy and is vital for future growth. For the record, easy oil is
gone; oil companies must venture to more challenging regions to
explore and produce (E&P) crude oil. Such projects will require bil-
lions of dollars of investment in new technologies to produce crude
oil and natural gas at depths greater than 5,000 feet under water.
For the Western Hemisphere, the Gulf remains a hot bed of E&P
activity. This regions crude oil reserves can provide a significant and
secure source of domestic energy to the US. At present, 30% of the
US oil supplies come from the Gulf of Mexico, and this region
provides an economic engine to the US by creating over thousands
of jobs and more than $11 billion a year in royalties and taxes.
One event. For years, E&P companies have safety operated in
the Gulf without incident; but everything change with the Deep-
water Horizon tragedy. In response to this drilling rig accident,
the US Department of Interior (DOI) immediately set in place a
six-month moratorium on new shallow and deepwater drilling.
The moratorium is affecting E&P operations in the Gulf. Delays
in new oil supplies have contributed to the increase in oil prices
during the Q4 of 2010 and the tightening in US crude supplies.
The American Petroleum Institute estimates that a production loss
of 80,000 bpd to 130,000 bpd of crude oil could be felt in the US
market by 2015. The International Energy Agency estimates that
between 100,000 bbls to 800,000 bbls of new oil supply could
be deferred under the new rules, making it more difficult to sup-
ply US demand. More imports will be required to cover the gap
between supply and demand.
New realities. In addition to the stay on new drilling, the DOI
is imposing more rules to promote safe and reliable operations on
drilling operations. The regulations set guidelines over new opera-
tions and procedures, certifications, backup control systems, new
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Elliotts answer needed only two, resulting in major savings in capital costs, installation, and
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HPIMPACT

17
rig (equipment) and materials, and demonstrations of available
backup blowout containment resources. Permitting delays are
anticipated due to the extended regulatory reviews now in place.
Price of risk. Following the Deepwater Horizon event, E&P
companies must evaluate their potential risk exposure at $30 bil-
lion when operating in the Gulf, up considerably from $75 mil-
lion. In a recent Deloitte survey of approximately 300 companies
operating in the Gulf, only 10 international and national oil com-
panies have capitalization and a balance sheet that could withstand
this level of liability. In addition, 40% of the companies working
in the Gulf have a market capitalization of $5 billion or lesswell
below the new level of risk exposure. Toler-
ance to risk is changing the environment
within the Gulf. Some companies will con-
tinue to pursue projects; other companies
will go to less risk areas. A mass exodus of
oil and gas companies from the Gulf will
have a negative impact on the US economy.
The Deepwater Horizon accident was a
tragedy that will be felt for many years. More
important, many lessons have been learned
through this experience by government and
industry that will be most beneficial for
future operations. Government and industry
must find a common ground to move for-
ward and to keep the Gulf open for business.
Update. In a reversal, the Obama
administration said on Dec. 1 that it will
not pursue offshore drilling off the East
Coast of the US and the eastern Gulf of
Mexico. Because of the BP oil spill, the
Interior Department will not propose any
new oil drilling in waters off the East Coast
for at least the next seven years.
President Barack Obamas earlier plan
announced in March, three weeks before
the April BP spillwould have authorized
officials to explore the potential for drilling
from Delaware to central Florida, plus the
northern waters of Alaska. The new plan
allows potential drilling in Alaska, but offi-
cials said they will move cautiously before
approving any leases.
A spokeswoman for the US Chamber
of Commerce said the decision represents a
major step backward for the nations energy
future. The decision comes on top of the
de facto moratorium the administration
has imposed on production in both deep
and shallow waters in the Gulf and Alaska,
which is already causing significant harm to
our economy and our energy security, said
Karen Harbert, president and CEO of the
Chambers Institute for 21st Century Energy.
Global energy
outlook to 2035
According to the International Energy
Agencys (IEAs) World Energy Outlook
2010, the energy world market faces
unprecedented uncertainty. The 20082009 global economic
crisis threw the energy markets into severe turmoil. The pace of
the global economic recovery holds the key to energy prospects
for the next several years, but it will be governments responses
to the twin challenges of climate change and energy security that
will shape the future of energy in the longer term. The worst of
the global economic crisis appears to be over. But it will be a hard
fight to return to pre-2008 energy levels. In looking ahead, IEA
forecasts some changes in the global energy market:
Global primary energy demand will increase by 36%
between 2008 and 2035, or 1.2%/yr on average. This com-
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I
JANUARY 2011 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
HPIMPACT
pares with 2%/yr predicted from the previous 27-year study.
Slower growth is due to national pledges to reduce greenhouse-
gas (GHG) emissions and plans to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies.
Non-OECD countries account for 93% of the projected
increase in global energy demand. China, where demand has
surged over the past decade, will contribute 36% to the projected
growth in global energy use; its demand is rising by 75% between
2008 and 2035 (Fig. 1). China overtook the US in 2009 to become
the worlds largest energy user. Aggregate energy demand in OECD
countries is forecast to rise very slowly.
Global demand for fossil fuels will account for over 50%
of the increase in total primary energy demand. Rising fossil-
fuel prices for end users, resulting from upward price pressures in
international markets and, increasingly, carbon penalties in many
countries, will encourage energy savings and switching to low-car-
bon energy sources, to restrain demand growth for all three fuels.
Oil remains the dominant fuel in the energy mix. Oils
share of the primary fuel mix diminishes as higher oil prices and
government measures to promote fuel efficiency support fuel
switching. Demand for coal rises through 2020 and starts to
decline. The share of nuclear power increases from 6% in 2008 to
8% in 2035. Use of modern renewable energyincluding hydro,
wind, solar, geothermal, modern biomass and marine energy
triples between 2008 and 2035. Its share in total energy demand
increase from 7% to 14%.
Natural gas will play a central role in meeting the worlds
energy needs. Global natural gas demand, which fell in 2009, is
set to resume its long-term upward trajectory from 2010. Demand
will increase by 44% between 2008 and 2035at an average of
1.4%/yr. Demand growth for gas far surpasses that for the other
fossil fuels due to its more favorable environmental and practical
attributes, and constraints on how quickly low-carbon energy
technologies can be deployed. Chinas gas demand will grow the
fastest, accounting for more than one-fifth of the increase in global
demand to 2035. The Middle East leads in expansion of natural gas
production; its output is estimated to double by 2035.
What will shape the future of oil? The global outlook for
oil remains highly sensitive to policy action to curb rising demand
and emissions. Primary oil use will increases in absolute terms
between 2009 and 2035, driven by population and economic
growth, but demand is forecast to decline in response to radical
policy action to curb fossil-fuel use. Other trends are:
The oil price needed to balance oil markets is set to rise,
reflecting the growing insensitivity of both demand and supply
to price. The growing concentration of oil use in transport and a
shift of demand toward markets where subsidies are most prevalent
are limiting the scope for higher prices to choke off demand and
discouraging fuel switching. Constraints on investment mean that
higher prices lead to only modest increases in production. In the
New Policies Scenario, the average IEA crude oil price reaches $113/
bbl (2009 dollars) in 2035up from just over $60/bbl in 2009.
Oil demand (excluding biofuels) continues to grow
steadily reaching about 99 million bpd (MMbpd) by 2035.
Non-OECD nations are responsible for the net growthalmost
half from China alone. Demand by OECD nations falls by over 6
MMbpd. Global oil production reaches 96 MMbpd, the balance
of 3 MMbpd coming from processing gains. Crude oil output
reaches an undulating plateau of around 6869 MMbpd by 2020,
but never regains its all-time peak of 70 MMbpd reached in 2006,
while production of natural gas liquids (NGLs) and unconven-
tional oil grows strongly (Fig. 2). Total OPEC production rises
continually through to 2035; its share of global output increasing
from 41% to 52%.
The eventual peak in oil demand will be determined by
several factors affecting both demand and supply. Production
in total does not peak before 2035, although it comes close to
doing so. Oil prices are much lower as a result. If governments
act more vigorously than currently planned to encourage more
efficient use of oil and development of alternatives, then demand
for oil may ease. Result: We might see a fairly early peak in oil
production, which would help prolong the worlds oil reserves.
Unconventional oil is set to play an increasingly impor-
tant role in the world oil supply through to 2035, regardless
of what governments actions to curb demand. Unconventional
oil will meet about 10% of world oil demand compared with less
than 3% today. Canadian oil sands and Venezuelan extra-heavy
oil dominate the mix, but coal-to-liquids, gas-to-liquids and, to
a lesser extent, oil shale also makes a growing contribution in the
second half of the outlook period. HP
Expanded versions of these items can be found online at
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Gas
Oil
Coal
OECD
China
Rest of world
-600 -300 0 300 600 900 1,200 1,500
Other
renewables
Hydro
Nuclear
Million toe
Energy demand by region, 20082035. FIG. 1
Crude oil elds yet
to be developed or found
Unconventional oil
Natural gas liquids
Crude oilcurrently
producing elds
Total crude oil
60
80
100
m
b
/
d
0
20
40
60
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
World oil production by type, 19902035. FIG. 2
The DeltaV systems breakthrough I/O on Demand takes the time, expense and risk out of last
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2010 Honeywell International Inc. All rights reserved.
Tim Lloyd Wright is HPs European Editor and has been active as a reporter
and conference chair in the European downstream industry since 1997, before
which he was a feature writer and reporter for the UK broadsheet press and BBC
radio. Mr. Wright lives in Sweden and is founder of a local climate and sustainability
initiative.

I

21
www.GulfPub.com/2011HPI
HP EDITORIAL
HPI 2011 FORECAST
HPI Market Data 2011 Executive Summary
BACK FROM THE EDGE OF DESPAIR
Hydrocarbon Processings HPI Market Data 2011 report offers
a detailed forecast for the direction that the hydrocarbon process-
ing industry (HPI) is heading in 2011. The executive summary
is reproduced here for your reading pleasure. Should you wish to
purchase the whole report, please visit www.gulfpub.com.
Depending on the markets, HPI segment and processing facil-
ity location, refiners and petrochemical producers can expect their
business prospects to improve, tread water or take a turn for the
worse. The report emphasizes that a new environment has arrived
this year, and it will take courage and stamina by HPI companies
to successfully navigate this constantly evolving economic and
regulatory terrain.
The 2011 economic outlook for HPI companies is:
Improving. Half-way through 2010, it is the developing or
non-Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development
(non-OECD) nations that are pulling the rest of the world out
of this downturn. As shown in Fig. 1, non-OECD nations are
steadily increasing their consumption of crude oil. In contrast,
OECD nations demand for crude oil peaked in 2006 at 49.5
million bpd (MM bpd) and has declined to an estimated 45.5
MM bpd in 2010. Yet, the total demand for crude oil has fluxed
around 86 MM bpd over this same period, with a five-year average
of 85.74 MM bpd.
In particular, it is Chinas strong gross domestic product (GDP)
and manufacturing powers that have remained positive during this
downturn. As shown in Fig. 2, China is the major non-OECD
energy-consuming nation. In 2011, China will be responsible
for about one-third of new crude-oil demand growth. In 2010,
Chinese oil demand is forecast to rise 9.2%. Much of this rising
demand is linking to a growing middle class in China.
Several economists predicted that significant changes would
evolve due in part to the sharp decline in the global economy;
such changes would move centers of influence as well. In mid-
2010, China emerged as the No. 1 energy-consuming nation, sur-
passing the US and Japan. This shift in leading energy-consuming
nations was predicted to happen in 2015. However, the steep
decline in energy consumption by the US and the steady, increas-
ing expansion of the Chinese economy shifted China to the No.
1 energy-consuming nation five years sooner than forecast. With
a strong economy, China has surpassed Japan as the second largest
economy. Japans economy struggled before the 2008 downturn
and, since then, has contracted even more, as shown in Fig. 2.
Treading water. The US economy still struggles to find for-
ward momentum. The combination of high unemployment and
a jobless recovery continues to stifle economic activity. Lower
crude oil prices and natural gas prices eased processing and feed-
stock costs. But consumers remain chilled on spending what
incomes they still have. Housing starts remain mired, which
hinders the petrochemical industry.
Taking a turn for the worse. Western Europe is experienc-
ing new economic woes in 2010. High unemployment still chal-
lenges the European Union (EU). In 2010, several EU nations
Total oil demand for OECD and non-OECD nations, 20062010. FIG. 1
49.5 49.2
47.6
45.5 45.5
35.6
37.2
38.4
39.3
40.9
85.1
86.4 86
84.8
86.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2006 2007 2008
5-yr. avg. 85.74
2009 2010
Global oil demand, 20062010
G
l
o
b
a
l

o
i
l

d
e
m
a
n
d
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

b
p
d
OECD Non-OECD Total
Source: Hydrocarbon Processing
HPI 2011 FORECAST
22

I

encountered more financial difficulties over deficit spending that
unfortunately spilled over to neighboring nations. Just as in the
US, EU consumer spending nearly evaporated in 2009, and the
EU demand for petrochemicals declined 13.9%. The EU petro-
chemical industry report a 9% increase over 2009 levels in 2010.
But recovery to pre-2008 levels will take much longer, perhaps
five years. In addition, a stronger US dollar against the euro
created even more stress for this region. Several EU nations are
tightening their financial belts to weather through this economic
storm, thus adding more pressure to this region.
Beyond 2011. The global HPI is bruised from recent events.
However, the HPI is intertwined in the daily lives of the aver-
age consumer. Activity and consumption of HPI products will
increase in non-OECD nations due in part to a growing middle
class in China and India and increasing populations in developing
nations. The stampede to the East will continue as more HPI
complexes will be located in growing consumer markets as well as
in locations with lower cost feedstocks and operating costs.
TOTAL SPENDING
HPI companies manage their spending habits via three bud-
getscapital, maintenance and operating. In 2011, we believe
that global improvements from 2010 will continue into the next
year. While new project activity is stalled from the all-time high in
2007, the total active project count remains at record levels. The
global GDP stagnated in 2010; some regions fared better than
others. The developed nations (OECD nations) still struggle to
get back on track, economically speaking. Demand for transporta-
tion fuels and petrochemical consumer products is rising slowly,
but not at rates desired by most governments. The meltdown of
the banking and credit systems tightened access to capital and
is still impacting the entire HPI community. More scrutiny is
applied by financial institutions to minimize their risk on major
capital projects.
Greenshoots of economic stability began appearing in late 2009
and early 2010. However, recovery to pre-2008 levels will take more
time, perhaps until 2015 by some forecasters. Yet, there is some
good news; notably, energy costs have declined. This is a benefit
for manufacturers and consumers. Dramatic reductions in natural
gas and crude oil prices are easing operating spending. However,
the near collapse in product demand and trade has created a surplus
situation for various HPI products. It is taking longer for industry
to work down excess inventories.
Looking forward, 2011 will continue to improve for the HPI.
New project announcements declined in 2010 but did not evapo-
rate. However, we should expect a more disciplined spending
approach by major companies to trim costs across the entire value
chain of their products and manufacturing centers. The bonus
from the downturn has been a decline in construction, material
and equipment costs.
HPI construction activity remains resilient, and new project
additions still occurred even at the bottom point of the recession in
early 2009. Investment in existing facilities will focus on improv-
ing reliability and maintaining more onstream time while finding
more production capacity through creep expansion projects.
Growing demand for HPI products will be met by new grassroots
installations in developing nations, particularly China and India.
In 2011, the HPIs capital, maintenance, and operating budgets
are expected to total $219.8 billion (Table 1). Capital spending is
projected at $56.4 billion; maintenance spending should reach
$63.9 billion, a $1.1 billion increase over 2010 spending; and
operating spending is projected to be $99.5 billion. HPI companies
are more cost conscious during tight credit times.
Capital spending exceeds $56 billion. HPI capital spend-
ing is forecast to be more than $56 billion worldwide in 2011. As
shown in Table 2, the 2011 capital spending total includes $25.1
billion in the refining sector, $16.6 billion in the petrochemical
segment, approximately $10.5 billion in the gas processing sector
and $4.3 billion in the synfuels sector. More than $28 billion of the
capital budget will be spent on equipment and materials.
HPI companies are strengthening their balance sheets and are
seeking opportunities to maximize their market shares through
strategic capital investment. Caution is still applied in major
projects and capital spending.
Companies in maturing HPI consuming regions, such as the
US and EU, are implementing capacity additions through process
modifications and retrofits. The need to maintain the reliability
of existing assets and to increase energy efficiency are major goals
in many revamp projects. Other energy-conservation and envi-
ronmental improvements from innovative equipment and new
processing technologies are also part of this investment strategy.
The availability of new and improved equipment and construction
TABLE 1. 2011 Worldwide HPI total spending
by budget, millions
Type US Outside US Worldwide
Capital 9,660 46,770 56,430
Maintenance 15,333 48,542 63,875
Operating 30,386 69,090 99,476
Total 55,379 164,402 219,781
TABLE 2. 2011 Worldwide HPI capital spending
by sector, millions
Sector US Outside US Worldwide
Petrochemical/chemical 2,300 14,300 16,600
Rening 4,400 20,700 25,100
Gas processing 2,960 7,460 10,420
Synfuels 4,310 4,310
Total 9,660 46,770 56,430
Oil demand changes in Asia-Pacific for OECD and
non-OECD nations, 20072010,
FIG. 2
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
2007 2008 2009 2010
OECD Pacic
C
h
a
n
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e

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n

o
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l

d
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m
a
n
d
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

b
p
d

Non-OECD Pacic
China

I

23
HPI 2011 FORECAST
materials, process control initiatives and environmental consider-
ations continues to drive capital spending.
Maintenance spending nearly $65 billion. During tough
times, reliability and uptime for facilities is a top priority for HPI
companies. Unplanned outages are lost revenues during any time.
But at the bottom of an economic cycle, lost production is the
critical edge that could push a facility into insolvency. Worldwide
HPI maintenance spending is forecast to approach $64 billion in
2011an increase of $3 billion from projected 2010 spending.
Maintenance expenditures are more proactive; HPI companies are
more concerned about process-unit availability.
In 2011, spending for equipment and materials represents
40% of the maintenance budget. Labor costs account for remain-
ing 60% of the maintenance budget. As more HPI companies
review their balance sheets and downsized to cut variable costs,
some companies will use more outsourced services.
CONSTRUCTION
As shown in Table 3, the number of reported projects in the
2010 HPI Construction Boxscore increased under the economic
pressure from the past 12 months. At present, 5,732 HPI projects
are at various levels of development. Activity is present in refin-
ing, petrochemical and gas processing industries. All surveyed
regions show new project announcements from June 2009 to
June 2010, as shown in Table 4. Even under these dire economic
conditions, investment in new and existing HPI facilities contin-
ues. Asia-Pacific and the Middle East continue to be hot beds of
construction activity.
Time tables for projects are being extended to commission
new production at the optimum entrance into the consumer
market. Construction activity is ongoing, but more discipline will
be applied to reign in costs from project overruns. Changes are
anticipated to improve strategic supply-base relations for major
HPI construction projects. In addition, better management in
purchasing, scheduling, construction and site management will
aid in controlling capital investment for HPI projects.
REFINING
In plain speak, developed (OECD) nations are still recover-
ing. The global refining industry was gravely impacted by this
downturn. More important, the combination of new capacity
and declining demand was the perfect storm to almost wipe out
margins in 2009 and in the first half of 2010. And now, this
industry must fight back. Nearly 70% of crude oil is refined into
transportation fuelsgasoline, diesel, jet fuel, marine and loco-
motive. Any changes in this market sector will directly impact the
refining industry.
Besides consumer and business demand declines for trans-
portation fuels, other factors are equally putting more pressure
on the refining industry. Over the next 10 years, several forces
will reshape the global refining industry and the consumption of
refined products. Here are several major game-changing trends
that may adversely affect the global refining industry:
Biofuels and renewable substitutes. Biofuels gained
popularity as a means to wean nations off of imported crude oil
supplies and to support domestic agriculture industries. There
is a green benefit attached with biofuels that is supported by
environmental groups and governments. Many OECD nations
have legislation on the books mandating increasing percentages
of biofuels blended in transportation fuels. First-generation bio-
fuels have not lived up to their hype; thus, a second generation of
biofuels is being pressed into action.
Unfortunately for refiners, biofuels displaced crude oil-based
refined products from the market. As the percentage of biofuels
and renewables required in fuels increases, more spare capacity
will emerge, thus complicating matters. Spare capacity, through
construction of new units and/or displacement of refined products
by alternatives, lowers utilization rates and margins for refiners.
Demand destruction is a potential unintended consequence from
the recession.
Energy efficiency standards. In addition to biofuels, new
rules are mandating automobile manufactures to increase the miles-
per-gallon travel by later-model vehicles. The Corporate Average
Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards will increase from 27.3 mpg travel
to 35.5 mpg beginning 2016. It will take time to turn the vehicle
fleet over to newer vehicles. Unfortunately, in developed nations, the
vehicle population will not grow dramatically as market saturation
TABLE 4. Worldwide HPI construction projects
Area June 2008 June 2009 June 2010
US 671 714 716
Canada 188 212 209
Latin America 458 530 607
Europe 1,153 1,261 1,283
Africa 192 215 231
Middle East 942 990 1,057
Asia-Pacic 1,425 1,551 1,629
Total 5,029 5,473 5,732
Table 3. Worldwide HPI construction projects
HPI sector June 2008 June 2009 June 2010
Petrochem/chem 1,676 1,837 1,889
Rening 1,564 1,692 1,751
Gas processing 1,127 1,196 1,266
Synfuels 87 98 108
All others 650 650 718
Total 5,104 5,473 5,732
Contribution of refining to US transportation fuel
life-cycle GHG emissions.
FIG. 3
Oil
extraction
Figure data: Development of Baseline Data and Analysis of Life Cycle Greenhouse
Gas Emissions of Petroleum-Based fuels, National Energy Technology Laboratory,
Ofce of Systems, Analyses, and Planning; 2009; DOE/NETL-2009/1346.
Source: HP, September 2009
Oil
transport
Oil
rening
Fuel
distribution
80%
1%
10% 2%
7%
Fuel
combustion
HPI 2011 FORECAST
24

I

occurs and the population grays. With greater CAFE requirements,
less transportation fuels will be necessary.
Climate change and carbon regulations. This is a
wild card subject. Europe is aggressively pursuing carbon poli-
cies to control carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions from stationary
and mobile sources. Unfortunately for refiners, carbon policy is
a two-punch issue. Carbon reduction legislation will limit CO
2

emissions from fired heaters and other combustion sources within
the refinery. The second punch addresses CO
2
tail-pipe emissions
when transportation fuels are combusted by vehicle engines (Fig.
3). Pressure is on automobile and light- and heavy-duty truck
manufacturers, as well as, refiners to solve tail-pipe emissions from
mobile sources. Such directives open opportunities for electric
vehicles and natural gas-powered vehicles to make inroads into the
automobile population due to their low-environmental impacts.
Outlook. Energy demand drives economic growth. Over the
last five years, crude oil demand has hovered around 85.8 million
bpd, as shown in Fig. 1. Accordingly, global energy demand has
stalled; but developing (non-OECD) nations continue to increase
demand for crude oil over the same time. It is the developed
nations that are stymied by recent economic events. Non-OECD
nations will be responsible for further demand growth for energy.
From Fig. 4, the vehicle population is also changing. In the
future, heavy-duty vehicle population will increase, thus increas-
ing demand for diesel. Aviation demand will also increase beyond
2010. Changes in fuel product demand will affect the operations
and configuration of refineries. The world is a diesel-oriented
market. The exception is the US, which is the largest gasoline
market. However, changing demand by consumers and growth
in the transportation sector indicate a shift to diesel over gasoline
in the US. New project expansions such as Marathons Garyville,
Louisiana, refinery and Motivas Port Arthur, Texas, refinery are
planned to increase ultra-low-sulfur diesel production to meet
growing domestic demand.
Renewable mandates require substituting biofuels for gaso-
line; thus creating surplus gasoline and refining capacity in the
US. Europes refining industry is out of balancetoo long on
gasoline supplies and too short on clean diesel. This region relies
on exports of gasoline and imports of diesel to balance transpor-
tation fuel demand.
Asia-Pacific is the new center for new fuel demand as shown in
Fig. 2. China and India will drive crude oil demand. The develop-
ing middle class in both nations will increase demand for energy as
well as products. China is pursuing joint venture and independent
projects to develop their refining/petrochemical industries.
NATURAL GAS/LNG
Consumption. Natural gas prices have remained anemic due
to a stronger dollar, higher oil prices, full inventories, overca-
pacity and cutbacks in heavy manufacturing. With sustained
lower prices, global natural gas consumption declined by 2.1%
in 2009the fastest decline on record.
With continued slow economic growth, the US decreased
natural gas consumption by 1.5% from 2009. Worldwide, con-
sumption decreased and was below average in most regions, except
for the Middle East and Asia-Pacific. Russia accounted for the
largest decline in global gas consumption, falling 6.1%. The
biggest player in 2009 annual consumption was India, growing
by 25.9%, with Brazil as a close second, increasing by 25.8%.
The EU, with its continued efforts to reduce coal consumption,
will continue its reliance on natural gas use; it experienced a 7%
decrease in natural gas consumption for 2009 compared to an
increase during 2008.
The Energy Information Administration (EIA) expects US
natural gas consumption to increase by 3.5% for 2010, with a
slight increase of 0.1% for 2011. Fig. 5 illustrates the US nat-
ural gas consumption short-term outlook. For 2011, the EIA
expects US natural gas consumption to decrease in all energy
sectors except for industrial, which will increase by 1.7%. For
2009, global coal consumption was flat due to cheap natural gas
and slow economic recovery. For 2010, the cold weather helped
increase natural gas consumption in the electric power sector,
along with low natural gas prices.
Global natural gas consumption is projected to increase
based on competitive energy prices, continuing environmental
pressures and improved technologies. Global coal consumption for
2009 contracted 10.4%, however, with China accounting for the
largest increase. The decrease in coal consumption stemmed from
the recession and the competitive price of natural gas. Hydropower
took over coals long standing as the fastest growing fuel for 2009.
Production. BPs Statistical Review reported that, in 2009, global
natural gas production fell by 2.1%, with Russia (12.1%) and
Turkmenistan (44.8%) each having the largest declines recorded.
For 2009, the US increased production by 3.5%, the largest
increase for the past three years. The UK had a decrease in pro-
duction, 14.1%. Production in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific
increasedwith India and Qatar having the largest increases,
28.9% and 16.3%, respectively. The EIA cut its domestic natural
gas production growth estimate in 2009 and further increased the
expected decline in demand as economic activity continues to slow.
With persistent discussions concerning the climate, natural gas will
continue its growth in electric-power production.
Global transportation demands by type,
19802030.
FIG. 4
0
10
20
30
40
G
l
o
b
a
l

t
r
a
n
s
p
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r
t
a
t
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d
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,

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i
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n

b
p
d
50
60
70
1980 2005 2030
Rail
Light duty
vehicles
Heavy duty
vehicles
Aviation
Marine
Source: ExxonMobil
Average growth/yr
20052030, 1.3%

