Description (Creative Writing)

Purpose Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event eg to:

describe a special place and explain why it is special describe the most important person in your life describe the animal's habitat in your report

Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, eg. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc. Features Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes:

to to to to

engage a reader's attention create characters set a mood or create an atmosphere bring writing to life.

It may:

describe a special place and explain why it is special; describe an important person in your life; describe / create characters; describe a personal experience; engage a reader's attention; give information (such as describing an animal within a report).

Language

aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like

relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs. is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description. sensory description - what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted. Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind eg Their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh. strong development of the experience that "puts the reader there" focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.

Description: Teaching Strategies

Structure
The first sentence introduces and classifies the topic.

Language
The description may show rather than tell the reader what something/ someone is like using precise similes or metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind. Strong development of the experience "puts the reader there" focusing on key details. It is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description If it is a technical/scientific description it will use technical/scientific language. It relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives, adverbs and precise nouns It uses action verbs (bites, squirts) or relational verbs (is/are). Technical/scientific descriptions use the present tense.

Explanations
Purpose The writer's purpose is to explain how something works or state reasons for some phenomenon. Explanations answer the questions "how" or "why". Types of Explanation There are two basic types of explanation which focus on:

"How" (How does a pump work? How does a computer work? How are mountains formed? How does a spider spin a web?) "Why" (Why do some things float or sink? Why is the ozone layer getting thinner? Why does iron go rusty? Why do living things need food?)

Features Structure

often have a logical sequence use cause/effect relationships (then, as a consequence, so, if) use time relationships (first, then, following, finally)

Language

written in the 'timeless' present tense (are, turns, happens) use of action verbs (falls, rises, changes) use of non-human participants (the sea, the mountains, the computers, the engine) conjunctions (when, then, first, after this so) some passives (is saturated, are changed) use of nouns tends to be general rather than specific (cars, boats, spiders, schools) use of pronouns (their, they, them)

Explanations: Teaching Strategies

Structure
Explanations often begin with a brief description of the activity or process. How something works is explained or reasons for a phenomenon are stated. It has a logical sequence of events. Cause/effect relationships (then, as a consequence, so, if) are used. Time relationships (first, then, following, finally) are used. Paragraphing is used.

Language
The 'timeless' present tense (are, turns, happens) is used. Action verbs are used (falls, rises, changes). Conjunctions are used to show time relationships (when, after this, so). Passives are used sometimes (is saturated, are changed). The nouns tend to be general rather than specific (cars, boats, spiders, schools). Pronouns are used (their, they, them). Non-human participants are used (the sea, the mountains, the computers, the engine).

Instructions - Procedural Texts

Purpose The purpose is to tell the reader how to do or make something. The information is presented in a logical sequence of events which is broken up into small sequenced steps. These texts are usually written in the present tense. The most common example of a procedural text is a recipe. Types of Procedural Texts There are different procedural texts for different purposes:

Texts that explain how something works or how to use instruction /operation manuals eg how to use the video, the computer, the tape recorder, the photocopier, the fax. Texts that instruct how to do a particular activity eg recipes, rules for games, science experiments, road safety rules. Texts that deal with human behaviour eg how to live happily, how to succeed.

Features Structure

Goal - clearly stated (often in the heading) Materials - listed in order of use Method - the steps are chronological and are numbered or listed

Each type of procedural text has a format.

Recipes usually have the information presented in at least two basic groups: ingredients and method. Games instructions usually include instructions on how to play, rules of the game, method of scoring, and the number of players.

Scientific experiments usually include the purpose of the experiment, equipment, procedure, observations and conclusion.

Language The text usually:

focuses on generalised people rather than individuals (first you take, rather than first I take) the reader is often referred to in a general way, ie. pronouns (you or one) action verbs (imperative verbs), (cut, fold, twist, hold etc) simple present tense (you cut, you fold, you mix) linking words to do with time (first, when, then) are used to connect the text detailed information on how (carefully, with the scissors); where (from the top); when (after it has set) detailed factual description (shape, size, colour, amount)

Instructions-Procedural: Teaching Strategies

Structure
The purpose of the activity is stated at the beginning. The materials/activities are listed in order. The layout of the text is easy to follow (Steps may be numbered). The steps are in chronological order.

Language
The reader is addressed:

directly (You should turn the printer off before shutting down the computer); or indirectly (Turn the printer off before shutting down the computer).

