EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction Aim of the Project Silent features of Project CHAPTER 2: MAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM Block Diagram Description 2.2 PIR Sensor 2.3 Illumination Control 2.4 Room Temperature Conditioner 2.5 IR Operated device control 2.6 Solar Tracking System CHAPTER 3: PIN DISCRIPTION AND ITS ARCHITECTURE 3.1 PIN DISCRIPTION AND ARCHITECTURE OF 89C51 .. 5 .. 6 . 10 . 13 .... 18 ..... 25 . 29 ......... 32 . 32 . 3 . 4 . 4

3.2 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER . 38 CHAPTER 4: POWER SUPPLY UNIT CHAPTER 5: SENSORS . 42 . 44

CHAPTER 6: PROGRAM FOR MICROCONTROLLER ATMEL 89C51

. 50

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

CHAPTER 7: FLOW CHART FOR MC 89C51

. 65 68

CHAPTER 8: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES, FUTURE DEVELOPMENT . CHAPTER 9: BIBLOGRAPHY CHAPTER 10: IC DETAILS & DATASHEETS

. 70 ..... 71

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

In this sophisticated world every activity is getting atomized with the help of embedded concepts. All the way so far we have seen that any controlling of parameters, utilizing natural resources for circuit operation, preventing the devices from electric disorders, optimizing etc, is carried out with analogue instruments. So we decided to develop an electronic aid which is helpful for the above purpose which is called as EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION. In automation and instrument building we often are confronted by the necessity to precisely control illumination of light, rotational speed of a fan, controlling the devices depending on the detection of human being presence in the room or not, device switching using remote. Their illumination can be controlled by switching ON the number of LEDS as per requirement; depending on the room temperature speed of the FAN or conditioning unit of AC can be controlled as a function of applied voltage. Here is a project for EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND

OPTIMIZATION.
It monitors the surrounding environment and electrical condition depending on those parameters the embedded system will control the operation of the devices. like, if the room temperature is increased more than the desired temperature the system will automatically controls the speed of the fan, in other condition it will check for the natural light intensity depending on that microcontroller will control how many set of LEDs should be switched ON, similarly one of the main feature of this project is PIR sensor, this sensor is used to detect presence of anybody in the room or not with respect to that the system will control the action of devices such that switching ON/OFF and this project works on the dc power supply, in presence of sunlight the circuit will work with power generated by the solar cells else with the main power supply.

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

This particular machine is a Embedded one, so that it is highly efficient and it is also packed with a highly interactive and user friendly components with a wide application. This Cost effective unit is surely a good example of technology being used for a very productive purpose. The unit being flexible to use also renders the best of features found in some of the commercially available units.

AIM OF THE PROJECT:

TO SAVE ENERGY, MAKE EFFICIENT UTILIZATION OF POWER.

SILENT FEATURES OF PROJECT:

1. All the components required are easily available. 2. It is accurate [Errors are nullified] & precise as it is Digital. 3. It is much Economical compare to other analogue systems. 4. Manual errors can be avoided to some extent. 5. Automatically controlled & Easy to use.

CHAPER: 2

MAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM

MC Com parat or

RELA Y

& RELA
Y

TRIA C

FA N

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

PI R

LDR

LED

TEMP SENSOR

Fig .1

DESCRIPTION
The above block diagram shows the complete overview of project. This project consists of following blocks . 1) Human detection using PIR sensor 2) Illumination control.
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

3) Room temperature conditioner. 4) Solar tracking system.

As listed above, these are the main features of our project EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION.

In the above block diagram we can observe that it consists of different stages for all the above stages explanation goes like this

2 PIR SENSOR
FA N

RELA Y& TRIA C

MC 6

89C51
PI R
RELA Y

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

LEDS

Fig. 5

A PIR (passive infrared) detector coupled with an electric light is now widely used for intruder protection. PIR are also available as stand-alone units which usually have a switched output for controlling external loads. To enable the PIR detector to work in daylight also, you have to cover the internal light/darkness sensor (usually an LDR). The PIR detector used in this circuit reacts to fast temperature variations caused by the movement of people or animals in an enclosed space. All mammals radiate a certain amount of heat, and it is this that causes local variations in temperature. The radiant heat energy occupies the electromagnetic spectrum between light and radio waves, i.e. 0.74.300m, which is usually called the infra-red region. The radiant energy is picked up by a Fresnel lens, at the focus of which is a double differential pyroelectric sensor. The detector is largely unaffected by other electrical radiation. Also, it does not react to movement outside the guarded space.

METHODOLOGY:
The space to be monitored is divided by the lens into a number of zones. The number of zones depends on the number of segments of which the lens is
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

composed. When somebody moves from one zone to other, there is a change in temperature which is collected by the lens as a variation in radiant energy. As the focus of the lens is a pyroelectric sensor which reacts to such a change by generating a small electric signal. That signal is processed and used to actuate/deactivate the appliances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY FOR PIR SENS

Fig. 6 2.3 ILLUMINATION CONTROL:

LEDS

LDR
RELA Y

COM PARA TOR

MC

POWER SUPPLY WHEN SUPPLY IS THERE

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

METHODOLOGY :
As we observe in our daily life knowingly or unknowingly we leave lights, fan and other appliances running which leads to a lot of power wastage. In order to overcome the above disadvantage we have developed this project where by in this illumination control is one part of it. Here in this stage depending on the natural light entering into the room or office with the help of LDR the intensity is measured and given to the COMPARATOR which will convert its equivalent digital signals at its output pin and those signals are fed to microcontroller 89C51, here the decision is made how many number of LEDs to be switched ON to maintain the room/office lights in required manner.