I

25
HPI 2011 FORECAST
In the US, new natural gas production is still increasing as new
drilling starts have steadily increased. New technology primarily
used for natural gas trapped in shalesuch as the Barnett shale
around Fort Worth, Texas, and the Marcellus shale in Pennsylva-
niais the main reason that US production has increased. The
Marcellus shale has an enormous volume potential and will be of
great economic significance for the US. It will provide natural gas
supplies to the high population areas of New Jersey, New York and
New England. This transportation advantage will give Marcellus
gas a distinct advantage in the marketplace, and this will have a
positive impact on US natural gas supply stability.
International trade. For 2009, international trade in natural
gas contracted 2.1% for 2009. Pipeline trade decreased 5.8% due to
the decline in pipeline shipments from Russia and Canada. How-
ever, global liquefied natural gas (LNG) trade increased by 7.6%.
Shipments declined due to excess supply and low demand. Atlantic
and Pacific basin LNG trade continues to integrate. In January
2010, US LNG imports more than doubled from last January, since
cold weather improved prices and attracted incremental cargoes.
LNG provides a means to move supplies great distances where
pipeline transport is not feasible, allowing access to natural gas
from regions with vast production potential that are too distant
from end-use markets. At present, the worldwide LNG industry
has grown such that distance is only one of many factors that
may influence future LNG project developments. Natural gas has
always been difficult to transport, requiring processing to LNG or
using newer gas-to-liquids (GTL) processing. New technologies,
such as improved catalysts and economies-of-scale have lowered
LNG expense considerably. This, coupled with countries wanting
to decrease their carbon footprint, is finally beginning to fulfill the
decades-old promise of LNG as a globally traded fuel.
In addition to environmental issues, the growing demand for
natural gas is also being driven by economic and market factors
that include energy diversification, energy security strategies and
general economic conditions. The greatest growth is occurring for
electric-power generation. Countries with large natural gas reserves
are working to develop these resources for profitable export to
consuming nations via pipelines, liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
transport, LNG cryogenic tankers and GTL projects. This growth
is anticipated to come in the Middle East, Russia and non-OECD
countries, where most of the reserves are located and are geographi-
cally remote from the areas with the greatest demand growth.
PETROCHEMICALS
In 2010, the global petrochemical industry is still struggling.
This recession almost nearly destroyed demand for petrochemi-
cal-based products, which are commonly used in daily life. High
unemployment contributed to a free fall in demand for petro-
chemical-based consumer products such as furniture, automobiles,
appliances, packaging materials, computers, televisions, building
construction materials, electronics, building insulation, etc. Global
demand in ethylene, the building block petrochemical, decreased
7.1% in 2008; demand is rebounding at 5% in 2011.
But not all economies are on the same path for recovery in
2010. Again, Asia-Pacific nations, in particular Pacific non-
OECD nations, will be responsible for major demand growth. In
2008, Western Europe and North America experienced demand
declines for ethylene at 13.9% and 16.2%, respectively. Western
European petrochemical producers report a 9% increase in pet-
rochemical demand in 2010, but demand in this region is still
below pre-2007 levels.
Previously, forecasters would estimate new ethylene demand
growth as 1.6 times the domestic GDP. Unfortunately, most
national GDPs were negative in 2009. There is some improve-
ment in 2010. In mid-2010, the International Monetary Fund
announced that the global economy should expand 4.3% in
2011down from 4.6% in 2010. The US GDP should be 2.9%,
while Europe will still struggle with a 1.3% in 2011. China and
India will have more robust economies and GDP growth of 8%
in 2011. These numbers do not include inventory destocking/
stocking numbers.
New centers. Changing demand for petrochemicals and
byproducts, and shifts in finished-goods manufacturing, now
favor the Asia-Pacific region. In particular, China has emerged
as the global factory for petrochemical-based consumer goods.
Lower production costs have shifted many manufacturing jobs
US total natural gas consumption. FIG. 5
0.7
3.9
-4.4
3.5
-3.2
0.2
-1.4 -1.5
6.5
0.3
-1.5
3.5
0.1
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
58
60
62
64
66
68
Source: EIA, Short-Term Energy Outlook, July 2010
Consumption
Annual growth
Forecast
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

c
u
b
i
c

f
e
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t

p
e
r

d
a
y
C
h
a
n
g
e

f
r
o
m

p
r
i
o
r

y
e
a
r
,

%
HPI 2011 FORECAST
26

I

to China. Yet, China cannot support its domestic demand for
ethylene derivatives and it relies on imports.
The Middle East is emerging as the new Gulf Coast for pet-
rochemical products. Lower-cost feedstocks provide operating cost
advantages for Middle East-based ethylene units. The Middle East
continues to increase its share of the global ethylene market with
construction of new world-scale petrochemical facilities. Much of
the new capacity is planned as export products, with much of the
petrochemicals directed to China as well as Western Europe. Euro-
pean producers cannot compete against the new Middle East world-
scale units. Any demand increase in Europe will be met by imports.
More shake-out is anticipated for the global petrochemi-
cal industry. The wave of ethylene capacity in the Middle East
and China will create excess ethylene supplies that cannot be
absorbed by chilled demand for products. The excess supplies
depress utilization rates furthercompounding profitability for
older, less-energy efficient facilities (Fig. 6). North America and
Western Europe are vulnerable to lower utilization rates, which
erode plant profitability. More shake-ups are anticipated as new
petrochemical capacity further floods the global market, and
demand remains contracted from the aftershocks of this global
recession. HP
Get the Information You Need to Compete in 2011
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maintenance and operating expenditures for the local and
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HPI Economics
Maintenance and Equipment
Natural Gas/LNG
Petrochemicals
Refining
Health, Safety and Environment
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activity and spending from previous forecasts.
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editors to highlight key trends and issues.
The HPIs most comprehens
maintenance and operating
global HPI, the HPI Market
of expanded coverage and
HPI Economics
Maintenance and Equ
Natural Gas/LNG
Petrochemicals
Refining
Health, Safety and En
Includes a BONUS CD f
More than 10 years of
activity and spending
HPI Construction Box
20 articles from Hydro
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Call: +1 (713) 520-4426
New ethylene capacity additions by regions, 20072014. FIG. 6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
E
t
h
y
l
e
n
e

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
,
m
i
l
l
i
o
n

m
e
t
r
i
c

t
o
n
s
North America
Middle East
Southeast Asia
West. Europe
Northeast Asia
Others
Source: CMAI
HPINNOVATIONS

I

27
SELECTED BY HYDROCARBON PROCESSING EDITORS
editorial@gulfpub.com
New alternative technologies
for oil spill cleanup
C.I.Agent Solutions, a global leader
in solutions for fuel and oil spill cleanup
and containment, exhibited at Clean Gulf
2010 and featured its latest innovative and
alternative technologies for fuel and oil
spill cleanup and containment that are
used both for preparedness and response
efforts. Clean Gulf 2010, the largest oil
spill training event and exhibition in
North America, was held in Tampa, Flor-
ida, this past October.
According to C.I.Agent Solutions
Founder and CEO Dan Parker, Whether
you insure marine vessels, own a fleet of
workboats or run a marina, our marine-
industry products help you contain and
clean up hydrocarbon spills on fresh or
salt waterincluding the sheenfor less
time and money than the present dated
methods. Mr. Parker and his team spent
the summer in the Gulf of Mexico as part
of oil spill and recovery efforts from the
Deepwater Horizon explosion.
C.I.Agent Solutions featured eight new
products during the Clean Gulf 2010 con-
ference, which included:
Continuous low-level aquatic moni-
toring (C.L.A.M.)a state-of-the-art
submersible extraction sampler using
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
approved solid-phase extraction (SPE)
media to sequester pesticides, herbicides,
PAHs, TPH and other trace organics from
water. C.L.A.M. can be used to sample
urban water systems, rivers, monitoring
wells, drinking water systems, watersheds
and lakes, agricultural runoff, storm water
and marine environments.
EVAC filtration systemstate-of-
the-art filtration technology to remove sus-
pended solids and light sheen from water
discharge operations in vaults, manholes,
elevator shafts, bilges, tanks and more. Its
unique four-layer system adsorbs hydrocar-
bons, removes large and fine sediment and
polishes the water.
Sheen machine (Fig. 1)a self-con-
tained system ideal for capturing hydro-
carbon sheen in remote areas with limited
access, such as creeks, streams and outfalls.
This durable, lightweight and portable
system can also be used in marinas and
harbors to capture and remove hydrocar-
bon sheen before it impacts the environ-
ment. Two Sheen machines have recently
been used to aid the EPA and Enbridge
Liquid Pipelines to prevent oil sheen from
a pipeline leak near Marshall, Michigan,
from reaching Lake Michigan.
Tar Ball Catcherattaches easily to
any hard boom and will catch tar balls
and other debris suspended in the water
column. Once the tar balls are caught in
the net, they either stay in the netting, or
release and float to the waters surface for
capture and disposal. Tar Ball Catcher is
custom made to meet site-specific require-
ments and can be used in fresh or salt
water with light to heavy current.
Water Cannon an effective spill
response tool for applying C.I.Agent
oil-solidifying polymers directly onto a
hydrocarbon spill in fresh and salt water
(Fig. 2). The Water Cannons unique
design creates a vortex within the water jet
to prevent the hydrophilic polymers from
separating from the water during appli-
cation, eliminating the possibility of the
polymers becoming airborne. The Water
Cannon is custom built to size, flow and
pressure requirements and can be hand
held or mounted.
C.I.Agent, the companys flagship
product, is an environmentally friendly
blend of food-grade polymers that solidi-
fies hydrocarbons (sheen, gasoline, diesels
and oil including crude) into a recyclable
rubber-like mass. C.I.Agent is listed on
the EPA NCP product schedule.
Lightweight PC endures
harsh environments
Daisy Data Displays, Inc. (D3), indus-
try leader in developing specialized and
ruggedized computers, displays, and key-
boards designed to endure harsh industrial
and plant environments, has announced
the release of its latest PC, the 4823CX
Series (Fig. 3).
As HP editors, we hear about new
products, patents, software, pro-
cesses, services, etc., that are true
industry innovationsa cut above the
typical product offerings. This sec-
tion enables us to highlight these
significant developments. For more
information from these companies,
please go to our website at www.
HydrocarbonProcessing.com/rs and
select the reader service number.
A member of C.I.Agent Solutions
demonstrates the Water Cannon.
FIG. 2
D3s 4823CX Series PC. FIG. 3
Solid wall of gabion baskets
protect the shoreline.
FIG. 1
28

I

HPINNOVATIONS
The durable, relatively lightweight PC
is equipped with a 15-in. LED backlit
LCD, glass-on-glass resistive touch screen
and has the ability to endure extreme
temperatures. Besides its sleek and por-
table 20 lb body, other features include a
low-power Intel Atom processor, as well as
optional Bluetooth, GPS, speakers, cam-
era, microphone, WiFi antenna, battery
and charger. Battery options include either
a 115/230-volt AC version or a 24-volt
DC version. It is also rated NEMA 4X
and FM approved, pending Division 2
and Zone 2 ATEX rating.
D3 unveiled its new PC at recent trade
shows including Interphex in New York
City and the Offshore Technology Confer-
ence in Houston. There, the company was
able to quote the machine for customers,
and distribution began in June 2010. The
4823CX Series is essentially a new product
in the industrial computer business with
nothing else comparing to its small, sturdy,
self-contained structure. Customer feed-
back inspired D3s innovation.
We would go to trade shows and hear
We like your product, but its too heavy to
carry around in the field, said D3 Gen-
eral Manager, Mike Hadaway. There was
a definite void in the market for a product
this lightweight and rugged, so we filled it.
CFD software used in LNG
cryogenic power recovery turbine
The Cryodynamics division of Ebara
International Corporation produces spe-
cialized cryogenic liquefied gas pumps
and turbine expanders. When Ebaras
liquid natural gas (LNG) complex, built
for the Sultanate of Oman, went fully
operational after three years in develop-
ment, it incorporated the first submerged
hydraulic turbine generators. Six turbines
and critical components were developed
for the Oman facility. These required in-
depth analysis to minimize risks and com-
ply with strict development requirements.
Ebara used Agile Engineering Design Sys-
tem (AEDS) turbomachinery software
from Concepts NREC (CN) to perform
essential turbine analyses.
A major requirement was to make it as
efficient as possible, increasing productivity
of the liquefaction process, while recover-
ing the fluid energy as electrical power,
said Hans Kimmel, executive director of
R&D for EbarasCryodynamics division.
It was a completely new development with
no prior art. We used CNs computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) software.
Part of the challenge was testing effi-
ciency before installation. The design
included a variable speed unit, so mechani-
cal analyses were required to satisfy rotor-
dynamic aspects, avoid critical frequencies
and comply with electrical requirements.
Testing the units was done at Ebaras manu-
facturing facility in Sparks, Nevada.
Basic design information was used to
construct a turbine stage computer model
for analysis using CCAD from AEDS. An
interactive and highly flexible geometry
generator based on the Bezier-Bernstein
polynomials, CCAD enabled estimates of
blade row performance by means of invis-
cid, two-dimensional streamline curvature
analysis used to guide the runner redesign.
CFD analysis enabled a complete assess-
ment of the flow field through each turbine
component. Performance was estimated by
mass averaging the properties on planes at
the inlet and exit of each component.
Based on CFD analyses, the runner
2011 will bring many innovations.
www.hoerbiger.com
We wish you a happy new year and say "Thank
You" for the partnership we shared in 2010.
Let HOERBIGER help you set the standard for the
reliable, clean, safe and efcient operation of all
your rotating and reciprocating equipment in 2011.
HPINNOVATIONS

I

29
was redesigned in several steps to reduce
or eliminate poorer flow features, and the
return bend was redesigned. Significant
improvement relied on increasing the axial
length of the return bend.
A 10% increase in overall stage length
was permissible and allowed the return
bend to be increased by approximately
20% in axial length. CFD analysis of the
redesigned return bend later showed that
the stage efficiency increased by eight
points to 89.4%.
Kimmel said, Novel equipment can
only be applied in LNG plants if the design
is an extrapolation of existing designs and
novel aspects are carefully reviewed and
analyzed. The CN software made it possi-
ble to perform the analysis needed in devel-
oping the first-of-its-kind LNG cryogenic
power-recovery turbine.
Shaw adds two technologies to
meet environmental regulations
Shaw Group Inc. has announced it has
expanded its technology portfolio with
the addition of two refining technologies
designed to help refiners meet increas-
ingly stringent environmental regulations
for cleaner gasoline. The two technolo-
gies, More Iso-Paraffins (MIP) and Clean
Gasoline and Propylene (CGP), reduce
undesirable components, such as olefins,
sulfur and benzene, from gasoline. The
new technologies also increase the yields
of premium components, such as iso-
paraffins, for high-performance engines
and propylene used to manufacture pet-
rochemicals.
The technologies can be installed in
either existing or grassroots fluidized cata-
lytic cracking (FCC) units through modi-
fications to the units riser reactor section.
The technologies provide operators with
the flexibility to switch the desired opera-
tion mode based on market demand, oper-
ating either in maximum gasoline mode or
increased propylene mode.
Shaw will market these technologies
outside China on behalf of the developer,
Sinopecs Research Institute of Petroleum
Processing (SINOPEC RIPP).
Shaw is a leading FCC licensor, and
we are recognized for our residual fluidized
catalytic cracking (RFCC) and deep cata-
lytic cracking (DCC) technologies, said
Lou Pucher, president of Shaws Energy
& Chemicals Group. The addition of
these two commercially proven technolo-
gies will enable us to help oil refiners build
or revamp more profitable and flexible
FCC units that meet the challenges of new
gasoline regulations and produce more
propylene from heavy oils.
Developed by SINOPEC RIPP in the
late 1990s, the technologies were com-
mercialized in 2002 in China. Since then,
more than 30 units have been installed with
capacities ranging from 0.44 to 3.0 million
tons per year. Shaw has licensed SINOPEC
RIPPs DCC technology outside China
since 1993. Shaw has also licensed SINO-
PEC s catalyst cooling technology since the
early 1990s.
Shaw has demonstrated its ability to
license, design and engineer our new tech-
nologies in the world market, says Dr.
Jun Long, president of SINOPEC RIPP.
We believe the expansion of our alliance
technology portfolio with Shaw will fur-
ther elevate SINOPEC RIPPs position as
a leading refining technology research and
development center.
RobusL and reliable, FlELDVUE
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I

31
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
HELEN MECHE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
HM@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
North America
Technip has been awarded an engineer-
ing, procurement and construction-support
lump-sum contract by Valero Refining Co.
for two flare-gas recovery units at its Port
Arthur, Texas, refinery. Each unit involves
modifying the existing flare, gas-compression
and gas-treating systems to remove hydrogen
sulfide. The recovered and treated gas will
be returned to the refinery fuel-gas system.
Technips operating center in Hous-
ton, Texas, will execute this contract,
which is scheduled to be completed in the
third quarter of 2011. The scope of work
includes basic engineering, project manage-
ment, detailed engineering, procurement,
construction support, precommissioning
and startup assistance. This project follows
the successful execution of Technips front-
end-engineering design.
After four years of continuous effort,
Gov. Joe Manchin and TransGas Develop-
ment Systems President Adam Victor, along
with several state and local representatives,
announced that TransGas Development Sys-
tems has selected its engineering procure-
ment contractor and technology provider for
its coal-to-gasoline facility that will be built
in Mingo County, West Virginia. This facil-
ity will reportedly be the nations first. It will
also be the largest of its kind in the world.
The project will be built by SK Engi-
neering & Construction, and will use
the technology of Uhde GmbH. It will
convert regional coal into 756,000 gpd of
premium-grade ultra-clean gasoline.
Praxair, Inc., has begun supplying BPs
refinery complex in Whiting, Indiana, with
hydrogen from its new state-of-the-art
hydrogen facility. The two steam-methane
reformers have a total capacity of 200 mil-
lion scfd. BP uses hydrogen to produce
ultra-low-sulfur gasoline and diesel fuels.
The facility was fully designed, engineered,
procured and built by Praxairs hydrogen
engineering group.
South America
UOP LLC, a Honeywell company,
has announced that Petrobras has
selected UOP to provide all of the process
technologies for two new maximum
diesel refineries to be built in Brazil.
UOP hydrocracking and hydrotreating
technologies will be used to produce high-
quality diesel fuel from Brazilian national
crude oils at the two new refineries.
Petrobras plans to construct a two-train
600,000-bpd facility in Maranho, Brazil,
to be known as Premium I, and a single-
train 300,000-bpd facility in Ceara, Brazil,
to be known as Premium II.
Basic engineering for the refineries is
underway. Commissioning of the first
train at the Premium I facility is planned in
2014, and the Premium II facility in 2017.
Both facilities will use UOPs Unicracking
hydrocracking process and Unionfining
hydrotreating process to upgrade feedstocks
to ultra-low-sulfur diesel. Selective-Yield
Delayed-Coking (SYDEC) technology,
provided by Foster Wheeler USA, will also
be used to maximize diesel production by
converting the crude oils residue portion to
an intermediate product used in diesel pro-
duction. UOP will also serve as the front-
end engineering design (FEED) contractor
to provide a firm basis for the sites pro-
curement and construction. Design of the
crude and vacuum systems in the refineries
will be provided by Process Consulting
Services, Inc., through an alliance partner-
ship with UOP.
PDVSA and Eni have contracts for
creating two Mixed Enterprises (Empresas
Mixtas): PetroJunn, dedicated to develop-
ing the Junn 5 Block, located in the Ori-
noco Oil Belt, some 550 km southeast of
Caracas, Venezuela, and PetroBicentenario,
dedicated to constructing and operating a
refinery in the area of the existing industrial
coastal complex of Jose, Venezuela. Par-
ticipation in both mixed enterprises will be
PDVSA 60% and Eni 40%, according to
the terms of the new hydrocarbon law of
the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
The new refinery will have a capacity
of 240,000 bpd, plus the ability to pro-
cess additional volumes of approximately
110,000 bpd of intermediate streams from
other PDVSA facilities, which will provide
additional value to the project. Eni will pay
a bonus of $646 million. $300 million of
this will be paid at the publication of the
Mixed Enterprises contracts of incorpora-
tion. The balance will be paid in tranches,
according to achievement of project mile-
stones. Awarding of major contracts is
expected in 2011 for early production, and
in 2013 for full field development.
Burckhardt Compression (Brasil) Ltda.
has finalized the delivery of two revamped
process-gas compressors to the Petrobras
RECAP refinery in Capuava, Brazil. The
order included the relocation of deactivated
compressors, and the redesign and revamp
of the existing equipment to comply with
Petrobas new operating conditions.
Braskem and INEOS Technologies
have a strategic partnership for polyethylene
(PE) technologies. Under this partnership
agreement, Braskem can acquire licenses for
Innovene S slurry and Innovene G gas-phase
technologies to produce high-density PE and
linear low-density PE in Braskems future
petrochemical projects. In addition, Braskem
and INEOS Technologies will jointly con-
duct research and development programs
for the slurry and gas-phase PE platforms.
The first petrochemical project to ben-
efit from the partnership is the Etileno XXI
project in Mexico. It forms the basis for
the newly established Braskem IDESA
S.A.P.I., a joint venture between Braskem
and GRUPO IDESA. The two Innovene
Trend analysis forecasting
Hydrocarbon Processing maintains an
extensive database of historical HPI proj-
ect information. The Boxscore Database is a
35-year compilation of projects by type, oper-
ating company, licensor, engineering/construc-
tor, location, etc. Many companies use the his-
torical data for trending or sales forecasting.
The historical information is available in
comma-delimited or Excel
and can be custom

sorted to suit your needs. The cost depends on
the size and complexity of the sort requested
and whether a customized program must be
written. You can focus on a narrow request
such as the history of a particular type of
project or you can obtain the entire 35-year
Boxscore database or portions thereof.
Simply send a clear description of the data
you need and you will receive a prompt cost
quotation. Contact:
Drew Combs
P.O. Box 2608, Houston, Texas, 77252-2608
Phone: 713-520-4409
e-mail: Drew.Combs@GulfPub.com
Contrary to what you may think, were much more than a tube tting company.
And we have our obsession with Customer Focus to thank for that. Yes, were
known throughout the world for our tube ttings. And yes, weve been at it for over
60 years. But when companies are looking harder than ever for greater value, its
our broad range of products, including orbital welders, modular systems, and a
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at swagelok.com/moreproducts.
In addition to tube ttings,
we also make valves,
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and happier customers.

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HPIN CONSTRUCTION

33
S plants that will form part of the Etileno
XXI complex in Coatzacoalcos, Mexico,
are scheduled to start up in January 2015.
They will produce a full range of monomo-
dal and bimodal high-density and medium-
density polyethylene resins with a total
nameplate capacity of 750 kty.
Europe
Because of the persistently high demand
for polyamide 12, worldwide, Germany-
based, Evonik Industries will continue to
expand its laurolactam capacity further.
This expansion represents a boost to the
capacity increase taking place in Marl, Ger-
many, which should be completed in the
fourth quarter of 2010.
Headwaters Inc., in conjunction with
Neste Oil Corp., has completed a success-
ful plant trial for its proprietary HCAT
hydrocracking technology at Neste Oils
Porvoo refinery in Finland.
HCAT is a proprietary technology
where a liquid precursor is introduced with
the bottom-of-the-barrel feedstock, gen-
erating a highly active molecular catalyst
that improves the performance of existing
ebullated upgrading units. Process enhance-
ments, reported by Neste Oil following the
trial, include higher residue conversion and
less fouling of downstream equipment.
With the successful performance test
in mid-October 2010, EDL Anlagenbau
Gesellschaft mbH, Leipzig, Germany, a
100% subsidiary of the Vienna-based Prner
Group, completed the revamp of crude-oil-
distillation unit No. 4, at the Schwechat
refinery, within the stipulated budget and
time. The project, worth approximately 20
million, included modernization of the dis-
tillation units lower circulating pumparound
during normal plant shutdown.
EDLs contract, awarded by OMV
Refining & Marketing GmbH, was to per-
form detail engineering, procurement and
site-management services. The objective was
to reduce the units corrosion rate by lower-
ing the temperature. This required extensive
process-related modifications of the main
column, as well as replacement of pipes,
heat exchangers and control instruments.
CB&I Lummus has a contract for
FEED services for the Shtokman LNG
storage and loading facility at the seaport
in Terriberka in the Murmansk region of
the Russian Federation. The seaport is part
of the Shtokman Gas-Condensate Field
Development Project developed by Gaz-
prom Dobycha Shelf LLC. CB&Is con-
tract, which is scheduled for completion in
2011, was awarded by Giprospetsgas JSC,
the project general designer. The contract
value was not disclosed.
CB&Is project scope includes concept
and FEED development of the LNG stor-
age and loading facility, including multiple
160,000-m
3
full-containment LNG storage
tanks, and the associated process-piping
and loading facilities. Concept and FEED
development will provide the project
schedule and cost estimates for the engi-
neering, procurement and construction
(EPC) phase. CB&I will also prepare the
Russian design dossier (Proyekt) in accor-
dance with regulatory requirements.
Africa
Hyundai Heavy Industries Co. Ltd.
(HHI) held a naming ceremony for the
A singIe-step decontamination
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34