Verbs are:

active; simple present to indicate timelessness (you cut, you fold); or imperatives (cut, fold).

Conjunctions that show time are used ( first then). Detailed information is given on: how (carefully, with the scissors); where (from the top); when (after it has set). Detailed factual description is given (shape, size, colour, amount). Modality may be used to show the degree of obligation (You should finish your homework within one and a half hours).

Narrative

Purpose The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers' interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions eg soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. Types of Narrative There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience. Features

Characters with defined personalities/identities. Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future. Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.

Structure In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions: Orientation: (introduction) in which the characters, setting and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? when? where? eg. Mr Wolf went out hunting in the forest one dark gloomy night. Complication or problem: The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life). Resolution: There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader.

To help students plan for writing of narratives, model, focusing on:

Plot: What is going to happen? Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place? Characterisation: Who are the main characters? What do they look like? Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved? Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?

Language

Action verbs: Action verbs provide interest to the writing. For example, instead of The old woman was in his way try The old woman barred his path. Instead of She laughed try She cackled. Written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they). Usually past tense. Connectives,linking words to do with time. Specific nouns: Strong nouns have more specific meanings, eg. oak as opposed to tree. Active nouns: Make nouns actually do something, eg. It was raining could become Rain splashed down or There was a large cabinet in the lounge could become A large cabinet seemed to fill the lounge. Careful use of adjectives and adverbs: Writing needs judicious use of adjectives and adverbs to bring it alive, qualify the action and provide description and information for the reader. Use of the senses: Where appropriate, the senses can be used to describe and develop the experiences, setting and character: What does it smell like? What can be heard? What can be seen - details? What does it taste like? What does it feel like? Imagery Simile: A direct comparison, using like or as or as though, eg. The sea looked as rumpled as a blue quilted dressing gown. Or The wind wrapped me up like a cloak.

Metaphor: An indirect or hidden comparison, eg. She has a heart of stone or He is a stubborn mule or The man barked out the instructions. Onomatopoeia: A suggestion of sound through words, eg. crackle, splat, ooze, squish, boom, eg. The tyres whir on the road. The pitter-patter of soft rain. The mud oozed and squished through my toes. Personification: Giving nonliving things (inanimate) living characteristics, eg. The steel beam clenched its muscles. Clouds limped across the sky. The pebbles on the path were grey with grief. Rhetorical Questions: Often the author asks the audience questions, knowing of course there will be no direct answer. This is a way of involving the reader in the story at the outset, eg. Have you ever built a tree hut? Variety in sentence beginnings. There are a several ways to do this eg by using: Participles: "Jumping with joy I ran home to tell mum my good news." Adverbs: "Silently the cat crept toward the bird" Adjectives: "Brilliant sunlight shone through the window" Nouns: "Thunder claps filled the air" Adverbial Phrases: "Along the street walked the girl as if she had not a care in the world." Conversations/Dialogue: these may be used as an opener. This may be done through a series of short or one-word sentences or as one long complex sentence. Show, Don't Tell: Students have heard the rule "show, don't tell" but this principle is often difficult for some writers to master. Personal Voice: It may be described as writing which is honest and convincing. The author is able to 'put the reader there'. The writer invests something of him/her self in the writing. The writing makes an impact on the reader. It reaches out and touches the reader. A connection is made.

Narrative: Teaching Strategies

Structure
Orientation: (first paragraph)

Where did the story take place? When did the story take place? How did the story begin? Who?

Complication or problem: a description/ explanation of the problem. The problem usually involves the main character(s). Resolution: how the problem has been solved. Conclusion: a final concluding statement. Characterisation: a description of the main characters. What do they look like? Theme: a clear message.

Language
Active verbs are used (Instead of The old woman was in his way try The old woman barred his path). The first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they). The past tense is used. Conjunctions (linking words to do with time) are used. Specific nouns (oak instead of tree). Adjectives and adverbs are used. Uses the senses:

What does it smell like? What can be heard? What can be seen? What does it taste like? What does it feel like?

A variety of sentence beginnings are used. It has an impact on the reader. The personal voice of the writer comes through. Narratives often use:

Similes (The sea looked as rumpled as a blue quilted dressing gown; The wind wrapped me up like a cloak). Metaphors (She has a heart of stone; He is a stubborn mule; The man barked out the instructions). Onomatopoeia (crackle, splat, ooze, squish, boom. The tyres whirr on the road; The pitter-patter of soft rain; The mud oozed and squished through my toes). Personification (The steel beam clenched its muscles; Clouds limped across the sky; The pebbles on the path were grey with grief).