Depending on the natural light intensity number of LED should be switched ON and OFF. This operation should be performed using COMPARATOR and MC. When ever the light intensity in a room varies depending on that a digital signal has to be generated using COMPARATOR which should be given to the microcontroller. In microcontroller a decision has to be made that how many LED should turn ON or OFF. In above fig 2 a LED array is shown in 4 numbers, because a single LED array consists of 9 LEDs therefore totally 3 1.

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

LED ARRAY 1 LED ARRAY 4

LED ARRAY 2

LED ARRAY 3

Depending on the natural light intensity these array should be controlled. If intensity of natural light is minimum then only LED array 1 should glow (9 LEDs), if there is no natural light then complete 4 LED array should glow. And if there is a continuous variation in natural light intensity then depending up on variation in light intensity either LED arrays are selected. It means at a time it may be single or double or treble or all LED arrays may be switched ON and OFF.

BUFFER AND DRIVER INTRODUCTION:

HEX BUFFER / CONVERTER [NON-INVERTER] IC 4050: Buffers does not affect

the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 1 output where as logic 0 input results into logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide extra current drive at the output, but can also be used to regularize the logic present at an interface. And Inverters are used to complement the logical state (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 0 output and vice versa). Also Inverters are used to provide extra current drive and, like buffers, are used in interfacing applications. This 16-pin DIL packaged IC 4050 acts as Buffer as-well-as a Converter. The input signals may be of 2.5 to 5V digital TTL compatible or DC analogue the IC gives 5V constant signal output. The IC acts as buffer and provides isolation to the main circuit from varying input signals. The working Voltage of IC is 4 to 16 Volts and propagation delay is 30 nanoseconds. It consumes 0.01 mill Watt power with noise immunity of 3.7 V and toggle speed of 3 Megahertz.

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

ULN 2003: Since the digital outputs of the some circuits cannot sink much current, they are not capable of driving relays directly. So, high-voltage high-current Darlington arrays are designed for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and multiple peripheral power loads. The series ULN2000A/L ICs. Drive seven relays with continuous load current ratings to 600mA for each input. At an appropriate duty cycle depending on ambient temperature and number of drivers turned ON simultaneously, typical power loads totaling over 260W [400mA x 7, 95V] can be controlled. Typical loads include relays, solenoids, stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent displays, and heaters. These Darlington arrays are furnished in 16-pin dual in-line plastic packages (suffix A) and 16-lead surface-mountable SOICs (suffix L). All devices are pinned with outputs opposite inputs to facilitate ease of circuit board layout. The input of ULN 2003 is TTL-compatible open-collector outputs. As each of these outputs can sink a maximum collector current of 500 mA, miniature PCB relays can be easily driven. No additional freewheeling clamp diode is required to be connected across the relay since each of the outputs has inbuilt free-wheeling diodes. The Series ULN20x3A/L features series input resistors for operation directly from 6 to 15V CMOS or PMOS logic outputs. 1N4148 signal diode: Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

2.4 ROOM TEMPERATURE CONDITIONER

COMP ARAT OR TEMP SENSOR MC

RELA Y

&
TRIA C

FA N

Fig. 9

+ V C 5 C

V cc

L 35 M
Ot u R 100 1 Vou t (T A C O D )

Gd n

C 1 1 F

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 10

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

FAN DRIVER STAGE

The Counter & Switching section sends the signals to this Fan Motor Driver section to run the AC Motor with required speed. This section has a Triac and Diac combination, which supplies regulated Alternating Current to the Regulator circuitry of a fan.

INTRODUCTION:
POWER CONTROL: Many applications of electronics involve the control of appreciable levels of voltage and/or current. Typical examples in the domestic world are the motor speed controllers found in washing machines and the lamp dimmers which allow us to control the levels of illumination in our homes.

THYRISTORS: Thyristors provide an alternative means of switching a high-voltage/high current load from a much smaller triggering current source. Thyristors (or silicon controlled rectifiers as they are sometimes called) are three terminal devices, which can switch very rapidly from a conducting to a non-conducting state. In the OFF state, the Thyristors exhibits negligible leakage current, whilst in the 'ON state the device exhibits very low resistance. This results in very little power loss within the Thyristors even when appreciable power levels are being controlled. Once switched into the conducting state, the Thyristors will remain conducting (i.e. it is latched in the ON state) until the forward current is removed from the device. It is important to note that, in d.c applications, the necessities the interruption (or disconnection) of the supply before the device can be reset into its non-conducting state. However, where a Thyristors is used with an alternating supply, the
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

device will automatically become reset whenever the mains supply reverses. The device can then be triggered on the next half-cycle having correct polarity to permit conduction. Like their conventional silicon diode counterparts, Thyristors have anode and cathode connections. Control is applied by means of a third gate terminal and the device is triggered into the conducting ( ON state) by applying a current pulse of sufficient magnitude (and rise time) to this terminal.

TRIGGERING: While designing circuit using Thyristors as power control elements, trigger pulses should have the fastest possible rise times. Thyristors will turn ON faster (and power dissipation within the device will be minimized) as gate current is increased. Signals with slow rise times or poorly defined edges are generally unsatisfactory for triggering purposes. In a.c. applications, the Thyristor triggering circuit should be designed so that it will provide effective triggering over a sufficiently wide angle of the applied a.c. supply voltage. Failure to observe this rule will generally result in an inadequate range of control.

TRIACS: Triacs are a refinement of the Thyristor which, when triggered, conduct on both positive and negative half cycles of the applied voltage. Triacs have three terminals: main terminal one (MT1), main terminal two (MT2) and gate (G). Triacs can be triggered by both positive and negative voltages applied between G and MT1with positive and negative voltages present at MT2 respectively.

By virtue of the symmetry in triggering, Triacs thus provide a means of controlling a.c. voltages over both positive and negative half-cycles. Thyristors, on the other hand, can only provide control on one, or other, of the half-cycles.