I
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
Usan FPSO, reported to be the worlds
largest floating production storage and
offloading facility. The Usan FPSO can
refine 160,000 bpd of oil and 5 million m
3
of gas per day. It has storage for 2 million
bbl of oil. The facility is 320-m long, 61-m
wide, 32-m high and weighs 116,000 tons.
The $1.7 billion FPSO was ordered by
Total in February 2008. After trial runs in
Ulsan, South Korea, the Usan FPSO will
sail out for the Usan Field at the end of
March 2011. The Usan Field is located 100
km south of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Middle East
Axens (Performance Programs) has
delivered a process operations simulator
(POS) to Aromatics Oman LLC for its
ParamaX complex that started up at the
beginning of 2010. The POS integrates all
of the complexs units. The simulations are
based on PRO/II comprehensive steady-
state process-simulation software developed
by Invensys Operations Management.
The ParamaX technology suite, imple-
mented in Oman, is composed of pro-
cesses, such as naphtha hydrotreating,
Aromizing, Morphylane, Eluxyl, XyMax
and TransPlus.
Uhde is in charge of the basic engi-
neering for the Morphylane process, while
Axens ensures basic engineering for the
other ParamaX technologies, as well as the
integrated package.
SK E&C has won the first overseas
communication contract exclusively, worth
$34 million, to build a communication
system in Qatar in the Middle East. This
project is to construct a communication
system between oil refineries and petro-
chemical plants in the Dukhan oil field,
located 95 km to the west of Doha, the
capital of Qatar. Qatar Petroleum placed
this order, which has a construction period
of 30 months, starting at the end of Octo-
ber 2010 and finishing in April 2013.
His Highness, The Emir of Qatar,
Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al Thani,
officially inaugurated Q-Chems second
plant, Q-Chem II. This plant will pro-
duce 350,000 metric tpy of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), increasing the total
HDPE capacity of Qatar Chemical Co.
Ltd. by more than 75%. It will also produce
345,000-metric tpy of normal alpha olefins
(NAOs), making it the first facility in the
Middle East to produce these compounds.
The Q-Chem II HDPE and NAO expan-
sion increases the overall derivatives product
capacity at the Mesaieed site by 140%.
Both HDPE and NAO will be produced
using proprietary technologies licensed by
Chevron Phillips Chemical Co. LP.
The EPC contract for the project was
won by a consortium of TECNIMONT
S.p.A. and Daewoo Engineering and
Construction Co. Ltd.
CB&I has been awarded a contract, val-
ued in excess of $60 million, by Daewoo
Engineering and Construction Co. Ltd.,
for the construction of several storage tanks
for the Ruwais refinery expansion project
in Abu Dhabi. Takreer, a subsidiary of
ADNOC, is expanding the refinery to add
400,000 bpd in capacity.
Asia-Pacific
Sinopec Zhenhai Refining & Petro-
chemical Co. Ltd. (ZRCC) has launched
a new ethylene oxide/ethylene glycol (EO/
EG) plant in China using the METEOR
EO/EG process, licensed through The Dow
Chemical Co. The ZRCC plant, which first
started up in April 2010, is the second plant
in China to use the METEOR process. The
first, operated by Sinopec-SABIC (Tian-
jin) Petrochemical Co., began production
in February 2010. Aker Solutions assisted
on the preparation and expansion of the
process-design package, while SINOPEC
Shanghai Engineering Co. Ltd. (SSEC)
completed the facilitys detailed engineering.
Univation Technologies LLC has
announced that PuCheng Clean Energy
Chemical Co. Ltd. has selected Univations
UNIPOL PE process for a 300,000-tpy
polyethylene high-density/linear-low-den-
sity swing plant. The facility will be fed by
ethylene from a combination of coal-to-
methanol and methanol-to-olefins technol-
ogy. The facility will be located in Shaanxi
Province, Peoples Republic of China, with
a planned startup in 2013.
Celanese Corp. intends to construct
manufacturing facilities in China and the US
to use advanced technology for producing
ethanol for chemical applications and other
industrial uses. Following necessary approv-
als, Celanese plans to construct one, and pos-
sibly two, industrial ethanol complexes in
China to serve the fast-growing Asia region.
Initial production capacity of each com-
plex is expected to be approximately 400,000
tpy. The company could begin industrial
ethanol production within 30 months after
project approvals. The China units would
utilize coal as the primary raw material.
Celanese also intends to build an approx-
imately 40,000-ton industrial ethanol pro-
duction unit at its Clear Lake, Texas, facility
for either internal use or merchant demand.
The unit will also support continuing tech-
nology development efforts over the next
several years. Following approvals, unit con-
struction is anticipated to begin in mid-
2011 and be completed by the end of 2012.
The Clear Lake facility would use natural
gas as its primary raw material.
Foster Wheeler AGs Global Engi-
neering and Construction Group has
been awarded a contract by Perusahaan
Gas Negara (PGN) to provide project man-
agement consultancy (PMC) services for a
new floating LNG receiving terminal (the
Medan floating LNG terminal facility) to be
built in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
The Foster Wheeler contract value for
this project was not disclosed. The com-
panys scope of work includes technical
assistance through the initial phase of the
projects development; conceptual design
of the terminal; basic subsea and onshore
pipeline design; preparation and issue of an
invitation to bid for engineering, procure-
ment and construction (EPC); EPC bid
evaluations; preparation of the EPC con-
tract; and support to PGN in EPC-contract
negotiation. Foster Wheeler will fulfill the
role of owners engineer during the projects
EPC phase through to terminal startup.
Alfa Laval has received an order for
Alfa Laval Packinox heat exchangers to be
used in a refinery in India. The order value
is about SEK 50 million, and delivery is
scheduled for 2011. The heat exchangers
will be used in a catalytic process to remove
sulfur from refined diesel.
Neste Oil has started up what is said
to be the worlds largest renewable-diesel
plant in Singapore. Production of NExBTL
renewable diesel will be ramped up on a
phased basis. The plant was completed on-
schedule and on-budget, and marks a major
step forward in Neste Oils clean traffic fuel
strategy. The Singapore plant has a capacity
of 800,000 tpy and cost around 550 mil-
lion to build. Neste Oil has a similar-sized
facility under construction in Rotterdam,
The Netherlands, which is due to be com-
missioned in the first half of 2011. HP
Expanded versions of these items can be
found online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.

I

35
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Company City Plant Site Project Capacity Unit Cost Status Yr Cmpl Licensor Engineering Constructor
AFRICA
Angola Sonangol Lobito Lobito Refinery 200 Mbpd U 2012 KBR
Morocco SAMIR Mohammedia Mohammedia Bitumen 270 Mtpy U 2011 Porner Porner
Morocco SAMIR Mohammedia Mohammedia Storage, Tank (1) 5.5 Mm3 U 2011 Porner Porner
Morocco SAMIR Mohammedia Mohammedia Storage, Tank (2) 5.5 Mm3 U 2011 Porner Porner
ASIA/PACIFIC
Australia Santos\PETRONAS JV Queensland Bowen-Surat Basin LNG EX 1.5 Mtpy 750 U 2011 Total
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore Mangalore Desalter, 2- Stage 83200 bpd U 2011 Mackenzie Hydrocarbons Mackenzie Hydrocarbons Indus Projects Limited
India Essar Oil Ltd Vadinar Vadinar Refinery EX 375 bpsd U 2011 ABB Lummus Simon Carves |TCE Essar
Japan Cosmo Oil Co Ltd Yokkaichi Yokkaichi Distillation, Crude 50 bpd C 2010
Singapore ExxonMobil Jurong Jurong Hydrotreater, Diesel 56600 bpd P 2014
South Korea S-Oil Corp Ulsan Ulsan Kerosene 44600 bpd U 2011 Mackenzie Hydrocarbons
Vietnam Petrovietnam Vung Tau Vung Tau Carbon Dioxide Recov 250 t/a 27.17 C 2010 MHI Samsung Eng Samsung Eng
CANADA
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Regina Refinery EX 100 bpd 107 U 2012 Colt Worley Parsons (CWP) Veco |Mustang| CWP Veco |CWP
EUROPE
Austria OMV AG Schwechat Schwechat Distiller, Crude (4) BY 0.3 Mbpd 28 C 2010 Lurgi Lurgi
Greece Hellenic Petroleum SA Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Refinery EX 70 bpsd 198 E 2010 Foster Wheeler Italiana
Greece Hellenic Petr AE Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Reformer, Cat RE 15 Mbpd U 2011 EMRE Asprofos|EMRE
LATIN AMERICA
Brazil Petrobras Ceara Ceara Unicracking 300 bpd U 2017 Honeywell UOP Honeywell UOP
Brazil Petrobras Maranhao Maranhao Unicracking 600 bpd U 2014 Honeywell UOP Honeywell UOP
Cuba PDVSA Matanzas Matanzas Refinery, Heavy Ends 150 bpd 4300 P 2015
Ecuador Refineria del Pacifico-CEM El Aromo El Aromo Refinery 300 bpd 12500 P 2013 PGN
Trinidad Petrotrin Pointe-a-Pierre Pointe-a-Pierre Diesel, ULSD (1) 40 Mbpd 220 U 2012 Lummus Technology Samsung Eng
Venezuela Eni SpA Undisclosed Orinoco River Basin Refinery 350 bpd 9000 P 2016
MIDDLE EAST
Qatar Q-Chem II (JV Qatar Petr/Chevron Mesaieed Mesaieed Polyethylene, HD 350 Mtpy 1300 C 2010 Chevron Phillips Daewoo Eng|Tecnimont Daewoo Eng|Tecnimont
Saudi Arabia SABIC Al Jubail Al Jubail Air Separation Unit (1) 3.5 t/a 300 U 2011 Air Products Samsung Eng|Air Products
UAE Borouge III Ruwais Ruwais Polyethylene, LD 350 Mtpy 400 E 2013 Tecnimont Samsung Eng
UAE Borouge III Ruwais Ruwais Polypropylene (1) 480 Mtpy 1255 E 2013 Tecnimont Samsung Eng
UAE Borouge III Ruwais Ruwais Polypropylene (2) 480 Mtpy 1255 E 2013 Tecnimont Samsung Eng
UNITED STATES
Florida Algenol Biofuels Lee Lee County Biorefinery, Ethanol 100 Mgpy 59 F 2011 Dow Chem
Louisiana Sasol Lake Charles Lake Charles Ethylene Tetramerisation 100 m-tpy P 2013
Mississippi Chevron Pascagoula Pascagoula CCR 55 bpd 500 U 2010
Texas BP Amoco Chemicals Chocolate Bayou Chocolate Bayou Ethylene (2) 1.8 m-tpy M 2010 INEOS
Virginia Western Refining Yorktown Yorktown Refinery EX 70 bpd A 2010
See http://www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/bxsymbols for licensor, engineering and construction companies abbreviations,
along with the complete update of the HPI Construction Boxscore.
THE GLOBAL SOURCE
FOR TRACKING HPI
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY
BOXSCORE DATABASE ONLINE
For more than 50 years, Hydrocarbon Processing
magazine remains the only source that collects and
maintains data specically for the HPI community,
publishing up-to-the-minute construction projects
from around the globe with our online product,
Boxscore Database. Updated weekly, our database
helps engineers, contractors and marketing personnel
identify active HPI construction projects around the
world to:
Generate leads
Market research
Track trend analysis
And, decide future budget planning.
Now, weve made our best product even better!
Enhancements include:
Exporting your search results to Excel so you can
compile your research
Delivering the latest updated projects directly to
your inbox each week
Designing customized construction reports for your
company using our 50 years of archived projects.
For a Free 2 -Week Trial, contact Lee Nichols at
+1 (713) 525-4626, Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com,
or visit www.ConstructionBoxscore.com
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GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS SPECIALREPORT

I

37
Consider different alternatives
for enriching lean acid gases
New developments improve operation of Claus sulfur recovery units
B. ZARENEZHAD, Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, Semnan University, Iran
L
ean acid-gas enrichment processes can be used to upgrade
low-quality offgas from treating units to higher-quality Claus
plant feed or to smaller volume streams that are suitable for
reinjection. The process objective is minimizing hydrogen sul-
fide (H
2
S) leaks into the systems vent gas, thus producing a gas
enriched in H
2
S to the greatest extent possible.
Designing and operating acid-gas enrichment plants are highly
sensitive for a number of parameters, including lean-solvent tem-
perature (a serious constraint in the Middle East). Other param-
eters are feed gas, including H
2
S/carbon dioxide (CO
2
), choice of
tower internals type, number of contact trays, and solvent selection.
Managing acid gases. For acid gas feeds with an H
2
S con-
centration greater than 50%, a reaction furnace temperature
in excess of 925C (1,700F) can be achieved using the simple
straight-through Claus process. However, if the acid-gas H
2
S
concentration is significantly lower than 50%, the minimum
required reaction furnace temperature of 925C (1,700F) may
not be attainable without an upstream acid-gas enrichment unit
to increase the H
2
S concentration of the Claus plant feed gas.
The required reaction furnace temperature is a function of
acid-gas contaminants. Fig. 1 shows the reaction furnace theoreti-
cal adiabatic flame temperature as a function of the H
2
S content
in the acid-gas feed for a straight-through Claus plant configura-
tion. The two horizontal dashed lines represent the tempera-
ture targets required to completely destroy benzene, toluene and
xylenes (BTX) and straight-chain hydrocarbons.
As shown in Fig. 1, the minimum flame temperature required to
destroy BTX and heavy hydrocarbons cannot always be maintained.
Aromatics (BTX) cannot be destroyed if the acid-gas H
2
S concen-
tration is less than 60%, and paraffinic heavy hydrocarbons cannot
be destroyed if the acid-gas H
2
S concentration is less than 50%.
Techniques such as supplemental fuel-gas firing can raise the
reaction furnace temperature. However, supplemental fuel-gas
firing introduces a number of negative factors.
First, there is a decrease in overall sulfur-recovery efficiency
with supplemental fuel firing. This is mainly due to the forma-
tion of significant amounts of undesirable byproducts such as
carbonyls (COSs) and CS
2
. In addition, the water and inert gases
produced by combustion lead to less than a favorable Claus equi-
librium, which decreases the overall sulfur-recovery efficiency.
In addition, equipment sizes must be larger to handle the higher
gas flow that results from co-firing with fuel gas. Finally, fuel-gas
supplemental firing usually requires more operator attention to
ensure that coke formation does not occur.
1,2
Preheating the acid gas and/or the combustion air streams
prior to being fed into the reaction furnace is another option
for increasing the reaction furnace temperature. The maximum
reaction furnace temperature increase that can be achieved by
preheat depends on the heating medium used, but is limited to
about 60C to 90C (110F to 165F). Preheating increases sulfur
plant capital and operating costs and increases the total pressure
drop across the unit.
Oxygen enrichment. Oxygen enrichment is another process
option that can effectively increase the reaction furnace tem-
perature. However, depending on the location of the facility
and the quantity of oxygen needed, oxygen enrichment may be
prohibitively expensive if an inexpensive oxygen source is not
readily available.
With the advent of selective amine treating systems, the
H
2
S concentration of a Claus plant acid-gas feed stream can be
increased by rejecting CO
2
and other contaminants. Selective
amine treating systems can also be used to increase the feed gas
H
2
S concentration of existing Claus sulfur plants with the fol-
lowing advantages:
13
No impact on the reaction furnace combustion air require-
ments
No impact on sulfur plant capacity
Stable operation in the reaction furnace
Achievable required temperature for destruction of contami-
nants such as BTX, ammonia and cyanides
Wide range of acid-gas concentrations
New technology has recently been developed that integrates
an acid-gas enrichment unit with the downstream tail gas treating
BTX
Straight-chain HC
200
0 20 40
H
2
S content in feed gas, %
60 80 100
400
600
800
F
l
a
m
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

C
1,000
1,200
1,400
Reaction furnace adiabatic flame temperature vs. acid-gas
H
2
S content.
FIG. 1
38

unit. This technology utilizes a special double-absorption design
to enrich the acid gas. The process can be designed to process acid
gas with an H
2
S concentration below 10% and achieve an overall
sulfur recovery that exceeds 99.9%.
Acid-gas enrichment technology. The process is designed
to selectively absorb H
2
S from lean acid gases that could contain
less than 10% H
2
S, such as sour natural gas, refinery gas, synthesis
gas or other sour CO
2
streams to produce a high-quality acid gas
with an H
2
S concentration up to 75%. This process can be used
with various licensed selective amine treating technologies includ-
ing formulated MDEA and proprietary selective treating solvents.
4

The technology can also include a third-stage absorber with an
integrated Claus tail-gas unit that uses a common regenerator.
Lean acid gas contains significant amounts of inerts such as
CO
2
. Carbon dioxide lowers the net heating value of the acid
gas and also reduces the concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO
2
)
and H
2
S in the reaction furnace, making sulfur conversion more
difficult. Dilute acid-gas feeds often contain contaminants such
as ammonia and aromatics (BTX) that must be destroyed in the
reaction furnace to protect downstream catalyst beds from fouling.
The low-heating value of dilute acid-gas streams makes the com-
plete destruction of these objectionable components difficult.
5
The minimum temperature for effective operation of the reaction
furnace on clean acid gas should be above 925C (1,700F). In
extreme cases, when the H
2
S content in the acid gas falls below
10%, the minimum reaction furnace temperature may become
impossible to attain and additional processing steps must be used
to effectively convert the H
2
S to elemental sulfur. In addition, the
dilution effect of CO
2
in lean acid gases will increase the size of
the sulfur-recovery unit (SRU) as the plant size is controlled by the
total volumetric flow of acid gas. This, in turn, will significantly
increase the cost of the SRU.
When the acid gas is too diluted in H
2
S, a selective absorption
technique may be used to enrich the acid gas prior to entering the
Claus unit. By selectively absorbing H
2
S from the acid gas and
then stripping the rich solvent, two gas streams are produced. The
gas passing through the absorber is primarily CO
2
. This stream is
sent to an incinerator for conversion of trace amounts of H
2
S to
SO
2
prior to discharge to the atmosphere. The gas stream leaving
the regenerator is acid gas enriched in H
2
S. This stream can be
processed in a conventional Claus unit.
Other options. Another selective treating application is in the
processing of tail gas from a Claus SRU. The sulfur recovery effi-
ciency of a third-stage conventional modified Claus unit is ther-
modynamically limited to about 97%. A common practice that
is used to comply with stringent sulfur emission environmental
regulations is to convert the sulfur compounds in the Claus unit
tail gas, such as COS and SO
2,
to H
2
S using hydrogenation and
hydrolysis. The H
2
S is then removed from the converted tail gas
and recycled back to Claus sulfur plant. This configuration can
achieve sulfur recoveries of up to 99.9%.
Amine-based solvents capable of selectively removing H
2
S
are used in these processes. These processes are based on MDEA
or on sterically hindered amines that react rapidly with H
2
S and
slowly with CO
2
. Typically, these processes concentrate H
2
S by a
factor of three to five.
The following describes the double absorption acid-gas enrich-
ment and the integrated double-absorption sulfur-recovery pro-
cesses. These processes and configurations were developed to
increase the H
2
S content of lean acid-gas streams.
Double absorption acid-gas enrichment process.
The double-absorption process can be used as a stand-alone pro-
cess to improve the quality of the acid gas from conventional
Acid gas to
incineration To sulfur plant
Feed gas
P-1
P-3
P-2
E-2
E-1
E-3
V-1
V-3
V-4
V-2
1
4
19
10
11
12
6
7
5
8
2
20
21
23 24
14
17 18
9
16
15
13
3
22
E4
Double-absorption acid-gas enrichment process. FIG. 2
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I

39
acid-gas removal units. This process recycles a portion of the acid
gas to a second absorber to concentrate the H
2
S. Fig. 2 shows the
basic configuration of the double-absorption process.
The acid-gas feed stream enters the unit and is scrubbed in
the first amine absorber, V-1, with a lean amine stream 2. The
solvent typically consists of 40% to 50% MDEA, although other
solvents, such as a sterically hindered amine can be used. The
amine absorber generally consists of 12 to 18 trays. About 85% to
90% of the feed gas CO
2
is rejected in stream 3. The rich-solvent
stream 4 exits the bottom of the first absorber and combines with
the rich solvent from the second absorber, V-2, forming stream 6.
The combined stream is pumped and heated with the lean/rich
exchanger, E-1, using the heat content of the lean solvent from
the regenerator, V-3. The regenerator operates at a slightly higher
pressure than the absorber. This allows recycling of a portion of
the acid gas without using a compressor.
The heated stream enters the top of the regenerator, which
consists of 20 to 22 stripping trays and a wash section. Alterna-
tively, other contacting devices, such as packing, can be used.
The acid gas in the rich solvent is stripped with heat applied at
the bottom reboiler, E-2, producing overhead stream 9 and a lean
solvent, stream 10.
The lean solvent is pumped and cooled in the lean/rich
exchanger, E-1. The lean solvent is further cooled in E-3. Air or
cooling water can be used as the cooling medium. The lean amine
should be cooled as much as possible, as cooling favors the selec-
tive absorption of H
2
S, thereby increasing the H
2
S selectivity. The
cooled lean amine is split into two portions, stream 2 and stream
22, which are fed into the first absorber, V-1, and the second
absorber, V-2, respectively.
The overhead vapor from the regenerator, stream 9, is cooled
in the overhead condenser, E-4. Liquid in the stream is separated
in the reflux drum, V-4. The liquid stream, which is mostly water,
is pumped and used to reflux the regenerator. The enriched acid
gas is split into two portions, stream 17 and stream 18. Stream 17
is routed to the second absorber, V-2, for further enrichment and
stream 18 is sent to the SRU.
The flow ratio of stream 17 to stream 14 ranges from 25%
to 75%, depending on the H
2
S concentration in the feed gas.
For a low H
2
S-content feed gas, a higher flow ratio of possibly
75% may be necessary. The ratio can be reduced to less than
25% when the feed gas contains a higher H
2
S concentration.
For most applications, acid-gas enrichment to about 75% H
2
S
can be achieved. In addition, over 90% of the hydrocarbons and
BTX components can be rejected with the CO
2
stream. The H
2
S
enrichment and the absence of BTX and heavy hydrocarbons in
the enriched acid gas are highly desirable for good performance
of the Claus SRU.
5,6
Furthermore, depending on the feed-gas composition and
acid-gas loading of the semi-lean solvent, the overall circulation
rate can be reduced by splitting the semi-loaded rich solvent
stream 7 from the first absorber into two separate streams. One
stream can be cooled and reused for absorption in the second
absorber V-2. The other stream, consisting of semi-lean rich
solvent from the first absorber, which is still unloaded in terms
of its H
2
S content, can be fed to the lower section of the second
absorber for bulk H
2
S removal. The remaining semi-lean solvent
can then be sent to the regenerator, V-3, for solvent regeneration.
Fig. 3 shows the configuration for this option.
Integrated double-absorption acid-gas enrichment/sulfur
recovery process. The double-absorption acid-gas enrichment
configuration can be integrated with the tail-gas unit to reduce
the total project cost. The semi-lean solvent from the tail-gas unit,
which is unloaded at the upstream absorber conditions, can be
reused to reduce the overall solvent circulation while eliminating
a dedicated regenerator. With this option, a single regenerator
can be used to regenerate the rich-solvent streams from both the
acid-gas enrichment and the tail-gas units.
Fig. 4 shows a configuration where acid-gas enrichment is
integrated with the tail-gas treating unit. The combination of the
enrichment unit with a tail-gas absorber processing the tail gas
from a Claus unit can achieve over 99.9% total sulfur recovery
even when the feed gas H
2
S concentration is low.
Acid gas to
incineration To sulfur plant
Feed gas
P-1
P-3
P-2
E-2
E-1
E-3
E-5
V-1
V-3
V-4
V-2
1
4
19
10
11
12
6
7
5
8 25
26
2
20
21
23 24
14
17 18
9
16
15
13
3
22
27
E4
Double-absorption acid-gas enrichment process with rich-
solvent splitting.
FIG. 3
Hydro-
genation
quench
unit
Acid gas to
incineration
Feed gas
P-1
P-4
P-3
P-2
E-2
E-1
E-3
V-1
V-3
V-4
V-2
V-5
1
4
19
10
11
12
6
7
5
8 36
35
32
2
20
21
34
31
33
23 24
30 18
14
17
9
16
15
13
3
22
35
Claus
unit
E4
recovery process.
FIG. 4
40

I

In this configuration, a two- or three-stage Claus SRU is used
to process the enriched acid gas. A conventional modified Claus
SRU would require more than three stages and other various
additional processing steps to achieve at best, 99% sulfur recov-
ery. This integrated tail-gas treating configuration significantly
reduces the sulfur plant energy requirement and improves sulfur-
recovery efficiency while requiring less capital investment than a
conventional design.
The effluent from the Claus unit, which contains trace quan-
tities of H
2
S, SO
2
and other sulfur compounds, is processed in
the hydrogenation unit. The hydrogenated gas is quenched and
extra water is condensed and removed prior to routing the gas to
the tail-gas absorber, V-5. Lean amine is supplied from the lean-
amine header. Effluent from the tail gas absorber, which contains
environmentally acceptable levels of H
2
S, can, depending on envi-
ronmental regulations, either be vented directly to the atmosphere
or routed to an incinerator for disposal.
6, 7
The rich amine from the tail-gas absorber is pumped and
combined with the rich-amine streams from the first and sec-
ond absorbers. The combined stream is heated in the lean /rich
exchanger and fed to the common regenerator. Depending on
the actual feed gas conditions and sulfur-recovery requirements,
the semi-loaded solvent, stream 35, from the tail gas absorber,
V-5, can be re-used in the second absorber, V-2. This configura-
tion (option 1) as shown in Fig. 5, reduces solvent circulation
and the solvent regeneration duty. With this configuration, the
incremental amount of solvent used in the tail-gas absorber can
be reduced, thus improving process economics while maintaining
high sulfur-recovery efficiency.
Depending on the acid-gas composition and the semi-rich
solvent loading, another option, shown in Fig. 6, can be used
to further reduce the total solvent circulation rate and solvent
regeneration duty. This configuration re-routes a portion of the
semi-loaded rich solvent stream 7 from the first absorber, V-1, to
the second absorber, V-2. The stream is cooled prior to entering
the lower section of the second absorber, providing a cost-effective
means for processing lean acid-gas feeds.
Optimization options. Several acid-gas enrichment process
configurations and various options for integrating sulfur recovery
with tail gas treating are presented here. The double-absorption
process and various configuration options effectively produce
acid-gas enriched in H
2
S from a lean acid- gas feed. Acid gas can
be enriched from less than 7% to over 75% H
2
S. The various
configurations also allow removal of hydrocarbons and BTX that
are known to interfere with SRU operation. Furthermore, a CO
2
stream with environmentally acceptable levels of H
2
S can be pro-
duced from the absorbers for disposal by incineration. When inte-
grated with Claus and tail-gas treating units, the process is capable
of reducing the number of Claus reaction stages and can achieve
over 99.9% total sulfur recovery. The double-absorption process
also solves the problems of low H
2
S content and low acid heating
value by providing a Claus plant feed with a high H
2
S content. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
ZareNezhad, B. and N. Hosseinpour, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 28,
Issue 7, May 2008.
2
ZareNezhad, B., Hydrocarbon Processing, October 2008, pp 109115.
3
ZareNezhad, B., Research Report 1342B, Petroleum Ministry, November
2008.
4
ZareNezhad, B., Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2009, pp. 6372.
5
Chow, T. K., C. H. Lawrence, J. A. Gebur and V. W. Wong, Canadian
International Petroleum Conference 55th Annual Technical Meeting, Calgary,
Canada, 2004.
6
Clarke, D., J. Iyengar, M. Al-Khaldy and S. Summers, 51st Annual Gas
Conditioning Conference, Oklahoma, 2001.
7
Chow, T. K, J. A. Gebur, and V. W. Wong, World Petroleum Congress,
Second Regional Meeting, Doha, Qatar, 2003.
Hydro-
genation
unit
Acid gas to
incineration
Feed gas
P-1
P-4
P-3
P-2
E-2
E-1
E-3
V-1
V-3
V-4
V-2 V-5
1
4
19
10
11
12
6
7
5
8 36
32
2
20
21
34
31
33
23 24
30 18
14
17
9
16
15
13
3
22
35
Claus
unit
E4
recovery process (option 1).
FIG. 5
Hydro-
genation
unit
Acid gas to
incineration
Feed gas
P-1
P-4
P-3
P-2
E-2
E-1
E-5
E-3
V-1
V-3
V-4
V-2 V-5
1
4
19
10
11
12
6
7
5
8 36
74
75
32
2
20
34
31
33
23 24
30 18
14
17
9
16
15
13
3
22
35
Claus
unit
E4
recovery process (option 2).
FIG. 6
Dr. Bahman ZareNezhad is an academic professional mem-
ber of the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology in Iran. His
research activities are mainly focused on advanced oil refining and gas
processing technologies, tail-gas treatment, sulfur recovery and NGL
extraction processes. Dr. ZareNezhad has published several technical
and research papers in international journals and has presented several technical courses
regarding oil and gas industries. He has 22 years of varied experience in research, process
engineering, project management and technology development, and is a consultant for
several oil and gas companies. Dr. ZareNezhad holds a PhD in chemical engineering from
the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) in England.