Recounts
Purpose The purpose of a recount is to list and describe past experiences by retelling events in the order in which they happened (chronological order). Recounts are written to retell events with the purpose of either informing or entertaining their audience (or both). Types of Recount

Personal Recount These usually retell an event that the writer was personally involved in. Factual Recount Recording an incident, eg. a science experiment, police report. Imaginative Recount Writing an imaginary role and giving details of events, eg. A day in the life of a pirate; How I invented...

Features of Recounts

focuses on individual participants/events

Structure

the recount has a title, which usually summarises the text specific participants (Mum, the crab) The basic recount consists of three parts: 1. the setting or orientation - background information answering who? when? where? why? 2. events are identified and described in chronological order. 3. concluding comments express a personal opinion regarding the events described details are selected to help the reader reconstruct the activity or incident (Factual Recount) the ending may describe the outcome of the activity, eg. in a science activity (Factual Recount) details of time, place and incident need to be clearly stated, eg. At 11.15 pm, between Reid Rd and Havelock St a man drove at 140 kms toward the shopping centre (Factual Recount) descriptive details may also be required to provide information, eg. He was a skinny boy with a blue shirt, red sneakers and long tied back hair (Factual Recount) includes personal thoughts/reactions (Imaginative Recount)

Language

is written in the past tense (she yelled, it nipped, she walked)

frequent use is made of words which link events in time, such as next, later, when, then, after, before, first, at the same time, as soon as she left, late on Friday) recounts describe events, so plenty of use is made of verbs (action words), and of adverbs (which describe or add more detail to verbs) details are often chosen to add interest or humour to the recount. use of personal pronouns (I, we) (Personal Recount) the passive voice may be used, eg. the bottle was filled with ink (Factual Recount)

Recounts: Teaching Strategies

Structure
The title grabs the readers attention (it usually summarises the text). There are specific participants (mum, the crab). A setting or orientation gives background information answering who? when? where? why?

Events are identified and described in chronological order. The details of time, place and incident are clearly stated. (At 11.15 pm, between Reid Rd and Havelock St a man drove at 140 kms toward the shopping centre). Personal thoughts/reactions are included. Paragraphing is used. Concluding comments may express a personal opinion regarding the events described. The ending may describe the outcome of the activity (in e.g. a science activity).

Language
Recounts are written in the past tense (she yelled, it nipped, she walked). Words which link events in time (next, later, when, then, after, before, first, at the same time, as soon as she left, late on Friday) are used. Events are described using:

verbs (action words), adverbs (which describe or add more detail to verbs).

Details are chosen to add interest or humour. Personal pronouns (I, we) are used. Figurative language (alliteration, onomatopoeia, simile, metaphor, personification) may be used. Sentences create tension/excitement. Descriptive details provide information (He was a skinny boy with a blue shirt, red sneakers and long tied back hair).

Reports
"Reports can be straightforward recounts of events, but many of them are more than this. They may contain accounts and descriptions, but they often do more than describe a thing, event or situation. Some reports state a problem and suggest a solution. Some argue a case for or against a particular option, supporting their case with evidence and making a recommendation."

(The Learner as a Reader, Learning Media NZ:P 129)

Purpose

The purpose of a report is to describe and classify information. Reports have a logical sequence of facts that are stated without any personal involvement from the writer. Informative reports are written about living things like plants and animals and non-living things like cars or oceans. An information report is used when we talk and write about, eg. Bikes. (When writing a description we only talk/write about one specific thing, eg. My Bike). Features Structure Reports usually consist of the following:

an opening statement. (The Antarctic is a large continent at the South Pole; Possums are nocturnal animals that were introduced to New Zealand from Australia.) a series of facts about various aspects of the subject eg where possums live, what they eat, problems they cause, etc. These facts are grouped into paragraphs and each paragraph has a topic sentence. diagrams, photographs, illustrations and maps may be used to enhance the text reports don't usually have an 'ending", although sometimes the detailed information is rounded off by some general statement about the topic.