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

DIACS: In order to simplify the design of triggering circuits, a Triac is often used in conjunction with a Diac. This device is somewhat similar to a Zener diode having bi-directional properties. A typical Diac conducts heavily when the applied voltage exceeds approximately + 32V. Once in the conducting state, the resistance of the Diac falls to a very low value and thus a large value of current will flow (sufficient to trigger the Triac to which it is connected).

Circuit Description:
Triacs make excellent variable a.c. power control devices. The present circuit is capable of handling a resistive load of up to 1kW. At higher power levels (i.e. 150W plus) the Triac will require a heat sink. The present circuit shows a simple phase-triggered AC motor controller. Input from Counter & Relay section and C1 are wired together as a combined variable potential divider and variable phase shift network. The Diac is used as a simple trigger device that fires when the C1 voltage rises to roughly 35 V [in either polarity] and then partially discharges C1 into the Triac gate, thus triggering the Triac on. The Diac turns off automatically when the C1 voltage falls below 30 V or so.

Fan Regulator R Input from Counter & Switching section R 3 SECTION

R1 230 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF FAN DRIVER V AC

T1 R 2

17

P1 C1 C2

D 1 C3

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 12
Parts List: SEMICONDUCTORS D1 T1 R1 R2 R3 P1 CAPACITORS C1 & C2 C3

ER900 DIAC BT 136 TRIAC 68 K Ohm Watt 270 Ohm Watt 10 K Ohm Watt 100 K Ohm Preset

1 1 1 1 1 1

300 nF / 400V 33nF/ 400 V

2 1

When Input from Counter & Switching section is very low negligible potential divider action or phase shifting takes place, and the C1 voltage closely follows that of the a.c. power line until the trigger voltage of the Diac is reached, at which point the Triac fires and turns ON the motor with predefined
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

speed and removes all drive from the Input from Counter & Relay section-C1 network. The Triac thus fires shortly after the start of each half-cycle under this condition, and almost full power is applied to the load. When Input from Counter & Switching section is very high, on the other hand, the potential divider action is such that the peak voltage on C1 only just reaches the 35 V needed to trigger the Diac, and the phase shift of C1 is close to 90. Since the peak of a half-wave occurs 90 after the start of the halfcycle, the net effect of the low voltage and near-90 phase shift on C1 is to delay the firing of the Triac by about 170. Under this condition, therefore, the Triac does not fire until 10 before the end of each half-cycle, and negligible power is applied to the load. Thus, the Input from Counter & Relay sectionC1 and Diac network enables the firing of the Triac to be delayed between roughly 10 and 170 in each half-cycle, and efficient variable power control is available. Since the Triac switches from OFF to ON very sharply, and switches fairly high currents, the switching waveform is very rich in harmonics. So to keep the higher harmonics out of the supply line the circuit must be incorporated with a filter. And also ensure that when Input from Counter & Switching section is set near its minimum value, the charge currents flowing to C1 via Input from Counter & Relay section are not so large that they damage R4. The preset P1 is the charge-current limiting resistor and R2-C3 form the harmonic filter.

The resistor Input from Counter & Relay section has a considerable hysteresis or backlash, i.e., load will not start to go ON again until heated [whose internal resistance is decreased] resistor [any of VR1 to VR4 variable resistors of Counter & Switching Stage] restores its original [designed] value. So, to over this backlash effect, the charge of C1 is fed to slave capacitor C2 via the relatively high resistance of P1. C1 is slightly higher voltage than C2, and C2 fires the Diac once its voltage reaches 35V. Once
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

the Diac has fired it reduces the C3 potential briefly to 30 V, but C3 then partially recharges via C1 and P1. Little net change takes place in the C3 voltage as a result of the Diac firing, and the circuit thus gives very little backlash. This little backlash can be further reduced to almost zero by wiring Resistor R3 in series with the Diac to limit the C3 discharge voltage.

2.6 SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

SOLAR CELL

MC SOLAR TRACKING

20
RELA Y

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

LDR

LEDS

COM PARA TOR

CURRENT FLOWING FROM BATTERY WHEN POWER FAILURE

Fig. 18
Since human evolution, mankind has exploited naturally available resources such as Wind, Water & Solar energy. The availability of resources restricts the use of Wind and Water energies as alternative power sources. But Sun is available There are some hopes that the sun will become a main source of energy in the 21 s t century. By then, sources of oil will be almost exhausted and will only play a minor part in the supplying of energy. The present interest in solar energy is therefore not surprising. Some work has already been done with solar cells and solar
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

panels. However, these only operate with optimum performance when positioned exactly at right angles to the sun. Unfortunately, this situation is not usual in our latitudes unless the solar panels are rotated with respect to the sun. The efficiency of a solar panel system can be improved if the panels track the sun, and remain as long as possible at the most favorable angle of incidence. The project consists of SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM is an attempt to achieve maximum utilization of the solar energy. This is achieved by tracking the movement of the Sun, and keeps charging solar cells below the Suns availability zone for maximum time. By this one can get the maximum utilization of the Sun presence. Most of the energy that we get from the greatest reservoir of energy, the Sun, remains unused. The only way to store the energy from the sun is to convert it into electrical form and then using this electrical signal to charge batteries and thus store
LE the energy in chemical form. For this we make use of D solarcc panels consisting of solar

+V

R COMMON D 1 9 1 cells. The solar cell gives an electrical output which is proportional to the intensity R 1 T R 1 T 0 In case of power cut a illumination stage will get the supply from the battery 5 D LE R R D 2 5 1 2 which is charged with the help of solar cells. As a future development we can use I/P FROM 1 R 89C51 T invertors to drive the other appliances. 2 heavy batteries with R T 2 Coun 1 6 ter D 2R R LE MOTOR 3 D 6 1 3 3 R 3 T R T 3 1 7 4 LE D R R D 4 7 4 1 5 R T 22 4 R 4 R 1 8 T 6 8
STEPPER

of light falling over it.