I

41
Avoid condensation-induced
transient pressure waves
Case studies give an indication as to probable causes for water hammer
G. MANI, BP Canada Energy Co., Calgary, Alberta
C
ondensation-induced water hammer is a commonly occur-
ring phenomenon in steam and condensate systems. In
steam/condensate systems, condensation-induced water
hammer occurs when steam bubbles come in contact with, or are
encapsulated in, subcooled condensate and then loses heat and
condenses rapidly. This creates a low-pressure zone into which
condensate moves rapidly. The resultant collision creates a pres-
sure wave that reverberates through the body of condensate. The
pressure developed from the collision can be derived from the
momentum balance and can be written as follows:
P = V
2
where:
P = Pressure
= Liquid density
V = Condensate velocity
The velocity can be as high as sonic velocity, i.e., the velocity of
sound in the condensate. For steam/condensate systems, this tran-
sient pressure can be high enough to create catastrophic damage
to piping. The velocity and consequently the pressure developed
is a function of the following:
Steam pressure
Condensate temperature
Bubble size
Quantity of noncondensable gases
Directionally, higher steam pressure,
lower condensate temperature and higher
bubble size favor development of higher-
pressure transients. The noncondensable
gases reduce the transient pressure due to
their presence in the low pressure zone.
For hydrocarbon systems, condensation
induced transient pressure waves similar
to water hammer in steam systems do not
occur often. This is because the fluids are
generally multicomponent hydrocarbon
mixtures and the sudden collapse of bubbles
does not occur. In addition, flow regimes
where vapor bubbles can be enclosed in sub-
cooled liquid are generally avoided in the
design. However, in one plant, there were
two cases of condensation-induced transient
pressure wave problems in relatively pure
component service (~97% propane) that
will be described in greater detail.
Case 1: Propane rundown system. The propane fraction-
ation and rundown system is illustrated in Fig. 1. There are four
depropanizers in the plant. The feed to the depropanizers is natu-
ral gas liquid (NGL) that contains propane, iso-butane, n-butane
and condensate or light naphtha. High-purity propane (~97%) is
the overhead product of these depropanizers. Three depropanizers
have air-fin coolers and one has a water cooler in the overhead con-
denser service. The overhead pressure in the columns is controlled
by withdrawing the propane product from the overhead. In other
words, it is a flooded condenser pressure control where the level
in the condenser is varied indirectly to control the pressure. In
addition, the columns are equipped with variable pressure-control
logic to take advantage of varying ambient temperature during
the day. The variable pressure control increases the pressure in
the morning and reduces it in the evening with varying ambient
temperature. The control logic maintains a minimum subcool-
ing to avoid vapor formation in the reflux drum and for proper
functioning of the pressure control system. However, when the
ambient temperature increases fast, the control system might fail
PIC
PI
PIC
PIC
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
To are
Filter
coalescers
Propane drier
Propane
treaters
Storage
bullets
8 nos.
Changing level
and temperature
leading to changing
pressures
To are
Set pressure
320 psig
Set pressure
320 psig
135 to 200 psig
To are
Set pressure
320 psig
Set pressure
320 psig
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Propane rundown system. FIG. 1
42

I

to maintain the subcooling required and operator action would
be necessary to reduce the feed to the columns.
During a capacity-expansion project, booster pumps were
added to increase the propane production rate. Downstream of
the pumps, there are filter coalescers to remove water carried over
from the reflux drum. These are followed by driers and treaters
that remove water and H
2
S from propane, respectively. The driers
and treaters are molecular sieve beds that are taken through vari-
ous cycles of operation such as absorption, draining, depressuring,
regeneration, cooling and liquid filling. The switch between the
various cycles is automated and air-operated isolation valves are
used for this purpose.
The propane rundown is finally routed to storage bullets. The
bullets are intermediate storage tanks where propane is routed
to underground caverns for long-term storage, then to loading
trucks and rail wagons. The bullets also act as intermediate stor-
age for propane that comes from the underground caverns for
loading trucks and rail wagons.
Problem. Relief valves are located on the filter coalescers and on
the line, set at 320 psig. During summer, while the storage bullets
and the columns are operated at higher pressures, these relief valves
were chattering, causing damage to the valve seats. The relief valves
located on treaters and driers that have a similar set pressure did
not have any incidents of chattering or valve damage. The maxi-
mum pressure recorded by the pressure indicator in the control
room was only around 250 psig. Tell-tale gauges (local gauges
that record maximum pressure) installed close the relief valves
also recorded only a maximum of 250 psig. Even after repeated
repairs and calibration of the relief valves, the problem persisted.
Actions taken. Drier/treater controls and relief valves.
Drier/treater controls. Switching the driers and treaters
between different cycles of operation is done using automated
valves. It was suspected that the premature closing of the valves and/
or errors in logic might be causing flow restrictions. The switching
logic was reviewed and revised to avoid any potential problems.
Also, the closing of the automatic valves were checked by operators
to ensure that they were not getting stuck or prematurely closing.
Relief valves. Relief valves were replaced by pilot-operated
valves with the following objectives:
Relieving close to the set pressure
The effect of inlet line pressure drop was eliminated by tak-
ing pressure signals close to vessels and the main line.
Slower closure of the valves in the event of relieving.
The steps taken described previously did not make much
improvement in the situation. Hence, it was decided to conduct
a theoretical investigation of other causes of overpressure.
Theoretical investigation. The storage bullets act as inter-
mediate storage where levels and temperatures can fluctuate.
Therefore, a pressure transmitter was installed on the bullets
to monitor the pressure continuously. The rundown system
was modeled using simulation software. With monitoring the
bullet pressure, it became evident that the propane in the bul-
let was not always at equilibrium, and, due to level changes,
considerable transient pressure changes were occurring. Some
of the lowest pressures recorded in the bullets were used in the
simulation for checking two-phase conditions. From the model,
the following conclusions were reached:
While the pressure in the bullets was lower than the vapor
pressure, considerable vaporization was occurring in the rundown
system (~15%)
Some parts of the rundown lines were in the slug flow regime.
Due to a reduction in elevation, the vapor was partly col-
lapsing at a few locations.
From these conclusions, it was surmised that the collapsing
of the vapor due to elevation changes might be causing transient
shock waves. A phenomenon similar to condensation-induced
water hammer in steam systems was suspected to be occurring due
to different causes.
Unfortunately, most of the dynamic sim-
ulation programs are not capable of simulat-
ing this type of transient pressure waves.
Hence, only a qualitative analysis from the
steady-state simulation results was made.
Solution. A backpressure controller was
installed close to the storage bullets to iso-
late the rundown system from the pressure
variations in the bullet (Fig.2). Backpressure
higher than the expected vapor pressure was
maintained and this eliminated the relief
valve chattering problem.
Case 2: Propane overhead system.
The system in this case is the overheads of
the depropanizers, previously described. The
overhead system is shown in Fig 3. There are
relief valves on the column overhead and the
reflux drums with set pressure of 280 psig.
Problem description. Of the four relief
valves on reflux drums, one used to chatter
and cause frequent damage and another one
received occasional damage. Both of these
PIC
PI
PIC
PIC
PIC
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
To are
Filter
coalescers
Propane drier
Propane
treaters
Storage
bullets
8 nos.
Modication
implemented
Changing level
and temperature
leading to changing
pressures
To are
Set pressure
320 psig
Set pressure
320 psig
135 to 200 psig
To are
Set pressure
320 psig
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
150 to 250 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux
drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Set pressure
320 psig
Modified propane rundown system. FIG. 2
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Net oil real-time well testing
Brian Dickson, Global VP Instruments,
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ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL &
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PROCESS CONTROL
Case study: Instant improvement to distillation
control Lothar Lang, Lyondell Basell
Inferential control modeling practices in the HP
industry Y. Zak Friedman, PhD,
Principal Consultant, Petrocontrol
Dual valve control for refnery blending
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MEASUREMENT ANALYTICS
Benefts of using quantum cascade laser technology
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Advantages and disadvantages of using valve partial
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Mohamed Soliman, PE, Saudi Aramco
Burner management systems for potential failure
modes Stephen Russell, Director of Automation &
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Getting the most from your advanced process
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Session 1 Session 2
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THURSDAY, 10 MARCH 2011
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I

43
depropanizers have air coolers in the overhead condenser service.
One of the propanizers with air coolers and one with a water cooler
did not have this problem.
Analysis. The operating conditions of all the depropanizers
were very similar and we could not identify any deviation of
consequence regarding operating conditions. From analyzing his-
torical data the following two interesting observations were made:
Originally, the columns had a hot vapor bypass control for
overhead pressure and later the control system was changed to a
flooded control system. The relief-valve problems started subse-
quent to the control system change.
Most of the relieving incidents were reported to occur in the
night. Due to variable pressure controls, the columns are operated
at lower pressures during the night (180 to 200 psig) against a
maximum of 250 psig during the day.
The fact that the relieving incidents occurred during the night,
when operating pressures are lower, indicated that the problem
was not linked to any rapid fluctuations in operating pressures.
Hence, it was decided to look at any difference in installation
between these columns. The piping drawings were reviewed and
field measurements were made to determine the relative eleva-
tion of the relief valves with respect to the bottom flange of the
air-fin coolers. The relief valves that used to chatter had a relative
elevation of +20 in. and +46 in. above the outlet flange of the air
coolers. The relief valve on the system with the water cooler had
a relative elevation of +87 in. The system that did not have any
chattering problem had a relative elevation of only +1 in. Fig. 4 is
a depiction of relative height.
Although the control systems were very similar, the pressure in
the column with the water cooler never had drastic changes in the
overhead pressure due to the reasonably steady water temperature.
When the water temperature varied, the variation in pressure was
slow and the control system did not make drastic changes. The varia-
tions in air temperatures were more drastic and the pressures reached
the maximum-allowed pressure of 250 psig in a span of a few hours.
Also, in the night, the pressure was reduced up to 180 psig.
During the day, when the ambient temperature is high, the
control system will tend to push the liquid level in the condenser
down. In the cases where the relief valves are placed above the
bottom of the condenser, this will lead to the draining of liquid
and developing vapor space in the inlet pipe. In the night, while
the ambient temperature reduces the vapor-inlet line might be
collapsing and the higher liquid level in the condensers will force
the liquid to rush into the transient low-pressure zone, causing
chattering of the relief valves.
Solution. The preferred solution was to reduce the elevation of
the relief valves. However, this could not be done since the flare
header was located at a marginally lower elevation with respect to
the relief valves. Reducing the relief-valve elevation would have
led to pockets in the relief valve outlet line. It was verified that
the relief valve on the column had enough capacity to cater to
both the column and the reflux-drum relieving cases. Hence, it
was decided to remove the relief valve on the reflux drum and to
isolate it close to the vessel. This way, the possibility of forming
vapor space that may lead to pressure transients was eliminated.
All the block valves between the reflux drum and the relief valves
were locked open to provide a clear relieving path. This modifica-
tion was implemented only in the depropanizer that use to have
frequent failure. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Kirsner, W., Steam condensation-induced water hammer, HPAC, January
1998.
PIC
PIC
PIC
PIC
Set pressure
280 psig
Set pressure
280 psig
Set pressure
280 psig
Set pressure
280 psig
Set pr
280 psig
Set pr
280 psig
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux drum
Reux drum
Reux drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Rundown
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Air cooler
Depropanizer
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Set pr
280 psig
Water cooler
Depropanizer
Reux drum
Reux pump
Booster
pump
PCV
Depropanizer overhead system. FIG. 3
George Mani is a process engineering specialist with BP
Canada Energy Co. Currently, his responsibility is giving process
engineering support to multiple natural gas processing and NGL
facilities in operating and implementing projects. Mr. Mani has 30
years of wide-ranging experience in the oil and gas idustry.
Relative
height
Reux drum
Air
cooler
Relative location of relief valve. FIG. 4
Lewis Pumps Casts a Long Shadow
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I

45
When is CO
2
more
hazardous than H
2
S
Data shows potential harmful effects to workers due to acid gas exposure
K. TYNDALL, Pastor, Behling & Wheeler LLC, Round Rock, Texas; and
K. McINTUSH, J. LUNDEEN, K. FISHER and C. BEITLER, Trimeric Corp., Buda, Texas
M
any different types of facilities produce or use streams
containing a high carbon dioxide (CO
2
) content
(98+%) with low hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) concentra-
tions, e.g., a few parts per million by volume (ppmv) to a few
volume percent (vol%). Examples include CO
2
-flood enhanced
oil recovery, pre-combustion carbon capture (from fossil fuel-fired
power plants and industrial facilities) and sequestration, natural
gas conditioning, and agricultural manufacturing, among others.
In all of these industries, the potential for a release in a processing
step or during transmission through a pipeline exists.
The health effects and dangers of H
2
S are well known, but
those of CO
2
are not as commonly understood. It is uncertain
if industry realizes that CO
2
is a mildly toxic gas and not just a
simple asphyxiant like nitrogen. Because CO
2
itself is toxic at
higher concentrations, the high-purity CO
2
streams can actu-
ally be more hazardous than the H
2
S and they are the subject of
discussion in this article. In such cases, the presence of H
2
S may
actually allow easier detection of the CO
2
danger.
This article reviews the hazards of H
2
S and CO
2
and compares
the effects from these acid gases on humans. Concentration levels
corresponding to the immediately dangerous to life and health
(IDLH) levels of the two gases are used to illustrate conditions
where both H
2
S and CO
2
are present, and the CO
2
(not the H
2
S)
is the predominant concern. A goal is to educate readers to think
of CO
2
as a mildly toxic gas and not just an asphyxiant, and to
recognize conditions where it can represent the more significant
hazard, even if small concentrations of H
2
S are also present.
Toxicity of H
2
S. Hydrogen sulfide is an intensely hazardous,
toxic compound.
1
It is a colorless, flammable gas that can be iden-
tified in relatively low concentrations by a characteristic rotten egg
odor. This acid gas is naturally occurring and is in the gases from
volcanoes, sulfur springs, undersea vents, swamps and stagnant
bodies of water and in crude petroleum and natural gas. Hydrogen
sulfide is produced when bacteria break down sulfur-containing
proteins, and it is a component of decomposing materials. In
addition, H
2
S is also produced from man-made operations and
processes such as petroleum refineries, food processing plants,
tanneries, municipal sewers, sewage treatment plants, landfills,
swine containment and manure-handling operations, and pulp
and paper mills.
Hydrogen sulfide has a very low odor threshold, with its smell
being easily detected by most people in the range of 0.0005
ppmv to 0.3 ppmv.
2
As the gas becomes more concentrated, the
odor increases with a strong rotten egg smell identifiable up to
30 ppmv. From about 30 ppmv to 100 ppmv, the gas is stated to
have a sickeningly sweet odor. However, at concentrations above
100 ppmv, a persons ability to detect the gas decreases due to a
rapid temporary paralysis of the olfactory nerves in the nose that
leads to a loss of the sense of smell. This means that the gas can be
present in the environment at extremely high concentrations with
no noticeable odor. This unusual property of H
2
S makes it very
dangerous to depend solely on the sense of smell as a warning
sign of the gas.
3
Once H
2
S is released as a gas, it remains in the atmosphere
for an average of 18 hours, after which it changes to sulfur
dioxide and sulfuric acid.
2
It is water-soluble and, therefore, it
may partition to surface water or adsorb onto moist soil, plant
foliage, or other organic material where it loses much of its
toxic properties.
Hydrogen sulfide is classified as a chemical asphyxiant, similar
to carbon monoxide (CO) and cyanide gases. It interferes with
TABLE 1. Symptoms from low to high concentrations
of H
2
S
Exposure level Concentration, ppmv Symptom
Low 010 Irritation of the eyes, nose,
and throat
Moderate 50200 Coughing
Hoarseness
Shortness of breath
Pneumonia
Loss of smell ( > 100 ppmv)
High 200500 Changes in respiratory tissue
(200400 ppmv per laboratory
animals)
Rapid respiratory distress and
failure (acute exposure at
> 500 ppmv for 1 to 4 hours)
2
Very high > 2,000 Coma and death after single
breath
4
Known as knockdown effect
with immediate immobilization
and unconsciousness, possibly
from disruption of oxidative
metabolism in the brain
46

I

nerve cell function, putting certain nerves to sleep, including
olfactory (as discussed previously) and the ones necessary for
breathing. Table 1 shows the typical exposure symptoms of H
2
S.
It is important to note that while most chemicals are toxic,
exposure has to occur (at a level that is considered toxic) before
adverse health effects are observed. Most, if not all, of the irre-
versible health outcomes including death have occurred due to
overexposure to H
2
S in confined areas.
Toxicity of CO
2
. Carbon dioxide is a slightly toxic, odorless
and colorless gas. It is typically found in air at around 360 ppmv
(0.036 vol%) while exhaled air may contain as much as 40,000
ppmv (4 vol%). Table 2 shows the general affects of CO
2
over
different ranges of exposure.
At lower concentrations, CO
2
affects the respiratory system
and central nervous system. Too much CO
2
also acts as a simple
asphyxiant by reducing the amount of oxygen available for res-
piration.
6
At higher concentrations, too, the ability to eliminate
CO
2
decreases and it can accumulate in the body. In this way,
CO
2
differs from some other asphyxiants, such as nitrogen (N
2
).
Unlike CO
2
, N
2
does not get distributed throughout the body to
cause an adverse health effect; rather, N
2
acts simply by displac-
ing oxygen from the air and, thereby, decreasing the amount of
oxygen available for respiration. Result: CO
2
is dangerous at a
much lower level than some other asphyxiants, such as N
2
.
Nitrogen is discussed here because it is a common potential
asphyxiant in industrial settings. The following example illus-
trates the differences between CO
2
and N
2
. Consider a hypo-
thetical example where 90 parts of atmospheric air (normally
21% O
2
and 79% N
2
) are mixed with 10 parts of either pure
CO
2
or N
2
. The resulting mixture compositions are shown in
Fig. 1.
As shown in Fig. 1, the resulting mixture with CO
2
addition
contains 18.9% O
2
, 71.1% N
2
, and 10% CO
2
. As discussed pre-
viously, such a mixture could potentially kill a person. Conversely,
the mixture with N
2
contains 18.9% O
2
and 81.1% N
2
; while this
mixture is lower in oxygen than normal air and below the recom-
mended O
2
% for workers, it is not likely to cause irreversible
health effects. The effect of going from a 21% oxygen atmosphere
to an 18.9% oxygen atmosphere is similar to going from sea level
to about 3,000 ft in elevation (roughly the elevation of Midland,
Texas), as far as the oxygen partial pressure is concerned. Most
people who are acclimated to sea level would have no trouble
going to 3,000 ft in elevation.
In summary, mixing 10 parts CO
2
with 90 parts air can pos-
sibly cause a person breathing the mixture to die if exposed long
enough. In contrast, mixing 10% N
2
with air probably has little
effect on a person. Clearly, it is very important to recognize that
CO
2
is not the same simple asphyxiant as N
2
.
Occupational exposure limits for H
2
S and CO
2
. Table
3 provides a summary of occupational exposure limits for H
2
S
and CO
2
. Occupational exposure limits are typically designed
to protect health and to provide for the safety of employees
for up to a 40-hour work week, over a working lifetime. The
threshold limit value (TLV) was developed by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
while the permissible exposure limit (PEL) is an enforceable
standard developed by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). The short-term exposure limit (STEL)
was developed by ACGIH and represents a 15-minute time-
weighted average exposure that should not be exceeded at any
time during the workday. The IDLH value was developed by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
to provide a level at which a worker could escape without injury
or irreversible health effects.
IDLH values are conservatively established by NIOSH to
give a worker approximately 30 minutes to evacuate an area.
The IDLH for both H
2
S and CO
2
are purposefully established
below levels at which adverse and irreversible health effects would
be seen following 30 minutes of exposure. The IDLH for H
2
S
was developed based on human data (and supplemented with
information from laboratory animals) that showed that between
170 ppmv and 300 ppmv, a person can be exposed for one hour
without serious health effects and that 400 ppmv to 700 ppmv
can be dangerous if exposure is greater than 30 minutes. A person
can be exposed to H
2
S at 800 ppmv for approximately 5 minutes
before unconsciousness occurs, while exposure at 1,000 ppmv or
greater can cause immediate respiratory arrest, unconsciousness
and possibly death.
For CO
2
, a person can sustain exposure to the IDLH of
40,000 ppmv for 30 minutes with minimal signs of intoxication
(e.g., changes in breathing rate, headache and fatigue). At 30
minutes of exposure to 50,000 ppmv CO
2
, signs of intoxication
become more pronounced. A person can sustain exposure to
70,000 ppmv to 100,000 ppmv CO
2
for about 5 minutes and
signs of intoxication become intense with very labored breath-
ing, visual impairment, headache, ringing in the ears and poten-
tially impaired judgment. Air containing CO
2
at a concentration
TABLE 3. Exposure limits for H
2
S and CO
2
7
Compound TLV and PEL, ppmv STEL, ppmv IDLH, ppmv
H
2
S 10 15 100
CO
2
5,000 30,000 40,000
TABLE 2. Symptoms from low to high concentrations
of CO
2
Exposure level Concentration, ppmv Symptom
Low 20,000 to 30,000 Shortness of breath, deep breathing
Medium 50,000 Breathing becomes heavy,
75,000 sweating, pulse quickens
Headaches, dizziness, restlessness,
breathlessness, increased heart rate
and blood pressure, visual distortion
High 100,000 Impaired hearing, nausea, vomiting,
loss of consciousness
Very high 300,000 Coma, convulsions, death
5
18.9
10
CO
2
addition
18.9
N
2
addition
71.1
81.1
% O
2
% N
2
%O
2
% N
2
%CO
2
Mixture compositions with 90 parts air and 10 parts CO
2

or N
2.
FIG. 1

I

47
greater than 100,000 ppmv (i.e., 10 vol%) can produce extreme
discomfort and, as indicated above, can be life-threatening.
Table 4 shows an example of how a gas stream containing
initial concentrations of H
2
S of 2,000 ppmv and of CO
2
of 98
vol% would change assuming a uniform dispersion in air for both
compounds. As shown in the table, when the IDLH of H
2
S (100
ppmv) is reached, the CO
2
content is still above the IDLH level
of 40,000 ppmv. Even more dramatic are the 5-minute exposure
levels; when the H
2
S exposure level is at the 5-minute limit of 800
ppmv, the CO
2
concentration is at 392,000 ppmv, which is far
above the level a person can survive for 5 minutes. Thus, given the
much higher percentage of the CO
2
in this gas stream, the danger
from CO
2
is higher than the danger posed by H
2
S.
Potential exposure scenarios to H
2
S and CO
2
. In
actuality, it is difficult to determine the likelihood of a release and
the potential concentration a person may encounter following a
release. A release could occur at any point in the processing unit
or transfer pipeline depending on the source of the stream (see Fig.
2). Atmospheric conditions, such as the wind or physical location
of the release (low lying area), can greatly affect the dispersion
rate and exposure concentrations of the two compounds. Some
potential exposure scenarios are discussed here.
If there is wind, a small release (i.e., not a catastrophic event)
would most likely disperse relatively quickly. Under this scenario,
a person downwind (unless they were within close proximity to
the release) would probably not be exposed to a harmful concen-
tration of either compound. In fact, the presence of H
2
S (which
has an odor at very low concentrations) may actually provide an
early indicator of a CO
2
release that would otherwise go unde-
tected. Although H
2
S may provide an early indicator of a release
in certain situations, this should not be relied upon because H
2
S
deadens the sense of smell at higher concentrations. Exposure
should be kept to a minimum by applying sufficient engineering
controls and safe work practices. Appropriate monitoring and
personal protective equipment should always be used.
Because both compounds are heavier than air (the specific
gravity for H
2
S and CO
2
is 1.192 and 1.52, respectively), the
most likely place to encounter harmful levels of either compound
would be in a low-lying area or depression. This is currently an
issue for CO
2
pipelines in which harmful levels of CO
2
can accu-
mulate in these areas, regardless of the presence of H
2
S. The pres-
ence of H
2
S increases concerns due to its more insidious toxicity
(i.e., it can render a person incapable of escape at sufficiently high
concentrations). However, levels above the IDLH could occur in
a confined space or depression for either compound. As indicated
earlier, the presence of H
2
S may provide a warning that a release
has occurred and prevent a person from entering the area where
potentially dangerous levels of CO
2
or H
2
S may be present. Note:
The use of direct reading gas detection instrumentation and other
protective measures should be required before entering confined
spaces such as manholes, tanks, pits and vessels that could contain
a buildup of these gases.
Potential synergistic effects of concurrent exposure.
Since the mechanisms of action for CO
2
and H
2
S are very dif-
ferent, it is unlikely that exposure to both compounds will be
worse than exposure to only one compound. Most occupational
exposure limits are based on exposure to single compounds, even
though it is recognized that multiple compounds may be encoun-
tered, and Environmental Protection Agency only considers com-
pounds additive if they affect the same target organ or act by the
same mechanism. Moreover, industries such as swine production,
where both CO
2
and H
2
S are measured in the air, do not adjust
occupational exposure limits for added worker safety nor have
synergist effects (i.e., effects that are worse when in combination
than when exposure is to a single compound) been noted for
industries where exposure to both compounds occur.
8
TABLE 4. Occupational limits example (high-purity
CO
2
gas with low H
2
S)
Dispersion CO
2
, ppmv H
2
S, ppmv Occupational exposure limit
Initial 980,000 2,000
concentration, %
10 882,000 1,800
20 784,000 1,600
30 686,000 1,400
40 588,000 1,200
50 490,000 1,000
60 392,000 800 5-minute H
2
S exposure (800 ppmv)
70 294,000 600
80 196,000 400
90 98,000 200 5-minute CO
2
exposure
(100,000 to 70,000 ppmv)
95 49,000 100 H
2
S IDLH (100 ppmv)
95.9 40,000 82 CO
2
IDLH (40,000 ppmv)
100 0 0
Example sources of high-purity CO
2
and low H
2
S streams
CO
2
dehydration unit.
FIG. 2A
Example sources of high-purity CO
2
and low H
2
S streams
CO
2
piping.
FIG. 2B
48