Language

Nouns and noun phrases are used rather than personal pronouns. The use of personal pronouns is limited. Most reports are written in the present tense. Some reports use technical or scientific terms. Linking verbs are used, eg. is, are, has, have, belong to, to give coherence. Uses some action verbs (climb, eat). Descriptive language is used that is factual rather than imaginative eg colour, shape, size, body parts, habits, behaviours, functions, uses.

Reports: Teaching Strategies

Structure
The opening statement classifies the subject of the report. The opening statement is followed by sentences (usually factual) that describe such things as appearance, behaviour and other aspects of the phenomenon being described. The writing has paragraphs, each one focusing on a different aspect of the phenomenon. Topic sentences are used. A general statement about the topic usually rounds off the report.

Diagrams, illustrations or photographs are often used.

Language
Present tense verbs are used. Verbs for describing and classifying (is, are, has, have, belongs to) are used. Action verbs are used to describe behaviours (climb, eat). Personal reports focus on the individual (my dog). Scientific or technical reports focus on classes of things (dogs). Descriptive language that is factual rather than imaginative (opposums have prehensile tails) is used. Nouns and noun phrases are used rather than personal pronouns.

Arguments
Purpose To support ideas presented in sequence to justify a particular stand or viewpoint that a writer is taking. The writer's purpose is to take a position on some issue and justify it. An argument usually consists of the following:

a statement of position at the beginning a logical sequence

the argument is put forward in a series of points with back up evidence a good argument shows cause and effect. This is the connection between an action and what leads to it, eg. The fish died as a result of pollution in the water: Violence in movies contributes to violence in society a summing up or restating of position at the end

Types of arguments

To plead a case - letters to the school principal / local council with regard to current issues. To promote/sell goods and services - advertisement writing to promote the school concert/sports. To put forward an argument - School uniforms should not be compulsory.

Language Features

The argument is written in the timeless present tense. This might change to the past if historical background to the issue was being given. If predictions are being made the tense might change to the future. The writer uses repetition of words, phrases and concepts deliberately, for effect. Verbs are used when expressing opinions, eg. I think ___ are the best! We believe students should not be stopped from eating junk food. Strong effective adjectives are used. Thought provoking questions are used. These may be asked as rhetorical questions. (Rhetorical questions: a question asked only for effect, not for information, eg. Would you give your pre-schooler matches to play with?) Use of passive verbs to help structure the text. Written in the timeless present tense. Use of pronouns (I, we, us) is used to manipulate the reader to agree with the position argued. eg. We all know that smoking causes cancer so we do not smoke. Use of emotive language ie. words that will appeal to the reader's feelings, eg. concern, unreasonable, should.

Use of passive voice ie verbs in which the subject is acted upon and not doing the action. This helps structure the text, eg. We would like to suggest that an enquiry be held into the running of the steel mills. Water is being polluted. Conjunctions that can exemplify and show results - they are usually used in concluding statements to finalise arguments

Features of an Argument

The writing has a logical sequence. The writing begins with a statement of position. The argument is put forward in a series of points with back up evidence or reasons. As long as the reasons given are reasonable there is a chance to convince the audience.

Words for introducing another point to support the argument: additionally further more not only also in addition

moreover

besides

as well

likewise

The writing finishes with a summing up, eg. a recommendation or restatement of position. A good argument shows cause and effect. This is the connection between an action and what leads to it, eg. the fish died as a result of pollution in the water. violence in movies contributes to violence in society.

Words for showing cause and effect - connectives: so creates results in generates

consequently stems from gives rise to

because brings about an upshot of

causes leads to

The argument is written in the timeless present tense. This might change to the past if historical background to the issue was being given. If predictions are being made the tense might change to the future.

The writer uses repetition of words, phrases and concepts deliberate, for effect. Strong effective adjectives are used. Thought provoking questions are used. These may be asked as rhetorical questions. Rhetorical questions: a question asked only for effect, not for information, eg. Would you give your pre-schooler matches to play with? Figurative Language: using words out of their literal meaning to add beauty or force, eg. similes, metaphors, imagery. Sound devices, eg. alliteration: repetition of the same first sound or the same first letter in a group of words. It is used for impact and effect, eg. Let's reduce, reuse, recycle! Generalised participants are used which are sometimes human but often abstract, eg. issues, ideas, opinions etc. unless the issue centres on a particular event or incident. Inclusive and Exclusive Pronouns Inclusive pronouns (I, we, us) are used to manipulate the reader to agree with the position argued. The implication is that they would be correct and will be included if they concur with the point of view, eg. We all know that smoking causes cancer so we do not smoke. Exclusive pronouns (he, she. they) are also used to manipulate the reader by implying that to disagree with the position argued would put you in the "out group". The implication is that they would be wrong and will be excluded if they disagree with the point of view. See this Assessment Resource Bank Resource for an exercise on inclusive and exclusive pronouns.