1

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 18 CHAPTER: 3

PIN DISCRIPTION AND ITS ARCHITECTURE

3.1 PIN DISCRIPTION AND ARCHITECTURE OF 8051
Introducing the Intels Microcontroller 89C51 FEATURES
8K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel

DESCRIPTION
The AT89C52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer and with erasable 8K bytes only of Flash

programmable

read

memory

(PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is Fig.19 compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 and 80C52 instruction set and pin out.

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional

nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a

Fig. 20
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.
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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset. Pin Description VCC Supply voltage. GND Ground. DC Characteristics Operating Temperature.................................. -55C to +125C Storage Temperature ..................................... -65C to +150C Voltage on Any Pin with Respect to Ground .....................................-1.0V to +7.0V Maximum Operating Voltage............................................ 6.6V DC Output Current...................................................... 15.0 mA

26

P0.7 32 P0.6 33

P0.5 30 pF 19 34 EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION P0.4 P1.7 ad7

XTAL1 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [mother board] 35 40 29 8 PSEN 12 MHz +VCC 18 30 17 ALE XTAL2 P3.7 31 EA 16 10 MFD/63V 30 pF 9 P3.6 15 RST P3.5 rd wr 14 P3.4 13 P3.3 t0 int1 int0 12 P3.2 11 P3.1 P2.0 10 P3.0 20 21 1 vss vcc P0.3 P1.6 36 7 P0.2 P1.5 37 6 P2.7 P0.1 P1.4 28 38 5 P2.6 P0.0 P1.3 27 39 4 P2.5 P1.2 26 3 P2.4 P1.1 25 2 P2.3 P1.0 24 11 P2.2 23 P2.1 22

89c51

ad6 ad5 ad4 ad3 ad2

+Vcc

X1 230 AC

D1 & D2

IC1

+VCC

R1 D3

C1 C2

C3

port 0
ad1 ad0

8 x 2.2 K

20K RESET

89c5 1

a15

port 1 a14
a13 a12 a11 a10

SWITCH t1

port 3
txd rxd

port 2
a9 a8

Fig. 21

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EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The mother board of 89C51 has following sections: Power Supply, 89C51 IC, Oscillator, Reset Switch & I/O ports. Let us see these sections in detail. POWER SUPPLY: This section provides the clean and harmonic free power to IC to function properly. The output of the full wave rectifier section, which is built using two rectifier diodes, is given to filter capacitor. The electrolytic capacitor C1 filters the pulsating dc into pure dc and given to Vin pin-1 of regulator IC 7805.This three terminal IC regulates the rectified pulsating dc to constant +5 volts. C2 & C3 provides ground path to harmonic signals present in the inputted voltage. The Vout pin-3 gives constant, regulated and spikes free +5 volts to the mother board. The allocation of the pins of the 89C51 follows a U-shape distribution. The top left hand corner is Pin 1 and down to bottom left hand corner is Pin 20. And the bottom right hand corner is Pin 21 and up to the top right hand corner is Pin 40. The Supply Voltage pin Vcc is 40 and ground pin Vss is 20. OSCILLATOR: If the CPU is the brain of the system then the oscillator, or clock, is the heartbeat. It provides the critical timing functions for the rest of the chip. The greatest timing accuracy is achieved with a crystal or ceramic resonator. For crystals of 2.0 to 12.0 MHz, the recommended capacitor values should be in the range of 15 to 33pf2. Across the oscillator input pins 18 & 19 a crystal x1 of 4.7 MHz to 20 MHz value can be connected. The two ceramic disc type capacitors of value 30pF are connected across crystal and ground stabilizes the oscillation frequency generated by crystal. I/O PORTS: There are a total of 32 i/o pins available on this chip. The amazing part about these ports is that they can be programmed to be either input or output ports, even "on the fly" during operation!

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Each pin can source 20 mA (max) so it can directly drive an LED. They can also sink a maximum of 25 Ma current. Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose I/O pin. The alternate function of each pin is not discussed here, as port accessing circuit takes care of that.This 89C51 IC has four I/O ports and is discussed in detail: P0.0 TO P0.7 PORT0 is an 8-bit [pins 32 to 39] open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs and configured to be multiplexed low order address/data bus then has internal pull ups. External pull ups are required during program verification. P1.0 TO P1.7 PORT1 is an 8-bit wide [pins 1 to 8], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input and the timer/counter 2 trigger input respectively. P2.0 TO P2.7 PORT2 is an 8-bit wide [pins 21 to 28], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The PORT2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. P3.0 TO P3.7 PORT3 is an 8-bit wide [pins 10 to 17], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The Port3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. PSEN

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Program Store Enable [Pin 29] is the read strobe to external program memory. ALE Address Latch Enable [Pin 30] is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. EA External Access Enable [Pin 31] must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H upto FFFFH. RST Reset input [Pin 9] must be made high for two machine cycles to resets the devices oscillator. The potential difference is created using 10MFD/63V electrolytic capacitor and 20KOhm resistor with a reset switch

3.2 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 22

Micro-Controller IC PIC 16F505: This IC is pre-programmed to identify the signals it

receives at pin-4. The working voltage +Vcc is connected to pin-1 and pin-14 is made ground. The program detects 256 diff signals and activates respective line of 8-channel amplifier stage. Whenever it receives any signal at pin-4 [i.e. at input pin] it first checks whether it is a valid command signal or not. If it found the received signal is a valid one, then decodes that RC5 coded signal back to original command signal. Then depends upon the command it activates the corresponding line by making the respective pin HIGH. There are eight outputs coming out of this PIC IC, viz., and pins 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 & 14.