I

Evaluation of risk. Based on the general qualitative analysis
of exposure to both H
2
S and CO
2
discussed here, it appears that
there is no increased risk from the presence of H
2
S at low levels
(e.g., up to perhaps 2,000 ppmv or higher) in high-purity CO
2

gas. In fact, in these types of gas streams, the potential exposure
to high CO
2
concentrations during a release event could be as
dangerous, or more dangerous, than exposure to lower concen-
trations of the more toxic H
2
S. At high concentrations, CO
2

may accumulate in the body, which is different than some other
asphyxiants (i.e., N
2
). It is most important to recognize the dif-
ference between CO
2
and other common asphyxiants. In some
cases, the H
2
S in the gas may serve as a warning for the more
hazardous CO
2
environment. Dispersion modeling for specific
release scenarios should be conducted to better understand pos-
sible exposure limits and impacts on human health for both com-
pounds. Appropriate safety precautions should be implemented
including monitoring (both fixed and personal detection systems)
and training on chemical hazards, personal protection equipment
and safety rescue procedures. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
US Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS), Profile for Hydrogen Sulfide (CASRN 7783-06-4). Online database,
http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0061.htm, August 2010.
2
Hydrogen Sulfide Fact Sheet, August 2004, SafetyDirectory.com; http://
www.safetydirectory.com/hazardous_substances/hydrogen_sulfide/fact_sheet.
htm
3
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Draft
Toxicological Profiles for Hydrogen Sulfide, US Department of Health and
Human Services. Public Health Service, September 2004.
4
Gossel, T. A. and J. D. Bricker, Principles of Clinical Toxicology, Third Edition,
Raven Press, New York, New York, 1994.
5
Goodman Gilman, A., L.S. Goodman, T.W. Rall and R. Murad, The
Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Seventh Edition, MacMillan Publishing
Co., New York, New York, 1985.
6
Klaassen, C. D., Cassarett and Doulls ToxicologyThe Basic Science of Poisons,
Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, New York, 2008.
7
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards, US Department of Health and Human Services. Public
Health Service. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. February
2004.
8
Lemay, S., L. Chenard and R. MacDonald, Indoor Air Quality in Pig
Buildings: Why Is It Important And How Is It Managed?, London Swine
ConferenceConquering the Challenges, April 1112, 2004.
Carrie Beitler is a senior engineer at Trimeric Corp. in Buda,
Texas. She has over 15 years of experience in process engineer-
ing, process modeling and optimization of unit operations in the
natural gas, petroleum refining and CO
2
processing areas. She also
specializes in the development of process design packages for the
fabrication of open-art technology such as caustic scrubbers, acid-gas injection units,
glycol dehydrators and amine treaters. She graduated with a BS degree in chemical
engineering from Purdue University.
Joe Lundeen is a principal engineer at Trimeric Corp. in Buda,
Texas. He has 21 years of experience in process engineering, pro-
cess troubleshooting, and facility installation for oil and gas produc-
tion and CO
2
processing clients. His recent experience has been
focused on dehydration, contaminant removal, and transport of
super-critical CO
2
. He holds BS and MS degrees in chemical engineering from the
University of Missouri, Rolla.
Ken McIntush, PE is a practicing chemical engineer and presi-
dent of Trimeric Corp., a small company based in Buda, Texas,
that is focused on chemical/process engineering. He has about
21 years of varied process engineering experience, serving clients
in oil refining, oil and gas processing, silicon refining and several
other industries. Mr. McIntush performs troubleshooting, debottlenecking and other
projects for the company. He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from Texas
A&M University, College Station.
Kirby Tyndall, PhD, DABT, is a senior consulting toxicologist
with Pastor, Behling, & Wheeler, LLC. She is a board certified toxi-
cologist with over 19 years of experience in the fields of toxicology,
risk assessment and risk management. Dr. Tyndall has worked in
both the environmental consulting and government sectors, and
has significant experience evaluating potential human health and ecological risks
associated with exposure to contaminants in environmental media (air, water, soil,
sediment and biota including fish, etc.).
Kevin Fisher, PE is a principal engineer at Trimeric Corp. in
Buda, Texas. He has over 20 years of experience in process engineer-
ing, research and development, and troubleshooting for oil and
gas production and oil refining clients, as well as for private and
government-sponsored research programs. He holds an MS degree
in chemical engineering from the University of Texas, and BS degrees in chemical engi-
neering and chemistry from Texas A&M and Sam Houston State University, respectively.
HI GH PRESSURE PUMPI NG SOLUTI ONS
woodgroupsurfacepumps.com

I

49
Use online analyzers for
successful monitoring
Improved analytics measure moisture and dew points for natural gas components
A. BENTON, Michell Instruments Ltd., Ely, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom; and
C. VALIZ, PDVSA, Jose Complex, Venezuela
U
sing advanced online water and hydrocarbon dew-point
analysis techniques is critical to the efficient and reliable
operation of natural gas liquid-extraction processes, pro-
ducing valuable light alkane liquids while the remaining gas is
suitable for sales distribution. At its San Joaquin facility, Petrleos
de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA) initially processed raw wellhead
natural gas by separating residual hydrocarbon (HC) condensates,
followed by glycol dehydration to reduce the water dew point.
Reduced temperature separation was used to decrease the HC
dew point prior to molecular sieve dehydration. This provided
feed gas with moisture controlled to trace levels into the primary
liquid-extraction process. Maintaining moisture concentrations
to less than 0.1 parts per million (ppm) by volume is essential for
reliably operating turbo expanders. The turboexpanders function
is to use the depressurization of natural gas to achieve deep cooling
of the process flow to 80C. Avoiding ice formation within the
separation processparticularly the turboexpanderis critically
important for continuous plant operations and to prevent astro-
nomical maintenance costs. Online measurement of dew point
temperature within the feed gas, containing water precipitate
and hydrocarbon condensate, enabled PDVSA process operators
to extend the lifetime of the desiccant beds while protecting the
turboexpanders from risk of damage.
The San Joaquin plant (Fig. 1) started operation in 1985 and
currently provides a third of the total Venezuelan production of
natural gas liquids, roughly 43,000 barrels per day, transferred
via pipeline to the PDVSA Jose Complex, near Barcelona. The
Jose fractionation plant extracts butane, iso-butane and other
individual alkanes. Residual gas production at 1,000 million
standard cubic feet per day (MMf
3
d) enters the Venezuelan mar-
ket network.
The extraction process. The production train at the San
Joaquin process plant is shown in Fig. 2, while Fig. 3 illustrates a
schematic of an individual train.
Unprocessed wellhead natural gas (two-phase gas flow with
entrained hydrocarbon liquids and water) enters the San Joaquin
facility. It is initially processed using separation vessels to collect
the bulk-entrained natural gas liquids that flow in the feed pipe-
line. The gas at this point is highly corrosive and saturated with
moisture, and is prone to hydrate formation. Hydrate formation
is crystalline solids that form from condensed liquid water in
combination with methane under pressurized conditions, even
at temperatures above freezing. Initial dehydration is carried out
at the earliest stage by a glycol contactor where liquid triethylene
glycol (TEG) is spray injected as a desiccant into the gas flow ris-
ing through a process column contactor (Fig. 4). Moisture-laden
TEG is collected from the contactor for heat regeneration greater
than 200C, so boiling off the adsorbed moisture is done in a
continuous circulation process.
At this stage, the gas is drythe water dew-point temperature
is lower than 0C, below the process temperature conditions at
PDVSA San Joaquin extraction plant. FIG. 1 Production train at San Joaquin. FIG. 2
50

I

the prevailing process pressure. Therefore, while not entrained
with liquid water, the gas is still heavily laden with HC liquids
as a potential two-phase flow. The liquid content of the gas is
suppressed through two stages of separation, before and after a
Joule-Thomson (J-T) expansion valve that generates moderate
cooling of the gas by approximately 7 Kelvin through partial
pressure reduction at 8 bars. This yields part of the natural gas
liquid production while reducing the HC dew-point gas tempera-
ture. The effect of this separation process is illustrated in Fig. 5.
Reducing the HC dew point is important for the next stage of the
processdehydration to trace moisture concentration through
molecular sieve columns (Fig. 6).
Reduction in the liquid loading of the gas is critical to the
molecular sieves drying efficiency. If liquids are present, it
adversely affects the moisture adsorption properties of the mate-
rials lattice structure and the overall operation lifetime of the
sieves. Reduction in the water dew point below 80C (at process
pressure equating to a moisture concentration of less than 0.1
ppm
V
) is critically important for operating the turboexpanders.
Turboexpanders, (Fig. 7) or expansion turbines, recover use-
ful work from the expansion of a gas stream while lowering the
process temperature, resulting in partial liquefaction of the bulk
stream. As the expansion nears isentropic, the turboexpander
reduces the process gas temperature significantly more than
Wellhead
natural gas
Natural gas liquids
Glycol (TEG)
dehydration
contactor
Glycol
regeneration
system
S
e
p
e
r
a
t
o
r
J
-
T

i
n
l
e
t
S
e
p
a
r
a
t
o
r
T
-
E

o
u
t
l
e
t
S
e
p
a
r
a
t
o
r
T
-
E

i
n
l
e
t
Separator
J-T outlet
Molecular sieve
columns x 4
1
2
2
3
4
1
Silica
gel x 2 55 bar
-33C
17 bar
-79C
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
Turbo-expander
Residual gas to
national distribution
system 69 barg
Deethanizer
Liquid
stabilizer
Natural gas liquids
Joule-Thomson valve
66 bar
18C
58 bar
11C
Process train schematic. FIG. 3
Glycol contactor tower. FIG. 4
40
60
80
100
120
140
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
Hydrocarbon dew-point reduction at process stages
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
20
Hydrocarbon dew-point temperature, C
Gas entering plant
Outlet J-T seperator
Residual gas
Phase envelop (HC dew point curves) at stages throughout
the liquid extraction process.
FIG. 5
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52

I

expansion across a J-T valve for the same 38-bar pressure drop.
The consequences of higher moisture concentrations within the
process gas can be catastrophic, as the lowest temperatures in the
liquid extraction process approaches 79C. If the gas water dew
point rises above that temperature, then rapid ice formation will
bring a high risk of physical damage to the rotating blades on the
turboexpander. The deep cooled natural gas goes through multiple
stages of liquid separation as the temperature cascades downward
into a deethanization column. The result is a lean natural gas with
only C
1
and C
2
hydrocarbons and some residual CO
2
(Fig. 5).
Compression of this remaining gas into the national distribution
system is carried out by a centrifugal compressor linked to the
shaft of the turboexpander, therefore capturing useful work from
the gas expansion. A rich blend of propane, butane and heavier
hydrocarbons forms the natural gas liquids transferred by pipeline
to the fractionation plant.
Online dew-point analysis. Close monitoring of the dew-
point levels at critical points across the San Joaquin extraction
facility requires 12 combined hydrocarbon and water dew-point
analyzers (Fig. 8). PDVSA installed two analyzers on the glycol
dehydration contactors and five on each production train. Each
train had four individual molecular sieve columns that needed to
be monitored continuously along with the common header outlet
feed to the turboexpander plant. Dew point is the temperature
where a vapor or the combination of vapors condense to form
a liquid, seen as dew drops, when the gas is cooled. When the
dew-point temperature is below freezing, ice crystals form. HC
dew point is the condensation temperature of the heaviest HC
components. Often, molecules with greater than 10 carbon atoms,
present in ppm and sub-ppm concentrations, will condense to
form HC condensates.
The analyzer (Fig. 7) will simultaneously measure HCs and
water dew point using two discrete sensor cells applying dedi-
cated sensor technologies (Fig. 9). A direct fundamental principle
adapted from the optical cooled mirror technique is applied for
the HC dew-point measurement. An abraded optical surface with
a conical depression profile has been developed specifically for the
detection of the low surface tension films that are characteristic of
the precipitation that occurs at the HC dew point. A visible red
spectrum source directed onto the abraded surface scatters the
light. A photo detector is positioned so that it captures the scat-
tered light. It diminishes rapidly as the condensate film forms on
the surface, cooling down to the temperature region of the HC dew
point by a heat pump under the automatic control of the analyzer
firmware. As the condensate film forms, a ring of light develops as
the surface within the conical depression becomes more reflective.
However, it is the secondary effect of reduction in scattered light
intensity that enables the analyzer to detect the HC dew point to a
sensitivity of 5 mg/m
3
condensate mass per volume of gas.
Unlike the HC dew point, an optical condensation technique
cannot be applied to the water dew point measurement in this
application. The water dew point temperature is significantly
lower than the HC dew-point, such that any cooled surface
would be flooded with condensate at a temperature far higher
than the water dew point. For such measurements, a ceramic
moisture sensor is used. Working on a moisture adsorption prin-
ciple, the sensor adsorbs moisture into a micron-thin hygroscopic
metal film in equilibrium with the flowing gas stream. The sensor
exhibits an impedance change in proportion to the partial pres-
sure of moisture vapor, the most elementary hygrometric unit.
This is directly related to dew-point temperature, the measure-
Molecular sieve dehydration columns. FIG. 6
Turboexpander and a deethanizer column. FIG. 7
Hydrocarbon and water dew-point analyzer with a
sampling system.
FIG. 8

I

53
ment unit where each sensor is calibrated.
These sensors have an extremely wide sen-
sitivity range, being calibrated traceable to
national metrology standards from 100C
to +20C dew point. They also have the
capability to measure directly at process
pressure conditions representing greater
than 20,000 ppm
V
moisture content at full
scale compared to less than 0.01 ppm
V
at
the low endthis is important for measur-
ing the turbo expander feed gas.
In-situ measurement verification.
Although the sensors performing the
online water dew point measurement are
factory-calibrated traceable to national
metrology standards, the critical nature
of the water dew-point measurement for
the turboexpander feed gas demands that
PDVSA site personnel carry out periodic
verification of the online analyzers during
field operation. This is done in-situ using
a portable dew point analyzer. Given the
extremely low level of water dew point
within the process (< 80C dew point) and
the process pressure of 60 barg, equating
to less than 0.1 ppm
V
, it is advantageous
to carry out the verification measurement
by installing a reference dew-point sensor
within the online analyzer on a temporary
basis. This enables both online and
reference sensors to be in total equilibrium
with the process gas sample under the same
conditions over the duration of some hours.
Through this method, PDVSA was able to
maintain the highest level of confidence in
the measurements.
Process plant proving field trials. During June and July
of 2009, PDVSA carried out trials to determine the operational
status of the molecular sieve desiccant within the four drying col-
umns on Train B at the San Joaquin facility. During normal plant
operation, the columns were operated in an overlapping sequence
for 36 hr before going offline for regeneration by heating to
300C and back-flushing during an 8-hr period. At least three
of the columns were in process operation in parallel at one time.
During the plant-proving trials, the total adsorption capacity of
each column was assessed through continuous operation until
moisture breakthrough was detected by the online monitoring
of dew point analyzers. After three years of use for the current
molecular sieve material and an expected operational lifetime
prediction of 3 yrs, the purpose of the test was to determine
the capacity of each bed and the urgency of scheduling when
to replace each desiccant. Furthermore, the regeneration cycle
times were reassessed to optimize the sequence throughout the
remaining lifetime of the existing bed material. Fig. 10 illus-
trates the moisture breakthrough on two individual desiccant
beds occurring after 30 hr and 32 hr of continuous adsorption.
The red trace shows the increase in the gas dew point in the
common header resulting from these high moisture excursions.
Given similar findings on the other two desiccant beds, PDVSA
reduced the operational adsorption period for each column to 27
hr, with a 9-hr regeneration sequence, to extend the useful life of
the molecular sieve material through the intended replacement
date of February 2010.
The proving trials served to reaffirm to the PDVSA plant
operations and laboratory staff. It was shown that the perfor-
mance of the analyzers after the first 18 months of success-
fully monitoring the dew-point conditions was critical to the
continuous process operation and the reliability of key plant
equipment. HP
Permeable gold lm
Hygroscopic mono-layer
Base electrode
Ceramic substrate
Moisture
molecules
Schematic diagrams of ceramic impedance moisture (left) and HC dew-point detection
technique (right).
FIG. 9
Traces from molecular sieve capacity tests. Note: the Y-axis is scaled in F
dew-point temperature.
FIG. 10
Carlos Valiz joined PDVSA Gas 15 years ago as senior chemist
specializing in laboratory analysis. His current position is quality
control supervisor for the complete Eastern Venezuela division of
PDVSA Gas.
Andy Benton joined Michell Instruments Ltd in 1983, initially
in the R&D section. Throughout his career he has specialized in
devising innovative solutions to applications for online process gas
and liquid analysis. Most particularly for the natural gas industry,
Mr. Benton has advised best practice for water and hydrocarbon
dew-point control and measurement to producers, pipeline operators and large scale
end users covering six continents.
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1605 South Battleground Road
La Porte, TX 77571
Call 281-478-6200
1-800-478-6206
www.altairstrickland.com
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our hands in the field. Through the years
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By combining the proficiency of our hands
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We also provide a variety of insurance programs
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And, when it comes to safety, it is our job to help
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on your project.

I

55
Advanced chemical process
for treating sour gas
Technology avoids huge capital investments while speeding up results
C. A. ORTEGA PERALTA and M. J. ORTEGA CASTELN, NEUGA SA, Argentina
C
urrent gas-sweetening technology requires plants to treat at
least 1 million standard cubic meters per day (MMm
3
/d) of
gas to be economically feasible. This article presents a versa-
tile technology that can be profitably applied to any gas flow from
10 thousand standard cubic meters per day (Mm
3
/d) up to several
million with the benefit of reducing setup periods. This technology
(Fig. 1) has been proven over five years in a gas-compression plant
where sulfur and mercaptans (RSH) contamination unexpectedly
rose from 150 ppm to 1,000 ppm. This allowed the company to
comply with an existing commercial agreement for 100 Mm
3
/d.
The problem. In the proven installation, gas-flow production
is collected along 50 km in an 8-in.-diameter pipeline. Gas-flow
temperature is generally around 60F, and pressure is as low
as 3 kg/cm
2
. The contaminants to be scavenged are hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S), RSH and carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Plant process
is completed by a set of alternative compressors, a distillation
plant and dew-point adjustment for high pressure. Afterward,
sweetened natural gas is dispatched through a transport pipeline
injection (95%) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to trucks
(5%). The original sweetening processing plant was designed
through seven towers containing a solid chemical scavenger-
based in O
x
Fe
y
.
Over time, H
2
S and CO
2
levels strongly rose, and mercaptans
appeared as contaminants.
Scavenger products used were specific for H
2
S acid treatments,
since contamination was prevalent in the beginning. However, the
scenario changed to have lower yields, requiring using different
liquid chemical injections downstream to obtain the required
output specification. Operating costs increased to a point where
the alternative to interrupt supply needed to be evaluated, despite
the reputation impact in the market.
Due to this problem, it was proposed to test the chemical pro-
cess, changing the chemical scavenger, in a pilot plant. Amine
technology was quickly discarded since the gas standard flow being
treated was heavy in contamination, implying an expensive instal-
lation and high operative costs. As a consequence, testing began
on a process using a strong alkali that reacts with weak acid con-
taminants forming a buffer solution, which means the possibility of
obtaining a controlled pH in the effluents. Moreover, it is possible
to add commercial value to all the salts obtained in the reaction.
The design. Plant capacity defined what to consider in the
selected process and included:
Caustic recuperation and recycling
Byproducts concentration
Both, depending on the commercial alternatives.
A specific study must include a gas-contaminant assessment to
define the technical application in function of the treatments to
byproducts. In the opposite extreme, it is possible to simply install
modular plants just near well-outs. An important advantage is the
protection of pipeline transporting only sweet gas.
New process chemistry. Case with H
2
S (plus or without
RSH), as contaminant:
H
2
S + H
2
O > SH
+ (H
3
O)
+
Ka = 4 x 10
7
RSH + Na
+
> SHNa + R
+
S HNa + (OH)
+ (H
3
O)
+
+ H
2
O <=> SH
+ 3 H
2
O + Na
+
pH = 7.1 (buffer), pH control is required according to Hen-
derson-Hasselbach to monitor log ((SH
)/(H
2
S)).
Such control is related to the tower and packed design, drain
and make-up of the scavenger, with continual checking of pH
values. The solubility of H
2
S in water is important in industrial
practice, especially in these environmental-awareness times. The
fate of such an unfriendly component such as H
2
S is important
to track. H
2
S is highly toxic, has a noxious odor and can form
harmful-reaction products [such as sulfur dioxide (SO
x
)].
The treatment for the solubility in strong bases is the same
as that in acids, but the effect is dramatically different. As with
Byproducts
chemical
treatments
and recycling
Byproducts
alkaline salts
Strong alkyl solution
Sweet gas
Sour gas
H
2
S, CO
2
, RSH
contaminants
The technology and conceptual design. FIG. 1
56

I

the case of strong acids, the amount of the molecular species is
dictated by the partial pressure. However, in this case, the reac-
tions are shifted to the right producing more of the ionic sulfide
species, thus dramatically increasing the total H
2
S concentration.
Case with CO
2
, as the contaminant.
CO
2
+ H
2
O > H
2
CO
3
H
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O <=> H
CO
3
+ (H
3
O)
+

Ka = 6 x 10
7
NaCO
3
H + H
2
O <=> H
2
CO
3
+ Na
+
+ (OH)

buffer pH = 9/10
Na
2
CO
3
+ 2 H
2
O <=> H
2
CO
3
+ 2Na
+
+ 2 (OH)

buffer pH = 11/13
CO
2
is a gas easily soluble in water and the solubility equi-
librium is maintained in agreement with Raoult Law. Part of
dissolved CO
2
is converted to carbonic acid, which reacts as weak
acid forming buffer salts. Both salts obtained have important
industrial uses. On the other hand, the sodium carbonate can
react, giving back the caustic alkali in agreement with the fol-
lowing:
Na
2
CO
3
+ CaO > CaCO
3
+ NaOH
Case with H
2
S and CO
2
, as the contaminant. In cases
where both contaminants are present, plant design must consider
that an H
2
S acid in spite of having similar Ka as H
3
CO
2
, is more
powerful as a reducer. Thus, H
2
S is the first priority as a reactive
in the presence of a strong caustic like the scavenger.
When the designer defines basic engineering, spacial velocity of
sour gas and scavenger flow are dependent on the quantities of acid
to be neutralized. In the case presented in Table 1, the tower design
has the capability of neutralizing, at first, 30% of the H
2
S being
present. Afterward, it neutralizes up to 70% of H
2
S and 60% of
the total CO
2
present in the original sour gas. Designers can define
the capability of the strong caustic, while waste solution pH will
vary with the byproduct salts present in the overall solution. HP
TABLE 2. New scavenger advantages
Plant size Low mass transference coefficient and high solution reactivity, allows high spacial gas velocity and small tower diameter.
Plant size could be defined modular, in the area of well production.
Plant size could be defined integrally, allow catching full well production up stream of plant compression.
Tower type High contact areas require the use of packed towers, the mass transfer rings type, offering:
Very low pressure loss
Minimal maintenance
High chemical resistance
No water absorption
Low investment cost
Simple and easy charge of the package
Effluents of process The process has no gaseous effluents.
Liquid effluents have important industrial uses as byproducts.
CO
3
Na
2
, CO
3
HNa, SNa
2
and SHNa, are key raw materials in various industries.
This process can be classified as No contaminants to the environment.
Slug-trap
Sweet and
sour gases
mixed
Well
Well
Well
Sweet gas
8-in.
Fresh
solution
Packed
towers
Recycling
process
Byproducts
Concentrator
T
o

c
l
i
e
n
t
s
The solution. FIG. 2
Carlos Alberto Ortega Peralta is the executive presi-
dent at NEUGA SA. He has over 42 years of experience in process
design and plant processes. Mr. Ortega Peralta invented the Titular
Process.
Maria Jose Ortega Casteln is a manager NEUGA SA and
has 10 years of experience in project management. She received a
degree in industrial engineering and an MBA. Ms. Ortega Casteln
is CFA certified.
TABLE 1. Flow and variables controlled
Scavenger Scavenger
Flow, m
3
/d Dp, kg/cm
2
H
2
S, ppm SHR, ppm CO
2
, ppm Inerts, N
2
+ CO
2
% Byproducts and pH recirculation, m
3
/hr makeup, m
3
/hr
100.000 0.1 700 in 400 in 4,500 in 2 in SHNa 2 0.25
< 2 out < 2 out 2,000 out 1.8 out SNa
2

CO
3
Na
2

10.5
PLANT SAFETY

I

57
Safe detection of small
to large gas releases
Look at these advantages in using ultrasonic leak detectors
E. NARANJO and S. BALIGA, General Monitors, Lake Forest, California;
G. A. NEETHLING, Gassonic, Ballerup, Denmark; and C. D. PLUMMER,
Safety Consulting and Process Engineering Analysis, Stoke on Trent, United Kingdom
I
t is clear in the oil and gas industry that large combustible gas
releases can have catastrophic consequences. To prevent this,
fire and gas safety professionals select and analyze a diverse set of
representative release scenarios, considering such factors as duration,
orientation and type of gas.
1
Understanding the hazard potential is a
vital step in selecting sensors that are most suited for gas detection.
Despite such efforts in the original safety assessment, the
capacity of an instrument to detect significant leaks is often
inferred from its performance with small ones. As such, the
instruments behavior under probable release scenarios is not
well understood and generally leads to poor equipment selec-
tion. Similarly, oil and gas workers may place undue emphasis on
selecting detection instruments that reduce personal injury but
fail to consider the sensors capacity to mitigate the consequences
of major incidents.
2
Ultrasonic gas leak detectors, non-concentration-based detec-
tors used to detect leaks from high-pressure systems, are found
to be suitable for detecting gas releases with mass flow rates
ranging from a fraction of a gram per second to over 0.1 kg/s.
The detection range scales with a sound pressure level (SPL)
produced by these leaks, from a well-known isentropic flow rela-
tion that assumes choked flow at the leak source. Simulations
with inert gases and a mathematical model suggest ultrasonic
gas leak detectors can safeguard personnel and plant assets from
significant leaks.
Introduction. Ultrasonic gas leak detection usage has increased
for detecting combustible and toxic gases in the oil and gas indus-
try. Rather than relying on the gas reaching the sensor element,
ultrasonic gas leak detectors detect a leak through the ultrasound
produced by the escaping gas. These sensors have been shown to
perform well under harsh environments and their advantages for
detecting leaks in open, ventilated areas are well known.
36
One of the principal advantages of ultrasonic gas leak detec-
tors is that leaks can be simulated, providing a method for system
verification that is uncommon among other types of gas sensors.
Using an inert gas as a proxy, a technician can produce leaks at a
controlled leak rate or through an orifice of known size and shape.
Simulation is particularly useful for determining adequate cover-
age for minor leaks, when the hazard can be prevented from esca-
lating into a more severe incident. Naturally, what constitutes a
minor gas leak depends on the application. The Health and Safety
Executive (HSE) Offshore Safety Division, for example, defines
such leaks as a gas release of mass release rate of less than 0.1 kg/s
and duration of less than 2 min.
7,8
Such leaks, if ignited, would
not be expected to cause significant escalation or multiple fatali-
ties, but may result in injuries or a fatality in the leaks vicinity.
A second but often overlooked advantage of ultrasonic gas
leak detectors is that they lend themselves well for modeling large
leaks. Performance in the event of significant or major leaks is
difficult to simulate in the field. At rates of 0.1 kg/s or more, gas
leaks cannot be sustained but for short bursts; otherwise, the inert
gas is quickly consumed. In some instances, the pressure required
to produce a large leak can lead the jetting material to become a
liquid, rendering it more difficult to gain a full understanding of
the potential for ultrasonic noise generation by such leaks.
Some simple calculations enable engineers to estimate the
detection range or the amount of ultrasound produced by signifi-
cant leaks if the SPL for minor leaks is known. Such calculations
are useful for allocating detectors in open fields where the only
hazards of interest are significant leaks.
This article looks at formulas that were developed for deter-
mining detection coverage when the minimum leak to be detected
is large ( 0.1 kg/s). The results suggest that the relation between
SPLs at different mass flowrates is a good predictor of detector
range for significant combustible gas releases, but that they over-
estimate coverage when the jetting substance is a liquid and gas
mixture. SPL values obtained from the logarithm of a direct field
term produce values that are much greater than those measured in
the laboratory, suggesting a dampening effect on sound by grass,
trees and other structures surrounding the sound source during
the experiment.
Sound pressure level. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors operate
on the principle that the escape of gas from a high-pressure pipe-
line or vessel produces ultrasound. This ultrasound is measured
as SPL, which can be calculated from knowledge of the sound
sources power, W
s
, the distance of the sensor to the leak, r, and
the ambient room constant, S:
9