The writer uses emotive language: ie. words that will appeal to the reader's feelings, eg. concern, unreasonable, should. The writer uses passive voices, ie. verbs in which the subject is acted upon and not doing the action. This helps structure the text, eg. We would like to suggest that an enquiry be held into the running of the steel mills. Water is being polluted. Actions are nonimalised to allow the writer to condense information and deal with abstract issues. Actions become things.

Eating junk food can make people sick

Junk food can cause sickness Toxic waste from factories that is discharged into rivers pollutes the water

Toxic waste discharged from factories causes pollution

Movement from personal to impersonal voice occurs. The personal voice is to indicate a subjective opinion through using a first person pronoun - I - or second person pronoun - you, eg. I think we should change our flag! You shouldn't drop rubbish. The personal pronoun has been removed. The author no longer speaks on behalf of himself or herself alone but assumes a representative voice. Modality is used in arguing to position the writer and the reader, eg. Modal verbs or operators (you should put rubbish in the bin.) Verbs are used when expressing opinions, eg.

I think Bee Babes are the best! We believe students should not be stopped from eating junk food. Imperatives or imperative constructions: expressing a command, request, warning, eg. Make up your mind! The writer uses connectives (linking words - conjunctions) associated with reason, eg. so, because of, therefore, first, etc. Temporal conjunctions to order propositions, eg. Firstly many people die of passive smoking and secondly it can aggravate asthma. Causal, conditional conjunctions used to link points in the argument, eg. They die because it stops them breathing.

Comparative conjunctions used to introduce counterpoints, eg. However, others think we should have junk food. On the other hand packaging can have many disadvantages.

Conjunctions can exemplify and show results - they are usually used in concluding statements to finalise arguments

Generalised participants are used which are sometimes human but often abstract, eg. issues, ideas, opinions, etc. unless the issue centres on a particular event or incident. Appeals to authority: This may be done in a variety of ways and gives weight and authority to an argument: Using research, facts, statistics, eg. Four hundred people each year die from passive smoking. Using expert opinions, eg. Dr Dolittle said you can definitely talk to the animals. Using testimony. This is quotations from reliable or reputable sources, eg. "Zoo Doo is the best compost there is," said Maggie Barry.

Arguments: Teaching Strategies

Structure
Statement/thesis The introductory paragraph clearly states the topic/issue and the main points of the argument. Each paragraph deals with one key point/reason that is introduced in the topic sentence. Each topic sentence is supported by evidence and examples. The points and reasons are organised in a logical order, beginning with the most important.

The conclusion summarises the main points and gives a strong final statement of the writer's opinion, or a recommendation. Check that the writing is not repetitive (e.g. position statement repeated many times)

Language
The timeless present tense is used (Our oceans are over fished). Verbs are used to express opinions (I think ___ are the best! We believe students should not be stopped from eating junk food). Passive verbs are used (The waters are over-fished). Conjunctions are used that:

introduce examples that support the main points/reasons (for example, these include, as shown by, for instance, such as); add extra information to what has already been said (moreover, furthermore, another reason, in addition); show cause and effect, (consequently, causes, leads to, brings about, results in, otherwise, since, if...then, unless) introduce the other point of view (on the other hand).

Points are carefully linked within and between paragraphs. Modality is used to show strength of feeling. Verbs (should, must, may). Emotive language is used (words that will appeal to the reader's feelings e.g concern, unreasonable). Pronouns (I, we, us) are used to persuade the reader to agree with the position argued (We all know that smoking causes cancer so we do not smoke). Thought provoking questions are used which may be rhetorical ie a question asked only for effect, not for information (Would you give your pre-schooler matches to play with?).

Vocabulary specific to the topic is used. Concluding phrases are used (I would like to persuade you that... Therefore I think I have shown that...After considering the above points you must agree... In summary... These arguments show that...Therefore it can be seen that...).