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

The PIC16C505 from Microchip Technology is a low-cost, high-performance, 8-bit, fully static, EPROM/ ROM-based CMOS microcontroller. It employs a RISC architecture with only 33 single word/single cycle instructions. All instructions are single cycle (200 s) except for program branches, which take two cycles. The PIC 16F505 delivers performance an order of magnitude higher than its competitors in the same price category. The 12-bit wide instructions are highly symmetrical resulting in a typical 2:1 code compression over other 8-bit microcontrollers in its class. The easy to use and easy to remember instruction set reduces development time significantly. The PIC16F505 product is equipped with special features that reduce system cost and power requirements. The Power-On Reset (POR) and Device Reset Timer (DRT) eliminate the need for external reset circuitry. There are five oscillator configurations to choose from, including INTRC internal oscillator mode and the power-saving LP (Low Power) oscillator mode. Power saving SLEEP mode, Watchdog Timer and code protection features improves system cost, power and reliability. The PIC16F505 is available in the cost-effective One-Time-Programmable (OTP) version, which is suitable for production in any volume. The customer can take full advantage of Microchips price leadership in OTP microcontrollers, while benefiting from the OTPs flexibility. The PIC16C505 product is supported by a full-featured macro assembler, a software simulator, an in-circuit emulator, a C compiler, a low-cost development programmer and a full featured programmer. All the tools are supported on I B M P C and compatible machines.

3.2.1 Applications

EMBEDDED DESIGN FOR POWER MONITORING AND OPTIMIZATION

The PIC16F505 fits in applications ranging from personal care appliances and security systems to low-power remote transmitters/receivers. The EPROM technology makes customizing application programs (transmitter codes, appliance settings, receiver frequencies, etc.) extremely fast and convenient. The small footprint packages, for through hole or surface mounting, make this microcontroller perfect for applications with space limitations. Low-cost, low-power, highperformance, ease of use and I/O flexibility make the PIC16F505 very versatile even in areas where no microcontroller use has been considered before (e.g., timer functions, replacement of glue logic and PLDs in larger systems, and coprocessor applications). The PIC16C505 device has Power-on Reset, selectable Watchdog Timer, selectable code protect, high I/O current capability and precision internal oscillator. The PIC16C505 device uses serial programming with data pin RB0 and clock pin

3.2.2 PIN DIAGRAM WITH COMPARISION OF 16F505 vs 12F50X

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Fig.23 Here are some differences between the 12F50X and the 16F505: 12F508 512 words (12 bit), 25 bytes SRAM, 5 I/O ports + 1 Input pin.

one 8-bits timer, Max speed: 4Mhz and 33 instructions. 12F509 1024 words (12 bit), 41 bytes SRAM, 5 I/O ports + 1 Input pin. one 8-bits timer, Max speed: 4Mhz and 33 instructions. 16F505 1024 words (12 bit), 72 bytes SRAM, 11 I/O ports + 1 Input pin. one 8-bits timer, Max speed: 20Mhz and 33 instructions. The only difference on this PIC is: more speed, more ports and more SRAM. Basically it can replace a 12F508 or 12F509 if the project is already made. A good idea to take advantage of this, is to replace a 12F509 with a 16F505 and use a 20Mhz Xtal. In that way, you can break the 4Mhz barrier of the 12F50X.

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An important feature of the 16F505 is the register file Map. It is fully compatible with the 12F509. With four banks, the 16F505 can address more memory. Microchip also shows a sample how to clear ram using indirect addressing. As all microchip PICs, the INF register is not a physical register. Addressing INDF actually addresses the register whose address is contained in the FSR register. Remember: FSR is a pointer.

CHAPTER 4

POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The circuit needs two different voltages, +5V & +12V, to work. These dual voltages are supplied by this specially designed power supply.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF +5V & +12V FULL WAVE REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

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Fig.24
IC1 D 1 1 IC1 7812 780 5 9V 7805 +12V

+5V

230AC C1 D 2 1

C2

C 3

C4

X 1 POWER SUPPLY Parts List:

SEMICONDUCTORS IC1 IC2 D1& D2 CAPACITORS C1 C2 to C4 MISCELLANEOUS X1 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION: 7812 Regulator IC 7805 Regulator IC 1N4007 Rectifier Diodes 1 1 2

1000 f/25V Electrolytic 0.1F Ceramic Disc type

1 3

230V AC Pri,12-0-12 1Amp Sec Transformer

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A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power supply. It is also referred as fullwave regulated power supply as it uses four diodes in bridge fashion with the transformer. This laboratory power supply offers excellent line and load regulation and output voltages of +5V & +12 V at output currents up to one amp. 1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-0-12V, 1Ampers across secondary winding. This transformer has a capability to deliver a current of 1Ampere, which is more than enough to drive any electronic circuit or varying load. The 12VAC appearing across the secondary is the RMS value of the waveform and the peak value would be 12 x 1.414 = 16.8 volts. This value limits our choice of rectifier diode as 1N4007, which is having PIV rating more than 16Volts. 2. Rectifier Stage: The two diodes D1 & D2 are connected across the secondary winding of the transformer as a full-wave rectifier. During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. During the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode D1 does not. Note that current across the centre tap terminal is in the same direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, pulsating D.C. is obtained at point C with respect to Ground. 3. Filter Stage: Here Capacitor C1 is used for filtering purpose and connected across the rectifier output. It filters the a.c. components present in the rectified d.c. and gives steady d.c. voltage. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load. When capacitor is charged to the peak value of the rectifier voltage, rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As

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the next voltage peak immediately recharges the capacitor, the discharge period is of very small duration. Due to this continuous charge-discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is observed in the filtered output. Moreover, output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output voltage. This phenomenon is also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor offers a low reactance path to the a.c. components of current and open circuit to D.C. component. During positive half cycle the capacitor stores energy in the form of electrostatic field. During negative half cycle, the filter capacitor releases stored energy to the load. The result of the addition of a capacitor is a smoothing of the FWR output. The output is now a pulsating dc, with a peak to peak variation called ripple. The magnitude of the ripple depends on the input voltage magnitude and frequency, the filter capacitance, and the load resistance. To describe the source of the voltage ripple, consider the performance of the filtered full wave rectifier above. The input to the rectifier is a sine wave of frequency f. Let Vi be the full wave rectified signal input to the filter stage of the rectifier and Vo be the output. Vi can be approximated as the absolute value of the rectifier input, with frequency 2f.