SPL = 10log
W
s
10
12
+10 log
1
2r
2
+
4
S
(1)
Applying the ideal gas equation, the sound sources power can
be expressed as:
.
PLANT SAFETY
58

I


W
s
=
RT
M
m (2)
where is an efficiency constant (0 1), R is the gas constant,
M is the molecular weight, T is the absolute temperature, and m is
the mass flowrate. Substituting Eq. 2 in Eq. 1 results in:

SPL = 120 +10log
qRT m
M
1
2rr
2
+
4
S
_
,
1
]
1
(3)
Eq. 3 is useful for calculating the SPL of a leak if the mass
flowrate for said leak and the SPL and corresponding leak for a
second leak are known. Consider a second equation using Eq. 3:

SPL
2
= 120 +10log
RT
2
m
2
M
2
1
2 r
2
2
+
4
S
(3a)
Assuming that the distance to the sound source is constant,
and subtracting Eq. 3a from Eq. 3 yields the relation

SPL
2
= SPL
1
+10log
M
1
T
2
M
2
T
1
m
2
m
1
(4)
which can be simplified to:

SPL
2
= SPL
1
+10log
m
2
m
1
(5)
when the molecular weight and absolute gas temperature for both
leaks remain unchanged. Similarly, Eq. 3 can be used to estimate
detection coverage, assuming the mass flow rate is constant. In
this instance, subtracting Eq. 3 gives:

SPL
2
= SPL
1
+10log
r
1
r
2
( )
2
S + 8r
1
2
S + 8r
1
2
(6)
Assuming that the direct field term in Eq. 3 at a given location
in the room is much larger than the reverberant field term; that
is, (10 log (1/2r
2
) >> 10 log (4/S)), Eq. 6 becomes:

SPL
2
SPL
1
+ 20 log
r
1
r
2
(7)
Eq. 5 is a useful tool for calculating the detection radius of
ultrasonic gas leak detectors, provided that the SPL for a given
mass flowrate is known. In instances when a change in background
noise is expected (for example, by the removal of machinery) Eq.
6 or 7 can provide a working estimate of the range (assuming the
minimum mass flowrate to be detected remains the same).
Experimental procedure. To verify the usefulness of Eqs.
5 and 7 in estimating detection range, SPLs were measured for
minor and significant leaks and compared to predicted values.
SPL measurements were taken with an ultrasonic gas leak detector
mounted on a tripod at approximately 3 m from the ground (Fig.
1). To simulate the gas leaks, a rubber hydraulic hose with a 2-cm
inner diameter and 4 m length was used. Both ends of the hose were
fitted with high-pressure locks. On one end, an oil-filled pressure
gauge was attached. On the other end a ball valve and a nozzle were
attached. The nozzles had circular openings with nominal diameters
of 1, 2 and 4 mm, as shown in Fig. 2, and were manufactured to
specifications. All gases tested were supplied in standard 44H-sized
cylinders (service pressure = 3,500 psi) and used as found.
Experimental results. Per HSEs definition, significant gas
releases have the potential to cause an event severe enough to
be considered a major accident or to be of a size leading to
significant escalation within the immediate area or module.
7, 8

Fig. 3 shows SPL measurements for significant methane leaks
as a function of distance and an SPL curve derived from Eq. 5.
The dashed curve in Fig. 3 is a second-order polynomial fit to the
predicted values and is presented to guide the eye. The estimated
values for SPL were extrapolated from leak rates of m = 0.01 kg/s.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the predicted values agree, with an average
percent difference between measured and predicted values of 2%.
Other matches between predicted and experimental results are
obtained for inert gases like nitrogen (Fig. 4).
Substances that are liquid when pressurized in gas cylinders
generate less ultrasonic noise than predicted by Eq. 3. Fig. 5 shows
SPL curves for CO
2
and ethylene, two gases that are liquids at
room temperature under moderate pressure. For both gases, the
model overestimates the sound pressure level by an average of 13%
at 10 m or more from the sound source.
If the SPL at a particular distance from the sound source is
known, one can approximate the detection radius provided that
Experimental setup for leak simulation. FIG. 1 Stainless-steel nozzles for high-pressure leaks. FIG. 2
.
.
PLANT SAFETY

I

59
the mass flow rate is kept constant. From Eq. 6, the sound pres-
sure level decreases with distance as log (1/r). Fig. 6 illustrates the
SPL readings of the ultrasonic gas leak detector for a methane
leak of m = 0.01 kg/s and the corresponding estimate from Eq.
7. The initial SPL was taken as 96 dB at r = 2 m. As evident from
the graph, SPL decreases with distance at a much faster rate than
predicted by the direct field term alone. Accounting for the value
of S could result in a better match to experimental data.
Conclusion. With ultrasonic gas leak detection, a relation
between SPL and mass flowrate can be effectively used to estimate
detection radii for significant leaks. A similar relation that relies
on the direct field term [10 log (1/2r
2
)] as the dominant factor
underestimates the rate of SPL decrease over distance, suggesting
that surrounding structures may have a dampening effect on the
ultrasound. This may have been particularly the case with the
experiments reported in this article, as they were performed out-
doors. By fitting the experimental curve in Fig. 4, we find SPL in
such experiment decreases at almost twice the predicted rate [37
log (1/r)] vs. [20 log (1/r)].
One important limitation of these equations is that they apply
only to gas releases. Gas-liquid mixtures, which may be produced
as a result of high pressures, invariably attenuate SPL. As shown
above, when CO
2
was pressurized above its critical pressure at
40
0 5 10
Distance from source, m
15 20 25
50
60
70
80
S
P
L
,

d
B
90
100
110
120
Extrapolated from 0.01 kg/s using Eq. 5
Measured at 0.1 kg/s
Measured and predicted values for methane leaks at 0.1
kg/s. Measurement error = 3 dB.
FIG. 3
40
0 5 10
15 20 25
50
60
70
80
S
P
L
,

d
B
90
100
110
120
Extrapolated from 0.01 kg/s using Eq. 5
Measured and predicted values for nitrogen gas leaks at
0.1 kg/s. Measurement error = 3 dB.
FIG. 4
.
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PLANT SAFETY
60

I

room temperature to achieve a mass flowrate of 0.1 kg/s, the
predicted SPL curve was higher than the one produced from
experimental readings.
Besides the practical value of the equations, the test results dem-
onstrate that ultrasonic gas leak detectors are well suited for detect-
ing significant leaks. During the experiments, the test instrument
never produced a false positive nor failed to respond to a gas leak.
Further work is needed to understand the scope of applica-
tion of ultrasonic gas leak detectors to significant or even major
incidents. As next steps, we plan to further characterize sensor
behavior for combustible gas releases with mass flowrates larger
than 0.1 kg/s. This study would throw light on the response for
catastrophic incidents, where a potential detonation could lead
to structural damage to surrounding areas or multiple fatalities.
A topic that also deserves further consideration is sensor response
to mixed-phase gas releases. Although the HSE has produced an
excellent report on the subject, little work has been carried out
on the sound characteristics of high-pressure jets produced by
petroleum-gas mixtures.
10
Given the broad application to which
ultrasonic gas leak detectors have been found suitable so far, these
are areas of investigation well worth exploring. HP
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to Toke Eng, Mads Kornbech, and Martin Olesen
at Gassonic A/S on preparing the article. Special credit also goes to Kamyar
Babaielivari for setting up the leak simulation equipment and for his assistance in
conducting the experiments.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Health and Safety Executive, Fire and Explosion Strategy, Issue 1, Hazardous
Installations Directorate, Offshore Division, 2004.
2
Leistad, G. H. and A. R. Bradley, Is the focus too low on issues that have a
potential to lead to a major incident? Proceedings of the SPE Offshore
Europe Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen, UK, 2009.
3
Naranjo, E. and S. Baliga, Expanding the use of ultrasonic gas leak detectors:
A review of gas release characteristics for adequate detection, International
Gases and Instrumentation, Vol. 3, pp. 2429, 2009.
4
Naranjo, E. and G. Neethling, Safety in Diversity: The advantages of
technology diversification in gas monitoring safety, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
Vol. 13, pp. 102108, 2008.
5
Naranjo, E., Selection and use of ultrasonic gas leak detectors, Proceedings
of the 54th IIS 474 pp. 287296, Pensacola, Beach, Florida, 2008.
6
Hazardous Installations Directorate Semi-Permanent Circular, Acoustic Leak
Detection, SPC/TECH/OSD/05, 2007.
7
Health and Safety Executive Offshore Technology Report 2001/055, OSD
hydrocarbon release reduction campaign: Report on the hydrocarbon release
incident investigation project 1/4/2000 to 3/31/2001, HSE Books,
Colegate, England, 2001. http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/otohtm/2001/
index.htm.
8
HID Statistics Report HSR 2002 002, Offshore Hydrocarbon Releases
Statistics and Analysis, 2002, 2003. http://www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/statistics/
hsr2002/index.htm.
9
Raichel, D. R., The Science and Applications of Acoustics, Second Edition,
Springer, New York, 2006.
10
Royle, M., D. Willoughby, E. Brueck and J. Patel, Measurement of Acoustic
Spectra from Liquid Leaks, Research Report RR568, HSE Books, Colegate,
England, 2007.
Edward Naranjo is a product manager for General Monitors.
He has been with GMI for six years and contributes to product
innovation and new product development, including initiatives on
wireless-enabled fire and gas sensing, gas imaging, and ultrasonic
gas leak detection. Dr. Naranjo has over 12 years of product devel-
opment experience in the industrial instrumentation, healthcare and consumer pack-
aged goods industries. He received a BS degree in chemical engineering from Caltech
and a PhD in the same discipline from the University of California, Santa Barbara.
He also earned an MBA from the University of Chicago. Dr. Naranjo is the chapters
regional director, western region, of the Product Development and Management
Association and a certified new product development professional.
Shankar Baliga is a manager for research and development
at General Monitors in Lake Forest, California. He is responsible
for the development of new optical, acoustic and chemical sensing
technologies for gas and flame detection. Recent examples of Dr.
Baligas research interests include flame detection with neural net-
works and open path gas detection for ppm levels. He is a senior member of ISA and
IEEE and a voting member on the ISA 12.13 committee for combustible gas detection
instruments. Dr. Baliga received a PhD in physics from Ohio State University.
Gregory A. Neethling is the technology manager for Gas-
sonic A/S, a General Monitors company. Mr. Neethling has over 10
years experience in ultrasonic gas leak detection, with an electrical
engineering background. He started his career at Innova Air Tech
Instruments in Copenhagen, Denmark as a research and develop-
ment engineer. Mr. Neethlings knowledge of industrial gas detection stems from the
development and deployment of ultrasonic gas leak detection devices over the last
decade. He has published several papers on fire and gas detection implementation
with emphasis on ultrasonic instruments.
Chris D. Plummer is a retired process safety consultant with
Safety Consulting and Process Engineering Analysis in Stoke on
Trent, UK. He received an undergraduate degree in chemical engi-
neering from the University College in London. Mr. Plummers
experience spans over 30 years in health safety and environment
(HSE) management, especially the use of safety devices in the oil and gas industry. He
was chief HSE engineer at W.S. Atkins and has held a variety of positions in industrial
safety and operations. Mr. Plummer is a chartered engineer, certified safety profes-
sional and fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.
40
0 5 10
15 20 25
50
60
70
80
S
P
L
,

d
B
90
100
110
120
Carbon dioxide and
Ethylene, extrapolated from
0.01 kg/s using Eq. 5
Carbon dioxide and
Ethylene, measured at 0.1 kg/s
FIG. 5
40
0 5 10
15 20 25
50
60
70
80
S
P
L
,

d
B
90
100
110
120
Extrapolated from SPL at r = 2 m
using Eq. 7
Measured and predicted values for methane leaks at 0.01
kg/s. Measurement error = 3 dB.
FIG. 6
Measured and predicted values for carbon dioxide and
ethylene leaks at 0.1 kg/s. Measurement error = 3 dB.
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PLANT SAFETY

I

63
I
t is no secret that many of the process technologies within the
hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) carry their own set
of challenges and risks. Inherent in the HPI is the continual
concern for worker and operations protection in the event of an
explosion and fire. The ongoing history of refining is replete with
accounts of disasters arising from simple and complex causes. Pipe
corrosion was determined to be the prime cause of a May 2009
explosion and fire at the ethylene unit of Sunocos Marcus Hook
refinery, located in Delaware. Superheated feedstock leaked out
of a rusty pipe and ignited. The result was a vapor-cloud explo-
sion (VCE). Even though the refining industry has experienced
advances in process and safety technologies, the risk of a blast
event can still occurthus underscoring the need for greater
emphasis on worker safety and equipment protection.
The design, development and deployment of blast-resistant
structures to protect workers, power and process controls has been
ongoing within the HPI and chemical manufacturing. In more
recent years, the demand for these types of buildings has created a
new industry that can provide benefits physically and financially
to the HPI and other chemical processing plants.
Background. Although blast-resistant shelters are being used at
land-based chemical processing plants, their origins can be traced
to applications for externally reinforced, steel intermodal shipping
containers in offshore safety applications. Freight containers have
been in plentiful supply since their inception, and their structural
strength makes them natural candidates for personnel protection
from low-level blasts. Converted containers are resistant to blast
loads in the 1 psi to 2 psi range. However, much higher loads are
experienced during refinery blast events; given the distance and
other variables affecting the force of a VCE, stronger structures
are necessary. This imperative led to the design and fabrication of
the first, custom-designed blast-resistant modules (BRMs), and
the industry has been evolving ever since.
The industry response to ensuring personnel and plant safety
reached a high degree of intensity after March 23, 2005. On
that day, a series of explosions ripped through BPs Texas City,
Texas, refinery during the restarting of process equipment at the
refinerys isomerization unit, killing 15 workers and injuring 180
others (Fig. 2). A tremendous loss of manpower and equipment
damage resulted from the accident; the unit did not come back
online for another two years.
Since this incident, demand has increased significantly for
blast-resistant, steel-fabricated buildings to provide more protec-
tion at HPI facilities. Industry guidelines have been established
to facilitate the design, construction and optimal location of
BRMs for personnel protection, as well as blast-resistant electrical
equipment centers (BRECs) to protect critical electrical process
functions of the facilities (Fig. 1).
Addressing safety concerns at HPI and other hazardous
manufacturing facilities began largely in the 1990s, resulting in
publication of the Occupational Safety & Health Administra-
tions (OSHA) Process Safety Management (PSM) standards. In
response to the OSHA publication, a joint effort was initiated
by the American Petroleum Institute (API) and the Chemical
Manufacturers Association to establish a set of guidelines directly
addressing OSHAs concerns in the PSM standards. This response
is contained in API Recommended Practice 752, Management of
Hazards Associated with Location of Process Plant Buildings.
Government, industry and market response. Follow-
ing the conclusions reached in the wake of events at Texas City,
OSHA initiated a series of National Emphasis Program Audits at
US refineries, during which OSHA inspectors began issuing cita-
tions to companies for failure to adequately protect essential or
critical equipment at their facilities. This has added momentum
to an already growing movement on the part of HPI firms to
provide strong, ductile, affordable protective shelters. Advances in
Considerations for blast-resistant
electrical equipment centers
Guidelines explore protecting critical systems from disaster
D. COLE and D. AUSTIN, Lectrus Corp., Chattanooga, Tennessee
Blast-resistant electrical equipment center loaded for
shipment at off-site manufacturing plant.
FIG. 1
PLANT SAFETY
64

the design, testing and manufacture of such structures has served
to further ensure market viability for them.
Protecting personnel vs. equipment. The primary func-
tion of blast-resistant shelters has been to protect personnel at
facilities where at risk for accidental explosions exists. At the same
time, risk managers, engineers and company owners also realize
that the risk of exposure to overpressure or blast wave extends to
critical and essential power and control systems of their facilities
as well. Outside of protecting personnel during a blast event,
nothing is more critical than sustaining the proper function of
process-related automatic shutoff valves and other critical power
equipment, as well as water pumps for fire protection.
Personnel protection. The manufacturing industry for
BRMs offers a wide range of sizes and blast ratings, conforming
to International Building Code (IBC) design and construction
practices. BRMs are most often used as a substitute for unrated
construction trailers but may be configured into multiple sec-
tions. Multi-sectional systems may be large single-story buildings
or stacked to create a multistory configuration. Examples include
offices, cafeterias and even sleeping quarters.
Aftermath of the BP Texas City March 2005 blast. FIG. 2 Side view of a blast-resistant electrical equipment center. FIG. 3
Select 160 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS Select 166 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
PLANT SAFETY

I

65
Protecting equipment. As mentioned earlier, the IBC
defines essential facilities as those whose processes must remain
in operation or return to operation with minimal interrup-
tion during or after a catastrophic event. Essential equipment
is defined as equipment used in the power and control sys-
tems that must remain online during an event to maintain the
minimum necessary process functionality at the site. Critical
equipment is that which is used in those systems and must be
returned to functional status in minimal time, with minimal
cost and effort.
While massive attention and effort have been given to pro-
vide blast-resistant shelters for personnel protection in areas with
potential for overpressure at HPI facilities, a commensurate effort
is being directed at protecting critical and essential power and
control systems (Fig. 3). Concerning such processes and the asso-
ciated critical equipment, OSHAs PSM standard specifically lists
equipment that the employer deems critical to process safety,
because of its potential for significant impact on the safety
of a process involving highly hazardous chemicals if it did not
maintain its mechanical integrity. The standard goes on to name
equipment types including, but not limited to:
Relief and vent systems and devices
Pumps
Emergency shutdown systems
Controls (including monitoring devices and sensors, alarms
and interlocks).
The logical and most effective solution for protecting critical
processes and associated equipment is a BREC rated to handle
pressures of the type experienced at Texas City in 2005.
Current building standards. Blast-resistant buildings are
not currently defined by a governing industry standard. Therefore,
engineering analyses and testing are used to certify individual
components and system designs. This responsibility falls primarily
on the shoulders of engineers, designers and manufacturing firms
that produce blast-resistant modules.
Since the purpose of BRMs is to protect people, they must
meet architectural and life-safety codes. However, these require-
ments do not extend to equipment centers.
Typically the size of an office trailer, a BRM may be installed in a
multitude of varying configurations (including multilevel) and floor
plans. The buildings may be similar in design and construction to
their first-generation cousins, steel shipping containers, but modern
BRMs are larger, considerably stronger and specially designed for
placement in hazardous areas. Most of the standard features of ship-
ping containers, i.e., all-welded steel construction, crimped plate
walls, steel-tube framing and reinforced plate roofs, also apply to
blast-resistant equipment shelters.
Modern BRMs are constructed with specially designed, heavy
framed doors, windows and HVAC. Any external system or accessory
must be designed and constructed to withstand the forces of the rated
blast pressures. Most of these construction features are also attributable
to BRECs. The BRM exterior will respond during an overpressure
event by deflecting, whereby some structural components may per-
manently deform. At the same time, the walls and roof are designed
to remain intact, absorb the blast forces and protect the occupants.
Functional differences between BRMs and BRECs.
Whereas BRMs have the option of being installed as either per-
manent or temporary structures, BRECs are sited within refineries
as permanent structures.
The most desirable location for an electrical equipment center
at a refinery is as close to the processing operation and mainte-
nance personnel as possible. The owner has far more flexibility in
siting BRECs than is available for siting BRMs. Siting decisions
are based upon economics when the incident risk is immediate,
and the costs of additional cabling and other delays from increased
standoff distances are high.
TABLE 1. Functional differences between personnel and equipment shelters
Design consideration Personnel Equipment
Protection People Equipment
Allowable response Walls and roof may deform but must not generate heavy Walls and roof may deform but must not impact equipment. Connections
internal debris. Allowable deformations typically follow must have adequate protection to withstand relative movement. Some
ASCE guidance equipment may also be shock sensitive, requiring flexible mountings.
Construction Seam welded crimp plate, wood framing and sheetrock All steel SWCP or interlocking panel. Typically no interior finish out
is required
Access IBC/ADA OSHA
Foundation type Slab-on-grade Elevated
Doors Opened frequently Open infrequently for equipment check
TABLE 2. Design specifications for various BREC construction types
Construction type
Product design feature Type I Type II Type III
Description Medium-gage G90 steel; interlocking panels Heavy-gage G90 steel; interlocking panels Seal-welded crimped heavy steel plate
Panel width, mm 400 300 n/a
Panel connection type Interlocking Interlocking Continuously welded
Exterior wall/roof thickness, mm 75 100 100
Wall deflection space, mm 0140 38100 64178
Total wall thickness, mm 75270 100280 100355
PLANT SAFETY
66

I

Typical types I, II and III structure construction.
Unlike commercial-grade, pre-engineered metal buildings, todays
BRECs use heavy structural members and either crimped plate or
interlocking heavy-gauge wall panels. Base members consist of
C-channels, wide-flange structural beams, and wall panels are sup-
ported with tube steel. Up to 12 mm- (1/2-in.) thick metal plate
is continuously welded to the base to form the floor. Floor cutouts
are made for all electrical equipment located within the shelter.
Wall and roof construction details depend upon the maximum
blast loadings.
Table 1 shows the functional differences between blast-resistant
modules used for personnel vs. equipment protection. Table 2 lists
the design specifications for various BREC construction types.
It is also notable that the older, 14x40-foot size limitation for
BRECs is no longer a factor, since any of the three unit types can
be constructed with custom dimensions and loadings in mind. HP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chase, R., Associated Press, Pipe corrosion led to Delaware refinery explosion,
Sept. 8, 2009.
Cole, D., R. H. Bennett and D. Austin, Protecting Essential Refining
Operations Using Blast-Resistant Electrical Equipment Shelters, IEEE-
PCIC-AN-22, 2008.
Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Task Committee on Blast Resistant Design, New York,
New York, 1997.
Fatal Accident Investigation Report: Isomerization Unit ExplosionFinal Report,
Texas City, Texas, incident date: March 23, 2005, report date: Dec. 9, 2005.
Gehring, G. and P. Summers, Constructing and designing blast-resistant
buildings, Hydrocarbon Processing, November 2005, pp. 5561.
International Building Code, Section 1602, Washington, DC, 2006.
Management of Hazards Associated with Location of Process Plant Portable
Buildings, API RP 753, First Edition, American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, DC, June 2007.
Petroleum Refinery Process Safety Management National Emphasis Program,
CPL 03-00-004, US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Standards, Washington, DC, 2007.
Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, 29 CFR 1910.119, US
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Standards,
Washington, DC, Subpart H, 1992.
Samara, M., ASCE Abstract, Nonstructural Considerations in Design of Blast-
Resistant Buildings, Vol. 3, Issue 4, November 1998, pp. 172175.
David Cole is the vice president of corporate engineering for
Lectrus Corp. His current responsibilities include product design,
research and development, and code compliance for the com-
panys complete line of custom, walk-in metal electrical equipment
enclosures. Mr. Cole also represents Lectrus on various technical
and industry associations, including IEEE. He graduated from North Carolina State
University with a BS degree in mechanical engineering in 1985, and from University of
Phoenix with an MBA in 1995. He has had a diverse career in medical R&D, computer-
peripheral manufacturing, and electrical control and enclosure design.
Deron Austin is the vice president of marketing for Lectrus
Corp. Mr. Austin has over 20 years of experience in sales and
marketing of engineered products and is a licensed professional
engineer in the State of Tennessee. Prior to joining Lectrus in June
2008, he was employed by Propex, where he helped increase
the global demand for the companys civil engineering products. As vice president
of marketing for Lectrus, he is responsible for the companys strategic marketing
initiatives, marketing communications tactics lead development, branding and new
market, channel, product and service commercialization efforts. He is a member of
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and holds a BS degree in civil
engineering from Bucknell University.
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979-776-5220 www.bre.com sales@bre.com
Selecting the Best Solvent for Gas Treating
PROCESS INSIGHT
Selecting the best amine/solvent for gas treating is not a
trivial task. There are a number of amines available to
remove contaminants such as CO
2
, H
2
S and organic sulfur
compounds from sour gas streams. The most commonly used
amines are methanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA),
and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA). Other amines include
diglycolamine
(DGA), diisopropanolamine (DIPA), and

triethanolamine (TEA). Mixtures of amines can also be used
to customize or optimize the acid gas recovery. Temperature,
pressure, sour gas composition, and purity requirements for
the treated gas must all be considered when choosing the most
appropriate amine for a given application.
Primary Amines
The primary amine MEA removes both CO
2
and H
2
S from
sour gas and is effective at low pressure. Depending on
the conditions, MEA can remove H
2
S to less than 4 ppmv
while removing CO
2
to less than 100 ppmv. MEA systems
generally require a reclaimer to remove degraded products
from circulation. Typical solution strength ranges from 10 to
20 weight % with a maximum rich loading of 0.35 mole acid
gas/mole MEA. DGA
is another primary amine that removes