Fig. 25: Output (Vi) and input (Vo) of a filtered full wave rectifier

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In the time period from T0 to T1, the diode D1 (or D3, depending on the phase of the signal) is forward biased since Vi > VC1 (approximate the forward biased diode as a short circuit). The capacitor C1 charges and the voltage across the load R increases. From T1 to T2, the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased (open circuit) because Vcap > Vi, and the capacitor discharges through the load R with a time constant of RC seconds.

4. Voltage Regulation Stage: Across the point D and Ground there is rectified and filtered d.c. In the present circuit KIA 7812 three terminal voltage regulator IC is used to get +12V and KIA 7805 voltage regulator IC is used to get +5V regulated D.C. output. In the three terminals, pin 1 is input i.e., rectified & filtered D.C. is connected to this pin. Pin 2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin 3 gives the stabilized D.C. output to the load. The circuit shows two more decoupling capacitors C2 & C3, which provides ground path to the high frequency noise signals. Across the point E and F with respect to ground +5V & +12V stabilized or regulated d.c output is measured, which can be connected to the required circuit. Note: While connecting the diodes and electrolytic capacitors the polarities must be taken into consideration. The transformers primary winding deals with 230V mains, care should be taken with it.

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CHAPTER 5.

SENSORS
5.1 LX16C PASSIVE INFRARED SENSOR (PIR):
The product is an energy saving device automatic switch, it adopt integrated circuit and precise detecting components. It can be ON when one comes in the detection field and will off automatically after one leaves the detection field.. It can identify day and night automatically. Its performance is very stable. Can identify day and night automatically. Ambient-light can be adjusted. so it will work at night and stops in the day time. The consumer can adjust it freely. Detection distance can be adjusted according to the local place. Time delay can be adjusted vary to the place. The light- time can be added automatically.

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When one moves in the direction of the field when the lamp is lighting: it can compute time once more and delay the light time automatically after the sensor detects signal once again.

Installation diversify: we can fit connection-line box, connection-mouth,1/2spiraling connection hand.SPECIFICATIONS : Detection distance(<24 c) Detection range Power source Rated load Working temperature Working humidity Time delay Ambient- light Lux adjust Installation height OPERATION : Sensitivity: turn the knob clock wise to raise its sensitivity and turn it anti clock wise to reduce its sensitivity. Turn the knob to clock wise to last operating time and turn it anti clock wise to shorten it. : : : : : : 2-11m(adjustable) 180 180-240v/AC, 50-60 Hz : 1200w (220v/ACMax)

-20 - +40c < 93% RH : : 5 sec 7 min, 2 min < 10-2000

1.8m-2.5m

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Light control: turn the knob then this product can oprate in different ambient-light.(see the Fig.

23 given below)

Fig. 26

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5.2 LM35 PRECISION CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURE SENSORS GENERAL

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DESCRIPTION

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,

whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Cels ius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 14 C at room temperature and 34 C over a full -55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1 C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55 to +150C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a -40 to +110C range (-10 with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available pack-aged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also avail-able in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package. FEATURES Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor 0.5C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25C) Rated for full -55 to +150C range

Suitable for remote applications

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Low cost due to wafer-level trimming Operates from 4 to 30 volts Less than 60 A current drain
Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air Nonlinearity only 14 C typical

Low impedance output, 0.1 for 1 mA load

5.3 IR RECEIVER MODULE FOR REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The TSOP1 1.. - series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems. PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as IR filter. The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. The main benefit is the operation with short burst transmission codes and high data rates.

FEATURES
Photo detector and preamplifier in one package Internal filter for PCM frequency Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance TTL and CMOS compatibility

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Output active low Low power consumption High immunity against ambient light SPECIAL FEATURES Enhanced data rate of 4000 bit/s
Operation with short bursts possible (~ 6 cycles/ burst)

Part TSOP1130 TSOP1133 TSOP1136 TSOP1 137 TSOP1138 TSOP1 140 30 kHz 33 kHz 36 kHz 36.7 kHz 38 kHz 40 kHz

Carrier Frequency

CHAPTER 6.

PROGRAM FOR MICROCONTROLLER ATMEL 89C51

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#include<stdio.h> #include<at89x51.h> sfr port0 = 0x80; sfr port1 = 0x90; sfr port2 = 0xa0; sfr port3 = 0xb0; sbit lrelay1 = port1 ^ 0; sbit lrelay2 = port1 ^ 1; sbit lrelay3 = port1 ^ 2; sbit lrelay4 = port1 ^ 3; sbit trelay1 = port1 ^ 4; sbit trelay2 = port1 ^ 5; sbit trelay3 = port1 ^ 6; sbit input = port1 ^ 7; unsigned char dig, digit; unsigned char cnt = 0, cnt1 = 0; unsigned int counter1 = 0, counter = 0; void delay() // DELAY FUNCTION { unsigned int i; for (i = 0;i < 5000 ; i++ ); } void ldelay() // DELAY FUNCTION //HEADER FILE FOR ATMEL 89C51