CO
2
, H
2
S, COS, and mercaptans. Typical solution strengths are
50-60 weight %, which result in lower circulation rates and less
energy required for stripping as compared with MEA. DGA
also requires reclaiming to remove the degradation products.
Secondary Amines
The secondary amine DEA removes both CO
2
and H
2
S but
generally requires higher pressure than MEA to meet overhead
specications. Because DEA is a weaker amine than MEA, it
requires less energy for stripping. Typical solution strength
ranges from 25 to 35 weight % with a maximum rich loading
of 0.35 mole/mole. DIPA is a secondary amine that exhibits
some selectivity for H
2
S although it is not as pronounced as for
tertiary amines. DIPA also removes COS. Solutions are low
in corrosion and require relatively low energy for regeneration.
The most common applications for DIPA are in the ADIP
and
SULFINOL
processes.
Tertiary Amines
A tertiary amine such as MDEA is often used to selectively
remove H
2
S, especially for cases with a high CO
2
to H
2
S ratio
in the sour gas. One benet of selective absorption of H
2
S is a
Claus feed rich in H
2
S. MDEA can remove H
2
S to 4 ppm while
maintaining 2% or less CO
2
in the treated gas using relatively
less energy for regeneration than that for DEA. Higher weight
percent amine and less CO
2
absorbed results in lower circulation
rates as well. Typical solution strengths are 40-50 weight % with
a maximum rich loading of 0.55 mole/mole. Because MDEA
is not prone to degradation, corrosion is low and a reclaimer is
unnecessary. Operating pressure can range from atmospheric,
typical of tail gas treating units, to over 1,000 psia.
Mixed Solvents
In certain situations, the solvent can be customized to
optimize the sweetening process. For example, adding a
primary or secondary amine to MDEA can increase the rate
of CO
2
absorption without compromising the advantages of
MDEA. Another less obvious application is adding MDEA to
an existing DEA unit to increase the effective weight % amine
to absorb more acid gas without increasing circulation rate or
reboiler duty. Many plants utilize a mixture of amine with
physical solvents. SULFINOL is a licensed product from
Shell Oil Products that combines an amine with a physical
solvent. Advantages of this solvent are increased mercaptan
pickup, lower regeneration energy, and selectivity to H
2
S.
Choosing the Best Alternative
Given the wide variety of gas treating
options, a process simulator that
can accurately predict sweetening
results is a necessity when attempting
to determine the best option.
ProMax
has been proven to accurately

predict results for numerous process
schemes. Additionally, ProMax can
utilize a scenario tool to perform
feasibility studies. The scenario
tool may be used to systematically
vary selected parameters in an
effort to determine the optimum operating conditions and the
appropriate solvent. These studies can determine rich loading,
reboiler duty, acid gas content of the sweet gas, amine losses,
required circulation rate, type of amine or physical solvent,
weight percent of amine, and other parameters. ProMax can
model virtually any ow process or conguration including
multiple columns, liquid hydrocarbon treating, and split ow
processes. In addition, ProMax can accurately model caustic
treating applications as well as physical solvent sweetening
with solvents such as Coastal AGR
, methanol, and NMP. For

more information about ProMax and its ability to determine the
appropriate solvent for a given set of conditions, contact Bryan
Research & Engineering.
BR&E
ENVIRONMENT

I

69
G
lobally speaking, there is an exalted
awareness of environmental degra-
dation caused by industrial activi-
ties including the hydrocarbon processing
industry (HPI). Scientists and environ-
mental groups are linking industrial activ-
ity as the potential source for greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, stratospheric ozone
depletion, acid rain and acidification, eutro-
phication, soil degradation, technological
hazards, chemical mists and fog. Some cli-
mate experts and other scientists believe that
these conditions may pose potential dam-
age to human beings. Indeed, this potential
effect is the topic of many discussions at
both national and international forums.
Environmental considerations assume
significant importance in chemical and pet-
rochemical processing, which contribute
effluents and emissions capable of degrading
the environment. Accordingly, HPI opera-
tors are challenged. They must solve how
to increase manufacturing of high-demand
goods and services, and to maintain the
profitability of their parent organizations
while effectively tackling consequential
environmental issues to the environment
and general public. Effective environmental
management assumes paramount impor-
tance in addressing the numerous issues
over pollution and emissions control, while
simultaneously maintaining safety and
sustainability of the industry. Clean initia-
tives in the HPI are a major development.
Challenges for industry. The growth
of the HPI has been guided mostly by the
necessity to increase production at lower
costs, and it has contributed in some
degree to degradation of water resources,
soil and air around the processing plants.
Worldwide, the focus of pollution control
has shifted from end-of-pipe treatment to
source reduction, thus lowering emission
generation and applying clean technol-
ogy and sustainable development. It has
become imperative that environmental
considerations will play a substantive role
in the future development of the HPI, espe-
cially at a time when more industrial activi-
ties are expanding in developing countries.
In recent years, several studies in differ-
ent parts of the world focused on this issue.
Key objectives of the studies are to identify
issues in environmental protection within
different industrial processes; to assess
the extent that national and international
guidelines regarding pollution control and
environmental management can and are
being implemented; to understand the
problems encountered in environmental
management; and to explore the reasons
for noncompliance. Suggestions were also
made on the basis of the listed studies to
develop guidelines for environmental pol-
icy and to adopt cleaner technologies that
will foster industrial development with least
degradation impact on the environment.
Environmental management. At
present, most HPI processing units in
developed or developing countries have
specific environmental policies over site
emissions, effluents and waste disposal;
these operations are guided by rules and
programs set by regulatory authorities.
New plants under development include
modern technologies that were part of the
design inception stage; pollution preven-
tion is a part of the design process and is
not an afterthought for modern HPI facili-
ties. Older process units are now operated
with add-on state-of-the-art pollution-con-
trol equipment and technologies.
Environmental control departments
attached to the plants usually exhibit meticu-
lous care to see that the companys environ-
mental goals and agendas are achieved. Thus,
effective emission control facilities exist in
most HPI facilities, and they are operated
with due diligence. The stipulations of pol-
lution-control and environmental protection
agencies are also within the achievable limits
of the available technology. Excursions, at
times, still occuroften during abnormal
operating events such as startup, shutdown
or during accidental situations.
Several national and the international
standards covering a wide range of param-
eters have been developed to specify the
emissions and effluents from the HPI. These
include pH, ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrates,
fluorides, phosphates, total suspended sol-
ids (TSSs), oils and fats, and chemical and
biological oxygen demands in the effluent
streams, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides
(NO
x
), sulfur oxides and carbon monox-
ide (CO) in exhaust streams. Radioactivity,
toxicity, presence of heavy metals, organics,
biological pollutants, pathogens, etc., are
also monitored in specific cases.
Clean technologies. Current devel-
opments in environmental chemistry and
chemical engineering have helped plant
operators reduce effluent generation at the
source and thus eliminate treatment and
disposal of waste and byproducts. Very
often, treatment from industrial opera-
tions is linked to the processing technolo-
gies adopted in the plants. Over the years,
the specific consumption of raw material
and energy for manufactured products
has registered a continuously declining
trend accomplished with the adoption of
efficient technologies and best operating
What are the strategies for
sustainable chemical production?
New environmental challenges require a new way of thinking
by the hydrocarbon processing industry
M. P. SUKUMARAN NAIR, Special Secretary to Government of Kerala, and Chairman,
Chemical Engineering Division Board of the Institution of Engineers, India
ENVIRONMENT
70

practices at the plant level. This invariably
contributes to achieving better environ-
mental standards through reduced emis-
sions, effluents and solid waste per ton of
product manufactured.
Further improvements toward better
environmental quality may require major
design changes involving additional invest-
ment or going for a newly proven and com-
mercialized process. This is a costly option
and efforts in this direction are limited
unless they bring economic incentives
such as increased productivity, lower energy
consumption, etc. In the case of products
having high-water intensity, there is an eco-
nomic benefit in reusing treated effluents to
conserve water.
The startup and shutdown of plants
are situations that can potentially increase
emissions generation as compared to normal
operations. Most plants are equipped with
specific provisions to control such situations.
Most pollution-prevention methods
implemented in the HPI follow prescrip-
tive approaches that adhere to standardized
procedures built around questionnaires and
checklists. The new approach is to adopt a
more descriptive approach in which process
operators are challenged to attack pollution
problems and devise new and innovative
ways for solving them.
New management approaches are under-
taking substantial efforts to develop green
belts and maintaining greenery around pro-
cess plants to reduce the impact of GHGs.
This is an important step in the direction of
sustainable environmental control.
ISO programs for the environ-
ment. Establishment of ISO 14000
Environment Management Systems and
a corporate environmental agenda for
regular monitoring and control is another
major step in environmental protection.
These systems are intended for continuous
improvement of existing operations from
the environmental angle. Certain indus-
tries have adopted a zero-effluent approach
incorporating total recycle and reuse of
effluents back to process. Zero effluents
still remains more of a concept than its
effective implementation to a reasonable
degree of reliability. European process plant
operators use the best available techniques
(BATs) in their plants for environmental
control. Both effluent specific standards
and product specific standards are available.
In India and in many other develop-
ing countries, systems are applied for
controlling and reducing pollution from
plants with in the limits set by the statu-
tory authorities, i.e., the Pollution Control
Boards (PCB). Some operating units do
not put in further efforts to reduce the pol-
lution effects beyond the limits prescribed
by the PCBs. This is primarily due to the
lack of incentives to encourage additional
investment toward improved technology
aiding better environmental quality.
Most HPI operations emit large quan-
tities of carbon dioxide (CO
2
), which is
a major GHG to the atmosphere. There
are no emission standards for CO
2
as pre-
scribed by the statutory bodies. Attempts
to reduce GHG emissions globally to tackle
climate change may bring in specific lim-
its for CO
2
emissions or calls for effective
measures for sequestration in future.
Every processing unit imposes certain
environmental burdens to the local envi-
ronment, and its impact categories are acid-
ity, global warming, human health effects,
ozone depletion, photochemical smog,
aquatic oxygen demand and eco-toxicity
to aquatic life, etc. A parametric assess-
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ENVIRONMENT

I

71
ment of the contribution of each of these
components can be used to compare yearly
performances of plants.
The necessity of maintaining a safe
work environment for employees and the
neighboring community is well recognized.
For this purpose, extensive hazard and risk
analysis using techniques such as hazard
operability (HAZOP) studies and quan-
titative risk assessment (QRA) are con-
ducted based on which safe systems, work
practices and risk-reduction measure are
now adopted. The environment manage-
ment plans (EMPs) of the production units
are capable of mitigating risk from most
expected crisis situations barring those
from nightmare incidents such as earth-
quakes, sabotage, etc.
Public information. Information to the
public regarding the environmental conse-
quences of these plants is very important.
The communities associated with these
units have a right to know the environmen-
tal risk that they are subjected to. In most
countries, it is now mandatory that an envi-
ronment impact assessment (EIA) be done
prior to implementation of a project having
large-scale environmental consequences. A
proper EMP is also to be in place before the
unit startup.
Environmental challenges. Cli-
mate change across the world, depletion of
ozone layer in the outer atmosphere, loss
of biodiversity elements such as migratory
species and important genetic resources;
widespread degradation of land, urban
air, forests and natural waters and marine
ecosystems; and accumulation of persis-
tent organic pollutants in nature are major
global environmental concerns. These
issues have an impact that transcendent
national boundaries and require global
solutions. We have over 200 international
legislations governing environmental issues
and together with currently available tech-
nology and adopting best practices mitiga-
tion for further degradation are possible.
India, for example, has adopted a
national action plan for climate change
and has framed a comprehensive auto fuel
policy that consider among other things,
availability and security of supplies, vehicle
technology, cost-effective emission reduc-
tion, fiscal measures and institutional
means to bring about progressive improve-
ments by reducing vehicular emissions on
ambient air. The fuel cell as a power source
is becoming a viable alternative to internal
combustion engines with least environ-
mental impacts. Thus, concerted efforts
are required both at the national and inter-
national levels to stop further degradation
and reverse trends.
Stress on environmental health.
National environmental policies should
foster efforts for sustaining environmental
health of the public and to call for a discrete
assessment of pollutants entering the natural
environment from human interventions in
terms of their toxicity, persistence, mobility,
bioaccumulation and methods available for
source reduction and control mechanisms.
Shift toward alternatives. More
industries are switching over to environ-
ment-friendly raw materials and energy
resources to improve sustainability. Several
examples are available:
Use natural gas, predominantly
methane (CH
4
), as a relatively benign raw
material and energy source than other petro-
leum feedstocks including naphtha, fuel oil
and coal to produce ammonia, which is
the basic building block of the nitrogenous
fertilizer industry. Natural gas as feedstock
would reduce pollution generation. This
route would offer lower CO
2
emissions,
reduce waste generation and decrease energy
intensity for the final product.
Replace organic solvents with water.
Replacing volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) as reaction medium in organic
synthesis is another important innova-
tion. Using ethylene dichloride (EDC) for
extraction of food items has been replaced
by n-hexane.
Manufacturing sulfuric acid from
pyrite roasting has a lesser impact than
using elemental sulfur. Recycling of met-
als, recovery of metals from spent catalysts,
sludge from metallurgical operations, etc.,
could reduce the impact of large-scale min-
ing of metals and minerals.
Begasse from sugar industry is used
as a raw material for paper industry in
place of wood pulp. Treated softwood, coir
and bamboo composites are extensively
used in place of hardwood for furniture.
Several oxidation reactions involving air
are being replaced with gaseous oxygen to
mitigate toxic NO
x
generation. Application
of next-generation polymers and plastics
in place of metal in highly corrosive appli-
cations, are intended to reduce the envi-
ronmental burden arising out of products
manufactured and lead to sustainability.
Construction industry is being
increasingly encouraged to use locally
available materials to replace steel, glass,
wood and cement.
Replace fossil fuels with hydrogen
in engines is in an advanced research stage.
Once it becomes technically and economi-
cally feasible, fuel cells can offer an environ-
ment friendly option for transportation.
Natural zeolites are finding exten-
sive applications in place of alkyl ben-
zene sulfonates (ABSs) as detergents.
Power generation using vacuum res-
idue from crude refining operations is a
sustainable option to dispose of the unmar-
ketable end products. These bottoms, after
improved crude utilization processes such
as hydrocracking, are highly viscous, heavy
and difficult to handle and, as such, are not
marketable. The quantity of residue from
refineries varies from 20% to 40% of the
throughput depending on the crude char-
acteristics and secondary process applied.
Refiners are seeking alternative residue uti-
lization strategies to produce lighter high-
value products and to increase competi-
tive positions in a market where light-oil
product(s) demand is steadily increasing.
Biofuels are being used in the auto-
motive industry. Ethanol and biodiesel
have emerged as reasonable alternatives to
the conventional petroleum fuels. These are
based on agricultural feedstocks and they
can be easily blended with hydrocarbon fuels
unto 50% blends and can be used in existing
vehicles without any modifications. Biofuels
are renewable resources that are nontoxic,
and biodegradable. They have reduced
inflammability, and their performance is
also superior. Ethanol-blended gasoline has
become a commonplace fuel in many coun-
tries. Ethanol, largely available as a byproduct
of the sugar industry, is nontoxic and is con-
sidered environment friendly, causing no
harm to soil, water bodies and public health.
Being an oxygenated fuel, ethanol enhances
the combustion of gasoline and effectively
lowers emission rates from engines.
Natural fibers, such as coir, jute,
etc., lessen the burden on the environ-
ment through product substitution for
similar applications such as nylon, polyes-
ter, polyethylene, etc. Coir geotextiles find
extensive application in preventing soil ero-
sion and landslides.
Biotechnology (BT) products can
reduce the intensity of normal cropping in
terms of input, such as fertilizer and water,
and they have better resistance to adversi-
ties to pest infection, and crop losses while
increasing productivity. Several BT products
help to reduce environmental footprints.
Recycling of paper and replacing
plastic with natural polymers can provide
greener options. At present, 150 million tons
ENVIRONMENT
72

I

of plastics are produced a year from fossil
fuels globally. Plastic products have gained
universal usage not only in food, clothing
and shelter, but also in transportation, con-
struction, medical, entertainment, etc. There
is a growing demand for biodegradable plas-
tics as a solution to global environmental
and waste management problems.
Research on biodegradable plastics
and polymers has been carried out world-
wide with the aim of achieving a balance
between human activities and the natural
environments. Ideal biodegradable plastics
are defined as materials that are completely
degraded to CO
2
and water (H
2
O) by the
action of microorganisms. Resources of
biodegradable plastics and polymers are
mainly classified into biosynthetic poly-
mers such as poly hydroxyalkanoic acid,
plant polysaccharides such as cellulose,
starch, and xanthan, and chemical syn-
thetic polymers such as polylactic acid,
poly -caprolactone and polyaspartic acid.
Biodegradable plastics are expected to
replace plastics derived from petroleum
products in natural environment such as
agricultural and fisheries, civil engineer-
ing and construction materials, toys where
recovery and reuse are difficult, compost-
ing of organic waste is effective such as food
packaging, hygienic products on account
of its specific features, such as slow release,
water retention, medical use, low oxygen
permeability and low melting temperatures.
Green manufacturing. Green manu-
facturing (GM) aims to prevent pollution
and save material and energy through inno-
vation and development of new knowledge
that reduces or eliminates environmental
damages right from the design, manufac-
ture and application of products or pro-
cesses. Apart from using benign materials,
changing process technologies also adds
to the environment friendliness of manu-
facturing industries. Existing processes are
also undergoing tremendous changes to
become environmentally friendly. Thus,
GM requires rethinking of the manufactur-
ing systems by pursuing environmentally
related goals and objectives, nontraditional
manufacturing processes, new marketing
strategies and product design based on a
life-cycle approach.
Improved catalysts increase conver-
sion and yields, reduce recirculation and
increase outputs. The best illustration is the
development of ruthenium catalyst in place
of conventional iron catalyst for the ammo-
nia reaction. It helped improve conversion
threefold, reduce size of plant equipment
and rendered higher plant capacities viable.
In-situ generation and consumption
of hazardous and toxic intermediates and
thus avoiding storage and transport, is
another option. An example is the man-
ufacture of methyl iso-cyanate and its
immediate conversion to pesticides with-
out going for storages; a lesson we have
learned form Bhopal.
Other sustainable improvements in
reaction engineering include carbonylation
The important problems encountered
in environmental management in the
HPI are the lack of:
1. Incentives for continuous improve-
ment in the direction of pollution reduction
beyond the compliance limits of the PCBs
2. Integration of environmental con-
cerns into the core of the business strategy.
3. Sufficient transparency with regard
to environmental information
To effectively address the listed prob-
lems and foster development of an apex-
level environmental policy, incorporating
clean-development strategies with these
elements will be required:
1. Role of top management. The
first and foremost guiding principle of
an environmental policy facilitating
industry growth is to ensure the unstinted
commitment, involvement and action-
oriented approach by top management
of the organization in achieving the set
environmental goals.
2. Environmental policy statement.
Top management should codify its envi-
ronmental commitment, values and per-
ceptions in a documented policy. This
policy should be relevant to organization
activities, product and services, and taking
into account its implications on the differ-
ent stakeholders. Attempts for improving
energy efficiency, resource productivity
and use of renewable energy sources and
raw materials need special mention within
the policy.
3. Environment, health, safety
(EHS) vision statement. Every unit
shall have an EHS vision statement. The
statements will depend on the nature
and scale of organizations operation and
will specifying its current thinking and
aspirations for the future. These vision
statements should adopt a national pol-
lution-prevention policy that encourages
source reduction and environmentally
sound recycling as a first option. Also, the
statements recognize safe treatment, stor-
age and disposal practices as important
components of the overall environment
protection strategy.
4. Environmental targets. The envi-
ronmental targets, i.e., the qualitative and
quantitative changes attainable to more
environment friendliness in the indus-
try and acceptance to the community,
must be clearly defined. Steps that are
envisaged for minimizing environmental
impacts, reducing emissions of toxic gases
and those causing global warming and
improving employee health, safety and
pollution prevention must be specified.
The target must also address achieving
zero accidents at workplaces, reducing
incidents of work-related diseases, and
reducing risk exposure to the employees as
well as to the surrounding community. It
focuses on achieving sustainable develop-
ment and eco-efficiency as a new business
perspective through production and inno-
vation integrated environmental protec-
tion, responsible product stewardship and
total quality improvements. It is desirable
that the environmental friendliness of the
HPI industry should be through imple-
menting a guided approach achieved and
action plan. For this purpose, existing
environmental burden imposed must be
quantified by considering suitable indices
for every environmental aspect.
5. Control strategies. This policy
shall provide for the use of legal, financial
and social instruments, which influence
the behavior of companies, citizens, pub-
lic bodies and authorities for achieving
the objectives. Existing and innovative
control mechanisms, such as statutory
provisions and stipulations of the various
regulatory bodies may be used. Industry
may be asked to apply current BATs for
pollution abatement. During the interim
phase, strategy of monitoring in compari-
son with set standards and penal action,
wherever required, should continue. HPI
plants should be operated to standards
that will comply with the requirements
of appropriate national and international
Addressing challenges: National environmental policy
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MERICHEM COMPANY
ENVIRONMENT
74

I

using dimethyl carbonate instead of phos-
gene or CO; using solid catalysts to mini-
mize waste; manufacturing petrochemicals
from renewable sources; produce alpha
olefins from fatty acids rather than petro-
leum products; avoiding the use of toxic
acids, catalysts and solvents in all applica-
tions; and going for photo-catalyzed reac-
tions using natural dyes as catalysts instead
of heavy metals, etc.
Use of low analysis fertilizers with
nutrient content sufficient only to meet
the demand of the plants during the crop-
ping season minimizes leaching to the
environment.
Develop membrane cell process for
caustic soda in place of mercury cells. This
has helped the industry to ward off mer-
cury contamination, and the byproduct
hydrogen can be used for food-grade appli-
cations. Membrane processes and pres-
sure swing adsorption have come of age
for physical separation of gases in place of
chemical absorption and regeneration.
The harshness of chemical reaction as
depicted by elevated temperature, increased
concentration, high pressures, large reactor
volumes, corrosion tendencies, flammabil-
ity characteristics, etc., are being consider-
ably reduced through technological inno-
vation. Today, several reactions are being
carried out under lower temperatures,
pressure and concentration with improved
catalytic efficiencies. The best example is
again from the fertilizer industry where
ammonia used to be synthesized at 350
atmospheres pressure two decades ago, has
been lowered down to operate at as low as
80 atmospheres. The potential for recycling
and reusing within are being exploited con-
siderably, and modern plants are built with
such integrated facilities.
Promote integrated complexes. Refin-
eries, fertilizer, power and petrochemicals
sites are themselves major investment and
high-technology decisions, and, very often,
these units are managed by different agen-
cies and function as independent compa-
nies. Technology brings in a lot of scope for
exploiting the synergy within these units
and could play a major role in improving
the bottom line of these units. Integration
of refineries, fertilizer and petrochemi-
cal plants and power generation units at
the planning phase will help to drastically
reduce emissions and other pollutants; thus
ensuring optimized operation.
Review existing control limits for
pollutants. Present standards regarding
effluent discharges from industrial units
are technological limits attainable through
application of available technologies for
abatement and control available at the time
the limits were mandated. These norms
are not based on long-term health effects.
Revised standards based on health impacts
of each listed pollutant may be developed
incorporating the advancements in control
and detection technologies. While doing
so, care is needed so that the prescribed
limits are technologically achievable and
are within the means and reach of the HPI.
legislation and codes of practice. The gov-
ernment shall formulate country specific
BATs to facilitate continuous improve-
ment in environmental management.
Technically and economically feasible reg-
ulatory measures, as well as nonregulatory
measures are also suggested to improve
environmental management in chemical
processing operations. Fiscal incentives
may be provided to encourage early adop-
tion of technologies that reduce pollution.
6. Risk management. It is necessary
that management will ensure that poten-
tial health, safety and environmental risks
associated with the activities are assessed
early to minimize and manage adverse
effects and to identify opportunities for
improvement. A workable Disaster Pre-
paredness and Emergency Management
Plan (DPEMP) should be kept ready
to mitigate any such situations in the
unlikely event of its occurrence.
7. Staff training. Necessary and state-
of-the-art training may be given to the
concerned people responsible for environ-
mental management. This should include
keeping them abreast of the new develop-
ments, technologies and practical tools,
accident investigations, environmental
impact predictions, selecting appropri-
ate protective equipment, implementing
emergency response plans as and when
necessary, and so on. They may be trained
to learn from previous incidents and simi-
lar experiences. They must be made con-
versant in the corporate environmental
management systems and the proposed
action plans for its implementation. In
short, necessary capabilities must be avail-
able in-house with all organizations to
tackle probable emergency situations that
are likely to arise.
8. Monitoring. The policy should call
for regular and meticulous environmental
performance monitoring to keep track of
the environmental burden imposed by the
company and watch the direction of its
progressing trends. Quantitative, as well
as qualitative approaches, may be used for
this purpose. Emissions, waste streams,
hazardous waste, disturbance, resource
depletion, etc., should be addressed
accordingly. Commitments towards
targets for Responsible Care and social
responsibility may also have to be assessed.
Present operations should regularly
and systematically assess the purpose for
identifying and correcting any element
that may put human beings, real prop-
erty or the natural environment at risk of
nuisance or damage and of establishing a
basis of safety-related improvements of
processes and products. Any new process
and product, as well as any new infor-
mation of existing processes and prod-
ucts, should be thoroughly analyzed with
regard of HES implications. Concerned
authorities must be kept well informed of
the operations and of HES implications.
Any incident entailing a risk of environ-
mental disturbances or of conflict with
existing regulations should be promptly
reported to proper authorities.
9. Public information. Necessary pro-
vision must be for sharing information on
HES with the public and incorporated
in the policy. The community right to
know acts or the right to information
acts in several states are intended for this.
The policy should provide for involve-
ment of the community and working with
active environmental groups in the region
in bettering the environmental situation
and thereby enhancing public perception
of the industry.
10. Annual reports. The policy shall
call for Annual Environmental Status
Reports (AESR), along with the finan-
cial performance reports. Such reports are
now available from many HPI operators
around the world. The feedback on these
reports from concerned stakeholders may
be used for continued improvement of
existing systems. The policy document
shall be integrated with the national envi-
ronmental plan of the country.
Addressing challenges: National environmental policy (cont.)
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ENVIRONMENT
76