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{ unsigned long int i; for (i = 0;i < 15000 ; i++ ); } void main() { delay (); delay (); port1=0x00; port0=0x00; //input=1; while (1) { ldelay (); cnt = port3; cnt1 = port2; if (input==1) { if ((cnt > 1) && (cnt < 16)) {lrelay1 = 1; lrelay2 = 0; lrelay3 = 0; lrelay4 = 0;} if ((cnt > 16) && (cnt < 32)) {lrelay1 = 1; lrelay2 = 1; lrelay3 = 0; lrelay4 = 0;} if ((cnt > 32) && (cnt < 64)) {lrelay1 = 1; lrelay2 = 1; lrelay3 = 1; lrelay4 = 0;} if ((cnt > 64) && (cnt < 255)) {lrelay1 = 1; lrelay2 = 1; lrelay3 = 1; lrelay4 = 1;} if ((cnt1 > 0) && (cnt1 < 10)) {trelay1 = 1; trelay2 = 0; trelay3 = 0;} if ((cnt1 > 10) && (cnt1 < 25)) {trelay1 = 0; trelay2 = 1; trelay3 = 0; } //ENTERS INFINITE LOOP

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if ((cnt1 > 25) && (cnt1 < 35)) {trelay1 = 0; trelay2 = 0; trelay3 = 1;} } else port1=0x00; counter = counter+1; if (counter==1 && counter1 < 6) {port0 = 0x01; } if (counter==2 && counter1 < 6) {port0 = 0x02; } if (counter==3 && counter1 < 6) {port0 = 0x04; } if (counter==4 && counter1 < 6) {port0 = 0x08; } if (counter==5) {counter=0; counter1=counter1+1;} if (counter==1 && counter1 > 6) {port0 = 0x08; } if (counter==2 && counter1 > 6) {port0 = 0x04; } if (counter==3 && counter1 > 6) {port0 = 0x02; } if (counter==4 && counter1 > 6) {port0 = 0x01; } if (counter==5) {counter=0; counter1=counter1+1;} if (counter1==12) {counter=0; counter1=0;} }}

CHAPTER. 8

FLOW CHART FOR MC 89C51

START

GENERATE THE OUTPUT FOR SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

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IF PORT 1.8 = 1

NO

YES
ACCEPT THE INPUTS FROM PORT2 AND PORT3 DEPENDING ON THE VALUES OF LDR AND TEMP SENSOR

GENERATE THE OUTPUT AT PORT1 TO DRIVE NO. OF LEDS & SPPED OF FAN

IF SYSTEM IS SWITCHED OFF

NO YES

STOP

FLOW CHART FOR PIC MC 16F505

START

IF PORT 1.8 OF MC= 1

NO

YES
ACCEPT INPUTS FROM IR GENERATE THE OUTPUT AT PORT1 SENSOR MODULE TO PIN NO.4 TO DRIVE NO. OF DEVICES IF SYSTEM IS OF PIC MC CONNECTED TO IT
SWITCHED OFF

STOP

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NO

YES YES

CHAPTER .9

ADVANTAGES
1. Walking up to the regulators board to change the fan speed is avoided. 2. Fan regulators are eliminated. 3. Unnecessary wastage of electricity can be controlled to a greater extend. 4. Maximum power can be saved. 5. Electrical safety is designed to prevent device damage & electrical shocks. 6. Selectable Sensitivity, Sensitivity can be adjusted to match installation requirements. 7. Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V in COMPARATOR. 8. Photo detector and preamplifier in one package.

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DISADVANTAGES
In this project usage of relays leads to consume more power.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Instead of using relays if we replace it by IC 4066 (QUAD BILATERAL SWITCH) then there will be drastically power consumption can be reduced to an greater extent.

CHAPTER .10

BIBLOGRAPHY

BOOKS REFERED:
For Hardware and Programming.

The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems By. Muhammad Ali Mazidi Janice Gillespie Mazidi Hardware detail Power Electronics By. J. S. Chitode Circuit Designing IC Design Projects By. Stephen Kamichik

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WEB SITES:
http://www.atmel.com http://www.vsnl.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy europe.support@nsc.com

www.google.com www.efy.com http://www.iccatalog.com

IC DETAILS & DATASHEETS

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTOR: 20
2 19 3 CS 18 RD WR 4 17 5 CLK IN COMPARATOR 0804 16 6 15 CLK R D0 D1 VCC 1

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INTR VIN(+) VIN(-) A GND VREF/2 D GND

D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

Fig.27 COMPARATOR convertors are among the most highly used devices for data acquisitition digital computer use binary values , but in the physical world everything is analog temperature, pressure, humidity and velocity are free examples of physical quantities. A physical quantity is converted in to electrical signals using a device called transducer (sensor). Although there are sensors for temperature, light, velocity, pressure,they produce an output that is voltage or current. Therefore we need COMPARATOR which translate analog signal to digital numbers that microcontroller can read them.

PIN DESCRIPTION FOR COMPARATOR0804 IC:

COMPARATOR Works with +5v and has a resolution of 8 bits. In addition to resolution, conversion time is another major factor in judging an COMPARATOR. Conversion time is defined as the time it takes the COMPARATOR to convert analg input to digital number. The conversion varies depending on the clocking signal applied to the CLK R and CLK IN pins bit it cannot be faster than 110s. CS: chip select is an active low input used to activate the COMPARATOR0804 chip. To access the COMPARATOR 0804 this pin must be LOW.

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RD( READ): This is input signal active LOW. It is used to get the converted data using COMPARATOR chip. When CS=0 & if a HIGH to LOW pulse is applied to the RD pin 8-bit digital output shows up at the D0-D7 (Data pin) WR(Write): this is an active LOW input used ti inform the COMPARATOR to start the conversion process. If CS=0 & WR makes transaction, the COMPARATOR start converting input analog values of Vin to digital numbers. When data conversion is complete INTR pin is forced LOW by COMPARATOR. CLK IN & CLK R: CLK IN is an input pin connected to external clock source when external clock source is used for timing. To use the internal clock generator of COMPARATOR CLK IN & CLK R pins are connected to the capacitor and resistors. As shown in fig above. The clock frequency is determined by equation F = 1/1.1RC Typically R = 10k, C=150F Putting in above equation we get 6.6 kHz. INTR (Interrupt): This is an output pin and active LOW. It is normally HIGH pin when the conversion is finished; it goes to LOW to signal the cpu that converted data is ready to be picked up. After INTR pin goes LOW we make CS =0 and sends a HIGH to LOW pulse to the RD pin to get data out of COMPARATOR chip. Vin+ & Vin-: These are the different analog inputs where Vin = Vin (+) vin(-), where Vin(-) is connected to GND and Vin(+) is used as analog input to be converted to digital. Vcc: This is the +5v power supply. This is also used as reference voltage when the Vreff/2 is opened.