In HPI plants, normally systems are
used to control and reduce emissions and
discharges within the limits set by regula-
tory authorities. The units do not put in
further efforts for reducing the pollution
effects beyond prescribed limits by the PCB
in the interest of public health. This is pri-
marily due to a lack of incentives encourag-
ing additional investment toward improved
technology. HPI operators should be
encouraged to go beyond compliance and
become more environmentlly friendly.
Harness environmental biotechnol-
ogy. Environmental biotechnology uses
living organismsflora and fauna-engi-
neeredto exhibit specific traits to iden-
tify, control or prevent pollution. This
technology has been applied to cleaning
up hazardous waste sites more efficiently
than conventional methods, thereby reduc-
ing the need for incineration or extraction-
based methodologies. Bioremediation has
been applied to the cleanup of many dif-
ferent pollutants, including heavy metals,
persistent organic pollutants, explosives,
sewage and industrial waste. Because of
the prevalence of tropical climate, biologi-
cal processes for pollution control have an
edge over chemical processes and are more
efficient. Modern developments, such as
recombinant and genetically engineered
organisms, find extensive application in
biological processes for pollution control
and bioremediation.
Reduce GHG emissions. Encourage-
ment through adequate financial incentives
should be made available to those compa-
nies intending for voluntary reduction of
GHGs and other climate-change promot-
ers. The extension of natural gas pipelines,
harnessing clean-coal technologies, gasifica-
tion of biomass and development of hydel
and nuclear sources for power generation
should be encouraged.
Reduce water intensity. The HPI is a
highly water-intensive industry. The availabil-
ity of good quality water for the community
and industry will become a major problem
in coming years. To address the availability of
adequate water for industries, recycling and
reusing process water is a potential option to
pursue. Recycling and water reuse program
can benefit through advanced membrane
technologies, which have come of age and
are now cost-effective options.
Develop pollution inventory data-
base. The policy should strive to develop
a national level pollution inventory data-
base. It could ensure that pollutant levels
are reduced over time during the develop-
ment process.
Changing role of the regulator. Envi-
ronmental regulatory authorities in devel-
oping countries must be encouraged to
become solution providers to the industry
rather than being mere policing agents.
Disposal of hazardous waste. Man-
agement of hazardous waste materials is
a major concern for HPI plant operators
from the environmental angle. Hazard-
ous waste can be solid, semi-solid or non-
aqueous liquids. Because of its quantity,
concentration or characteristics in terms
of physical, chemical, infectious quality
capable of significantly contributes to an
increase in mortality or an irreversible dam-
age. Left uncared or improperly treated,
stored, transported and disposed wastes,
they are capable of posing a potential haz-
ard to human health and the neighboring
environment. A waste material is classified
as hazardous if it exhibits, whether alone or
in contact with other wastes or substances,
any characteristics such as corrosivity, reac-
tivity, ignitability, toxicity, acute toxicity or
infectious property. These substances are
either created as byproducts of the HPI or
as residues of processes. Toxic byproducts
or products are capable of causing irrevers-
ible damages to the environment. Most
industries have identified such materials
coming under the review of hazardous
wastes from their operations and are sub-
sequently classified.
Hazardous waste is generated in-house
as a result of several industrial operations,
and there are imports too for recovery of
valuable metals hydrocarbons, etc. Deter-
mined efforts of local governments to
federal levels describe the necessity for
chemical hazardous treatment and disposal
facilities (CHTDF).
Emergency planning for disaster
mitigation. Local level emergency plan-
ning for disaster preparedness in case of
natural calamities and man-made disas-
ters is important. Effective mechanisms
for mitigating hazards should be devel-
oped under the district administration.
The program may be coordinated on the
lines of the Awareness and Preparedness
for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL)
project of the United Nations Environ-
ment Programme (UNEP).
Key issues. The key issues in environ-
mental management in the HPI are identi-
fied as pollution from solid waste resulting
in contamination of land space; liquid efflu-
ENVIRONMENT

77
ents endangering water streams and ground-
water resources; and gaseous emissions
degrading the quality of atmospheric air.
It is a risk to life from operational incidents
to people and property in the industry and
adjacent neighborhoods due to the storage,
handling, transport and use of large quanti-
ties of inflammable and hazardous chemi-
cals and hydrocarbons; large-scale depletion
of natural resources, raw materials, energy
resources and water; and contribution to
global warming due to GHG emissions.
Studies also reveal that the units have
been successful in controlling emissions
from their operations to the prescribed
levels by the statutory authorities and as
required by law. The best available tech-
nology (BAT) for pollution control and
environmental management is being used,
and it compares well with such practices
being adopted internationally.
Generally, there is substantial compli-
ance by all units to the standards prescribed
for effluent discharges. Often, units are
committed to attaining norms for various
parameters as stipulated by PCBs. HPI com-
panies will go beyond compliance if there
are sufficient economic incentives to make
additional investments. In other situations,
no attempt is made to achieve better control
of pollution and to meet the standards. HP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
For complete bibliography, visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Dr. MP Sukumaran Nair
is currently the Special Secretary to
Government of Kerala and Chairman,
Chemical Engineering Division Board
of the Institution of Engineers (India).
He was formerly managing director of the state-owned
chlor-alkali major Travancore-Cochin Chemicals (TCC)
Ltd., Cochin. He has over three decades of experience
in the chemical processing industry at the M/s Fertilizers
and Chemical Travancore (FACT), Indias pioneer fertil-
izer and chemical manufacturing, engineering design
and consultancy organization (FEDO) and at TCC Ltd. He
holds BS degrees in chemistry and chemical engineering
and is a postgraduate in ecology and environment. Dr.
Nair also has an MBA and a PhD in management. He
has published more than 90 technical and management
papers at various national and international forums
and workshops and journals. He is well experienced in
process plant operation, process design, troubleshoot-
ing and management, in the HPI. Dr. Nair is a Fellow
of the Institution of Engineers (India), was chairman
of its Cochin center and a member of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers and European Federa-
tion of Chemical Engineers. He is also associated with
various professional bodies and institutions and serves
on several expert advisory committees to the Central
and State Governments. A recipient of the Outstand-
ing Chemical Engineer award from IIChE, he is listed
in the Marquis, Whos Who in the World and by the
International Biographical Centre, Cambridge, England.
He can be reached at mpsn@vsnl.com.
Sweet Solutions.
Sweet Solutions.
MERICHEM COMPANY
P: 713.428.5000 | E: mptsales@merichem.com | www.merichem.com
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Catalysts

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Services and Solutions
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

I

79
O
ver the years, petroleum refineries around the world have
researched and invested in ways to reduce the amount
of waste energy and pollutants produced and released
into the environment from their processing operations. The
diverse processes used to produce crude oil based products usu-
ally require large amounts of electricity to run the various com-
pressors and pumps.
Many oil refineries have projects to recapture the energy as
part of their cost savings plan and are driven by environmental
concerns to reduce pollutants generated by process units. The hot
gas expander is a single-stage power turbine capable of converting
the potential energy of flue (waste) gas into mechanical work. This
article describes how refineries can go green by implementing
fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) hot gas expanders.
Highlighting the FCC process. The FCC process is widely
used for manufacturing of gasoline and petrochemical feed-
stock. The process uses three main process vessels: the reactor,
fractionator and regenerator. As shown in Fig. 1, feedstock (crude
oil) enters the FCC reactor; here, a catalyst strips carbon molecules
from the larger hydrocarbon chains in the feed oil. This reaction
breaks the hydrocarbons down into smaller, more useful hydrocar-
bon products. The hydrocarbon mixture is sent to the fractionator
where it is vaporized and cooled under controlled conditions to
various levels. The process allows desirable petroleum-oil refinery
products to be separated out.
1,2
The final portion of the FCC process is the regenerator. The
used (spent) catalyst from the reactor is sent to the regenerator to
be stripped of carbon and recycled back to the reactor. Compressed
air is pumped into the regenerator to mix with the used catalyst in
a combustion process. Also taking place in the regenerator is the
separation of particles from the flue gas. There are generally two
stages of cyclones in the regenerator that strip the exhaust gas of its
catalyst. The flue gas exiting the top of the regenerator will typi-
cally pass through an additional vessel called a third-stage separator
(TSS) to further reduce the catalyst amount in the flue gas.
The flue gas from the FCC process exiting the regenerator has
significant pressure, temperature and volume, and it is a source of
useful energy that represents an energy cost-saving opportunity
to a refinery. One method of harvesting the potential of the flue
gas is a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The HRSG uses
the heat from the flue gas to create steam. However, this method
ignores the pressure component, a potential energy source that
can be converted to mechanical work.
A second method is to use an expander to recover energy from
the flue gas. This energy can then be used to drive the compressor
that provides air to the regenerator (the main air blower) or an
electric generator.
Going green with FCC
expander technology
New options recover waste gas energy as steam and electricity for plant use
B. CARBONETTO and P. PECCHI, GE Oil & Gas, Florence, Itlay
R
e
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e
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o
r
(
1
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Power
recovery
Flue gas
Electricity
Steam
Spent
catalyst
Regenerated
catalyst
Air
Fuel gas
LPG
Gasoline
HCN (gasoline)
LCO (diesel)
Claried oil (fuel oil)
Raw oil: VGO,
resid, etc.
F
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Flow diagram of FCC unit. FIG. 1 Hot gas FCC expanderside view. FIG. 1A
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

I

81
In this case, the FCC process is the existing (and primary)
process and it can be useful to think of the power recovery system
as a secondary process (see Figs. 1 and 2). The refinery operator
is primarily interested in the FCC process. It is the FCC process
that generates the refinery primary products (gasoline, propane,
fuels, etc.) and, thus, it yields revenues for the refinery. The
power recovery process increases energy efficiency for the overall
plant and therefore, it increases profitability.
Hot gas expanders can be used to drive the compressor
that provides air to the regeneratorthe power recovery train
(PRT). Alternatively, it can be used as the driver for stand-
alone expander-generator sets. Fig. 3 shows a main air blower
PRT; Fig. 4 illustrates an expander-generator set. In both cases,
the expander maximizes recovery of available energy from the
flue gas.
Main air blower train. A main air blower PRT consists of a
steam turbine, compressor, motor/generator and expander. The
expander in the PRT is used to drive the compressor, and often
supplies additional power for the generation of electricity. In this
case, the expander cannot provide all of the power needed to drive
the compressor; motor/generator will operate in motor mode. A
steam turbine is used for startup.
Electric power generation train. Expanders in an
expander-generator application drive a generator, thus using the
entire power production to generate electricity for the refinery. In
general, the expandergenerator set stands to benefit the customer
the most. The key benefits include:
3
Easily added to existing FCC installations
Small footprint
Installed remote from the FCC unit or main air blower train
Does not need to match the air blower operating
conditionsspeed
No modifications to the air blower equipment
Installed during FCC operation and tied in at a scheduled
turnaround
Taken on- or off-line at any time without affecting FCC
unit operation
Has a high efficiency due to equipment optimization.
FCC expanders: Description and operation. Fig. 5
represents an FCC hot gas expander; it shows the path of the hot
flue gas flow passing through it. Major components can be seen
assembled in Fig. 6. The FCC hot gas expander is a single-stage
axial-flow turbine. The pressurized, high-temperature flue (exhaust)
gas coming from the FCC process enters the inlet opening of the
expander and is accelerated through the stationary and rotating
blades. In the expander, the pressure and temperature are reduced,
and energy is extracted and converted into mechanical work.
Although the flue gas has been processed through multiple
separation stages, a significant amount of catalyst particles will
Expander generator power recovery system for an FCC
Plant.
FIG. 2
Expander generator set. FIG. 4
Main air blower power recovery train. FIG. 3 Cross-sectional view of the FCC hot gas expander (flue gas
flow path).
FIG. 5
ROTATING EQUIPMENT
82

I

remain in the flue gas. The catalyst particles pass through the
expander and can potentially cause erosion. The expander flow
paths stationary and rotating components are optimized to
efficiently extract the pressure energy from the flue gas and to
minimize catalyst erosion.
4
Rotor disc cooling and seals are used
to increase the service life. The latest developments in material
alloys and coatings can be used to mitigate damaging effects from
handling catalyst-laden flue gas. All components are designed for
reliability, including casings, bearings and supports. All of these
factors allow the expanders to regularly withstand four to five
years of continuous operating cycles.
Based on process conditions (pressure, temperature and
flow), a customized flow path has to be selected to meet the
process requirements. Selecting the right expander frame size is
very important, and standardized frames that can cover a large
range of pressures and flows have been developed, as shown in
Fig. 7.
History of expanders for FCC applications. Initial
expander development took place between the late 1950s and
the mid-1970s. In all, hundreds of units were installed, each
with unique designs for specific installations. Second-generation
expanders were developed from the mid-1970s through the mid-
1980s, and this era experienced significant expander production.
Hot gas expanders became available with increasing frame size
options. However, there were also increased industry concerns
regarding equipment reliability as well as the desire to increase
the time between shutdowns.
Some of the initial problems/issues faced during the develop-
ment of expanders over the decades included:
2
Lack of proper catalyst separation mechanism. The
expander flow path components would wear quickly due to the
catalyst content in the flue gas. The introduction of an addi-
tional catalyst separator (external to the regenerator) commonly
called the TSS was crucial to extending the life of expander
components.
Lower refinery throughput factors such as lower pres-
sures and temperatures meant lower power recovery opportu-
nities for refineries
Difficulties of designing customized expanders for
every FCC application. As every refinery designs and operates
their FCC unit differently, each expander needed to be custom-
ized. Only a few expander manufacturers had the capabilities to
design custom solutions. To overcome this issue, pre-standard-
ized frames were developed to cover refineries production needs
(see Fig. 7 for sample chart).
Validation of investment cost vs. benefits over the years.
Initially, during the earlier developmental years (1960s and
1970s), it was not essential to install an expander since pollu-
tion-control measures were not given as much priority as they
are today. As more government laws have targeted pollution
control and green initiatives, more refineries are investing in
ways to reduce their power consumption.
1
Over the last 20 years, design programs have been developed
to address the user industrys increased emphasis on expander
reliability and extended time between
shutdowns. These programs focused on
material upgrades, CFD-designed flow
paths, more efficient catalyst removal and
robust control systems. Modern FCCU
hot gas expanders are designed to run for
four to five years to coincide with FCC
unit maintenance intervals and have dem-
onstrated this capability in many applica-
tions.
Economic benefits of power
recovery. Energy costs are a major part of
the total costs of operating an oil refinery,
and electricity usage is a large part of these
energy costs (steam is an alternate energy
source), with energy requirements ranging
from 50 MW to 180 MW. FCC expanders
can help reduce these costs even if the tem-
perature drop that is experienced through
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Flue gas owrate, lbs/sec
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

r
a
t
i
o

FEX-81 FEX-97 FEX-107 FEX-125 FEX-142
22 TBD 40 TBD 55 TBD 75 TBD 110 TBD
Renery capacity: TBD = thousands
barrels per day
Frame selection chart. FIG. 7
Cross-sectional view of the FCC hot gas expander (major
components).
FIG. 6
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

I

83
the FCC expander will result in decreased steam production for
the refinery. Due to the variability of refinery steam requirements
and HRSGs, the reduction in steam temperature and production
is not easily quantified. Additionally, a loss in the quantity or
temperature of the steam does not easily translate into a monetary
figure. These values must be evaluated based on the specifics of
the application. However, a very rough approximation can be
made based on actual cases.
The expander reduces the flue gas temperature entering
the HRSG by approximately 300F. For a typical HRSG, the
exit flue-gas temperature will be the same with or without an
expander. Thus, the flue-gas temperature reduction through
the HRSG will be 300F. To maintain superheated steam pro-
duction, the amount of steam produced will be less when an
expander is used.
Table 1 shows the estimated savings in electricity per year
attributable to a power recovery unit installation. The notable
savings due to higher power recovery are evident in comparing
current process conditions (2007) to those of the 1960s.
Factors taken into consideration for Table 1 values include:
Steam generation losses (flow and temperature) may be
experienced and must be debited
Installed cost is approximately $30$55 million
Typical payback is less than three years.
Environmental benefits of power recovery. In a power
recovery system installation, there are environmental benefits
associated with the economic benefits to the refinery. The positive
impact on the environment comes from the fact that the need to
install sources of electricity to run machinery is reduced, with the
consequent elimination of the emission of carbon dioxide (CO
2
),
nitrogen oxides (NO
x
) and other pollutants associated with the
combustion of fossils fuels.
Often, the energy usage and efficiency of a refinery is measured
through the Energy Intensity Index (EII). The installation of a
power recovery system can reduce a refinerys EII by 7%10%,
thus helping them to reduce their environmental impact and to
comply with specific regulations.
A few numbers can give a better understanding of the huge
benefits of this solution. For example, if we consider the total
installed fleet of one leading manufacturers FCC hot gas expand-
ers, the estimate is that it produces around 500 mega watts (500
MW) of power, which corresponds to 4.3 billion kWh (4.3 TWh)
of electricity saved per year. Using the US Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (US-EPA) Emissions Calculator, 4.3 TWh of electric-
ity saved per year translates into approximately 3.1 million metric
tons of CO
2
emissions avoided per year.
5
In simpler terms, this
is equivalent to:
Annual greenhouse gas emissions from 565,000 passenger
vehicles
CO
2
emissions from 350 million gallons of gasoline
consumed
CO
2
emissions from the electricity used by 428,000 homes
in one year
Carbon sequestered annually by 702,000 acres of pine
or fir forests.
As can be seen, the installation of FCC expanders in refineries
has a noticeable environmental impact.
Outlook. As the petroleum refining industry continues to strive
for more ways to save energy, reduce costs and improve the envi-
ronment, more innovative ways will be pursued to deliver more
benefits to customers. FCC hot gas expander technology has
grown significantly from the 1960s to the present, and it now
offers state of the art machinery that can be incorporated into the
refinery process without impacting plant reliability or efficiency.
The huge economic and environmental benefit of this energy
recovery solution proves that FCC hot gas expanders are a sig-
nificant contribution in the drive for green applications in the
oil and gas industry. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
US Environmental Protection Agency Executive Summary, 2008 Sector
Strategies Performance Report, Executive summary, http://www.epa.gov/ispd/
pdf/2008/executive_summary.pdf
2
Bloch, H. and C. Soares, Turboexpanders and process applications, First Ed.,
Gulf Publishing Company, 2001, ISBN 0-88415-509-9.
3
Conroy, C.F and D. H. Linden, Successful Application of Stand-alone FCCU
Expander / Generator Sets, International Symposium on Turbomachinery,
combined-Cycle Technologies and Cogeneration IGTI-Vol.1. Greenhouse
Gas.
4
Carbonetto, B. and G. L. Hoch, Advances in Erosion Prediction of
Axial Flow Expanders, Proceedings of the 28th Turbo machinery
Symposium, Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas, pp. 17, 1999.
5
Equivalencies Calculator, 2009. US Environmental Protection Agency,
(http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html).
TABLE 1. Potential recovered power and savings
Year
Design conditions 1962 2007
Inlet temperatureBasis: the assumption 1,100 1,400
of a 25 degree drop from the regenerator, F
Inlet pressureBasis: the assumption of a 13 50
4 psi drop from the regenerator, psig
Discharge pressure, psig 1.5 13
Flow, lbm/hr 200,000 1,750,000
Delivered power, kW 6,340 52,944
Electricity savingsBasis: average electricity $3,332,304 $27,873,366
cost of 6 cents/kW-hr
Ben Carbonetto is hot gas expander product leader, GE Oil
& Gas. His career spans 15 years in the design and operation of
turbomachinery, starting in 1995 as an axial compressor / hot gas
expander design engineer. In 2001, he was promoted to Sr. (lead)
design engineer, a role which expanded to include responsibility
for orders, engineering and execution as expander product supervisor/manager. Mr.
Carbonetto has also served as engineering manager (2005) and North America ser-
vices engineering manager (2007). He holds a BS degree in mechanical engineering
and mechanics from Drexel University and is a member of ASME.
Paolo Pecchi joined GE Oil & Gas in 1996 as a fluid dynam-
ics engineer with the R&D team. In 1998, he joined the technical
leadership program (TLP) covering different technical assignments
in the gas turbine department, following LM2500+ HSPT product
introduction and field installation. Upon TLP graduation, he held
the role of project/system engineer in the new product Introduction organization, and
in 2004, he was appointed NPI-NTI programs management leader, being responsible
for the management of the companys technical development programs. In 2008,
he relocated to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, as manager of the engineering team. Mr.
Pecchi is now the global technical fleet support managerturbomachinery. Mr. Pec-
chi graduated with a degree in mechanical engineering in 1995 from the University
of Florence, Italy.
GE Oil & Gas
Heavy duty renery and petrochemical applications require
heavy duty solutions.
Our DDHF pumps are specically designed to handle high
pressure, elevated temperatures and low specic gravity
uids, delivering exceptional performance in extreme
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volute casing and a back to back impeller conguration,
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ENGINEERING CASE HISTORIES

I

85
A
new plant was constructed; it contained over 10,000 socket
welds. Socket welding (Figs. 1 and 2) is one of a number
of methods used for making piping connections; they are
plain-fillet welds arranged for greater ease of alignment and weld-
ing. Used for nominal pipe sizes (NPSs) 4-in. and smaller, they
are favored for new projects that make use of prefabricated piping.
However, there are some downside issues with socket welds.
Having only about the strength of a full butt weld in bending
and even less in fatigue, they are not considered high-strength
welds. Moreover, socket welds are subject to vibration cracking

in
the root and toe regions and are susceptible to crevice corrosion, if
used in the wrong services.
Assessment of the weld. X-ray examination indicated that
some socket welds lacked adequate weld penetration of the fillet
weld. Also, some of the pipes had bottomed out in the socket body,
which was due to poor workmanship when assembling the pieces
for welding. When welding these assemblies, there is an ASME
Code requirement for a gap. Such a gap, usually
1
16 in., ensures that
the weld is not stressed due to the pipe axially expanding. Without
a gap, there is the possibility of a weld crack developing in the root.
It would have been extremely cost prohibitive and, in some
cases, impossible to inspect, grind and reweld all the joints due
to the confined nature of the piping after installation. There was
simply no room for the needed access. The project team, therefore,
proceeded with a risk analysis approach. This meant that noncriti-
cal, nonhazardous joints that werent safety issues would be consid-
ered low risk and would be checked for leaks during normal pipe
inspection intervals after startup. Higher risk joints that could pull
apart were either rewelded or braced, depending on the assessed
risk. This reduced to a manageable number of joints subjected to
repair; after 10 years, there have been no major leaks.
With no gap during welding, strain will be induced in the
weld root. Weld-root behavior and what happens to stresses as
the weld cools would be complicated and was not considered. But
many of these types of no-gap welds were checked after welding,
and no cracks were present.
Problems in normal operations. Another potential
problem is no gap during normal operation. The problem then
becomes how much the weld is stressed due to a temperature
difference between the socket body and pipe. Any additional
stress would reduce the load capability of the weld. This would
be important to know for the screening procedure.
This was analyzed with a coupled thermal stress finite-element
analysis for a 400F product flowing through the pipe and with
no end gap. Weld stresses were less than 5,000 lb/in.
2
and should
not affect the life in non-vibratory services due to bending. Con-
cerns with no gap were not considered further in the risk analysis.
Best preventive measures. While this article is for edu-
cational purposes only, it does show the importance of using
various methods to solve problems in a cost-effective manner.
A high level of experience allowed the project team to quickly
examine the various joints on piping drawings and to make key
decisions. The resulting savings in time and expense were well
worth the effort. HP
Case 60: Socket-weld failures
A risk analysis can determine which critical welds to repair
T. SOFRONAS, Consulting Engineer, Houston, Texas
Dr. Anthony (Tony) Sofronas, P.E., was worldwide lead
mechanical engineer for ExxonMobil before his retirement. Informa-
tion on his books, seminars and consulting, as well as comments to
this article, are available at http://mechanicalengineeringhelp.com.
Fillet weld toe
Gap
Pipe
Body
Root
Socket-weld nomenclature. FIG. 1
Dye-leak trace of a 2-in. socket-weld connection. FIG. 2
86

I

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I

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HPIN CONTROL
clifftent@hotmail.com
PIERRE R. LATOUR, GUEST COLUMNIST
HPIN CONTROL
I followed my April 2010 call for renewal of process control
and IT practice with editorials on purpose in August, performance
in October and consequences in December. Now I turn to selec-
tion of controlled variables (CVs).
How do we select CVs? Well, just how do we go about select-
ing operating conditions to be controlled about setpoints by manip-
ulating valves? Why we do select particular flows, levels, pressures,
temperatures, compositions, efficiencies, capacities and yields for
measurement and stabilization about desired setpoints near limits?
How do we determine the production, inventory, product quality,
utility consumption and equipment limit setpoints? From the host
of candidate refinery operating conditions, what is the underlying
basis for selecting a relatively few for control to operate the HPI?
We know how to measure CVs. We know how the manipulated
valves affect them. We know about instruments, control algo-
rithms, models, optimizers and displays. Somehow, we determine
what is important, what we care about and what counts. Since we
know how much equipment costs to procure, install and maintain,
we proceed to engineer and use instruments, control systems,
computers and IT to operate about predetermined CV setpoints.
But why? What is wrong with this picture? What is missing?
Why is it so hard to rigorously quantify the financial value of
improved HPI operation? Why do we have so much trouble jus-
tifying maintenance? How do we figure out the merit of control
and information system components and solutions?
Pause a moment to think about how we know and quantify
values. We determine what is important, what we care about,
what counts. What we mean is that the average of a candidate
CV affects profit rate. Profit is sensitive, and errors can be costly.
There is great potential from quantifying the steady-state profit
rate increase as the mean is moved to a limit, determining the pre-
cise location value for that limit, and the financial consequences
for exceeding that limit. Establishing this tent-shaped tradeoff is
critical for selecting CVs at the outset and controlling them. If
the sensitivity is low and the profit tent shallow, the CV is not
important. If sensitivity is high and the profit tent steep, the CV
is important. We select CVs/key performance indicators (KPIs)
because they have interesting and significant trade offs.
Significance. Often, there is a severe cliff at the limit, encoun-
tered when a machine, safety, government or customer penalty
is incurred. CVs that encounter high cliffs are critical. Knowing
the location, slope and height of those cliffs is central to the busi-
ness of HPI operation. So, one should determine and maintain
the steady-state profit rate cliff function of CVs as a first order of
business for operating properly and selecting the appropriate CVs
for doing so. If you do not know CV/KPI cliff limits, you do not
know your operating business.
This function can be combined with the CV distribution
to determine the actual expected value profit hill to find the
best setpoint to optimize each risky tradeoff. This is the profit
meter for every CV/KPI. If there ever was an activity that needs
to pay close attention to identifying, capturing and sustaining
financial values by locating and re-optimizing risky tradeoffs,
it is the HPI.
Once the best practice of process control is driven as the stan-
dard method for operating HPI plants, the determination of the
value of control components becomes routine and we know the
value of our work. We know the information that we need to
make best decisions, and we can make them faithfully on the best
information available because we know what we are doing with
that information. Now we have a complete method for selecting
CVs and KPIs. We know how to pick them and why.
Distillation dual temperature control? Kern,
1
Fried-
man, Shinsky and I agree that tightly controlling top and bottom
temperatures or dual-ended compositions is not a good idea.
Beyond their technical arguments, my additional reasons stem
from HPI separation business economics.
For separations like distillation, absorption and extraction,
one key component is invariably more valuable than the other,
providing the incentive for their separation. There will be a maxi-
mum specification for the less valuable component in the valuable
stream and an optimum recovery vs. utilities for the valuable key
in the less valuable stream. One end invariably has an important
customer-quality specification, while the other has a smooth
recovery vs. utility financial tradeoff. The former hard target is
best controlled by material balance split; the latter soft target by
utility reoptimization when feed composition, feedrate, compo-
nent value or utility costs change. The economic incentive for
tight soft-target control for a nearly flat profit hilltop can be quite
small. This situation is true for olefin plant cold-side recovery,
aromatics recovery, refinery saturates and unsaturates gas plants,
crude-oil distillers and natural gas plants.
So, first, ask why control temperatures at both ends simulta-
neously? What is the financial merit? How should their setpoints
be determined to align the column operating conditions to its
economics? Avoid working on control systems that dont make
much money. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Kern, A., Weighing in on dual-temperature control, Hydrocarbon Processing,
Vol. 89, No. 11, November 2010, p. 15.
Process control practice renewalselect CVs
The author, president of CLIFFTENT Inc., is an independent consulting chemical
engineer specializing in identifying, capturing and sustaining measurable financial
value from HPI dynamic process control, IT and CIM solutions (CLIFFTENT) using
performance-based shared riskshared reward (SR2) technology licensing.
90

I

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the process more secure with our innovative valves and controls, which is why the
industry relies on us to keep their workers safe and their plants running smoothly.
Learn more about our plant performance solutions at CWFC.com
Engineering transformation.
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