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Vreff/2(pin 9): this pin is used for reference voltage. If this pin is opened the analog input voltage for COMPARATOR is in the range of 0 5V. This is used to implement analog input voltage other then 0- -5V. D0-D7: These are the digital data input pins. These are
1 V c c

I 45 C00

1 6

tristate buffered and converted data is accessed only when CS=0 & RD forced to LOW. So to calculate the output voltage we use the fallowing formula:

1 5

1 4

Dout = Vin / step size

4 1 3

Where Dout = digital data output. Vin = Analog input voltage and smallest change. Analog ground and Digital ground: These are the input pins providing the GND for both analog and digital signal. Analog GND is connected to the step size is the

1 2

1 1

1 0

V s s

GND of the analog Vin while digital GND is connected to the Vcc pin. The reason is to isolate the analog Vin signal from the transient voltages caused by the digital switching of the output D0 D7. Such isolation contributes the accuracy of the digital data output.

HEX BUFFER / CONVERTER (NON-INVERTER) CD4050:

This circuit accepts eight inputs from the vehicles ID Decoder Stage. These

eight inputs are given to eight Darlington drivers for amplification purpose. The Buffer ICs 3, 5,7,9,11,14 [of IC2] and 11, 14 [of IC1] pins take the inputs and corresponding

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buffered outputs are observed at 2, 4, 6, 10, 12 [of IC2] and 12,15 [of IC1] pins. Fig. 28

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Voltage Rating
2. Operating Temperature

: : : : : : :

4V to 16V 0C -65C 0.01mW 30 nsec typically 3 MHz > 50 3.7V

3. Max Power Dissipation 4. Propagation Delay 5. Max Toggle Speed 6. Fan Out
7. Noise Immunity

8.

Fig. 29

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Fig. 30

IC ULN 2004

ULN 2004:

Since the digital outputs of the some circuits cannot sink much

1 current, they are not capable of driving relays directly. So, high-voltage high-current Darlington 16

arrays are designed for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and multiple peripheral power loads. The series ULN2000A/L ICs drive seven relays with continuous load current ratings to 600mA for each input. At an appropriate duty cycle depending on ambient temperature and number of drivers 14 3 turned ON simultaneously, typical power loads totaling over 260W [400mA x 7, 95V] can be controlled. Typical loads include relays, solenoids, stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent displays, and heaters. These Darlington arrays are furnished in 12 5 16-pin dual in-line plastic packages (suffix A) and 16-lead surface-mountable SOICs (suffix L). All devices are pinned with outputs opposite inputs to facilitate ease of circuit board layout. The input of ULN 2004 is TTL-compatible open-collector outputs. As each of these outputs can sink a 10 7 maximum collector current of 500 mA, miniature PCB relays can be easily driven using ULN
8 9 Vcc 6 11 4 13 2 15

2004. No additional free-wheeling clamp diode is required to be connected across the relay since each of the outputs has inbuilt free-wheeling diodes. The Series ULN20x4A/L features series input resistors for operation directly from 6 to 15V CMOS or PMOS logic outputs.

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VOLTAGE REGULATOR GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Output voltage

: 05 V/12 V Fig. 31

2. Operating Temperature : 0c - 70c

3. Output Current 4. Dropout Voltage

: 100mA : 1.7V

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VOLTAGE REGULATION: The filtered d.c. output is not stable. It varies in accordance with
the fluctuations in mains supply or varying load current. This variation of load current is observed due to voltage drop in transformer windings, rectifier and filter circuit. These variations in d.c. output voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. For example, the circuit boards which are implanted by CMOS or TTL ICs.The stabilization of d.c. output is achieved by using the three terminal voltage regulator IC. This regulator IC comes in two flavors: 78xx for positive voltage output and 79xx for negative voltage output. For example 7812 gives +12V output and 7912 gives -12V stabilized output. These ICs have in-built short-circuit protection and auto-thermal cutout provisions.

IC NE 556
These devices provide two independent timing circuits of the NA555, NE555, SA555, or SE555 type in each package. These circuits can be operated in the astable or the monostable mode with external resistor-capacitor (RC) timing control. The basic timing provided by the RC time constant can be controlled actively by modulating the bias of the control-voltage input. The threshold (THRES) and trigger (TRIG) levels normally are two-thirds and one-third, respectively, of VCC. These levels can be altered by using the control voltage (CONT) terminal. When the trigger input falls below trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the output goes high. If the trigger input is above the trigger level and the threshold input is above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset, and the output is low. The reset (RESET) input can override all other inputs and can be used to initiate a new timing cycle. When RESET goes low, the flip-flop is reset and the output goes low. When the output is low, a lowimpedance path is provided between the discharge (DISCH) terminal and ground (GND).

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FEATURES:
Two Precision Timing Circuits Per Package

Astable or Monostable Operation TTL-Compatible Output Can Sink or Source up to 150 mA Active Pullup or Pulldown Designed to Be Interchangeable With Signetics NE556, SA556, and SE556

APPLICATION:
Precision Timers From Microseconds to Hours Pulse-Shaping Circuits Missing-Pulse Detectors Tone-Burst Generators Pulse-Width Modulators Pulse-Position Modulators Sequential Timers Pulse Generators Frequency Dividers Application Timers Industrial Controls Touch-Tone Encoders

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