Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames

3-1
Chapter 3
Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3.1 Introduction
The finite element method (FEM) of analysis has developed into the most widely
used method and tool for engineers and researchers. It provides the engineer with the
capability to analyze complex structural system in a much more realistic manner
regarding the geometry (Noguchi and Schnobrich 1993) and the loading and support
conditions. For nonlinear analysis of RC frames, many finite element (FE) models have
been developed since Ngo and Scordelis (1967) published the earliest application of FEM
to RC beams. According to Miramontes et al. (1996), these FE models can be generally
divided into three categories: local models (microscopic finite element models), global
models (member models), and semi-local models (fiber models), as introduced in Chapter
1.
Local models use a continuous media approach (Miramontes et al. 1996). Structural
members as well as joints are discretized into a large number of finite elements.
Mathematical models describing the stress-strain relationships of concrete and steel,
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-2
bond-slip effect between steel bar and the surrounding concrete, shear-sliding effect
between steel bar and the cracked surface, opening and closing of cracks, etc., are
expressed in local variables. Since models of this type require the solution of a large
system of equations, they are not suitable for dynamic analysis or cyclic static analysis at
the structural level. Local models are typically applied to analysis of such local behavior
as member or joint response and are not in the scope of this research.
The following sections of this chapter deal with the literature survey of global
models and semi-local models and the description of the state-of-the-art FE models for
dynamic and cyclic static analysis of RC frame structures. The background of previous
global and semi-local models for RC frame element is introduced and several
representative models are described in more details. The derivation of the force-based
fiber element model employed in this research is also presented.
3.2 Global Models
The global model reported herein is defined as the model in which an RC member
(beam or column) is modeled with a single two-node line element or several two-node
line elements, and the element stiffness matrix is obtained by summing the weighted
contributions of the member-wise sectional characteristics which are not stored and thus
cannot be traced back. The Navier-Bernoulli hypothesis (the hypothesis that plane
sections remain plane) is usually assumed for the calculation of the sectional
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-3
characteristics of the member. Also, only the envelopes of the material stress-strain
curves are usually taken into account, and hence an ad-hoc set of phenomenological rules
for unloading and reloading response of section or member usually has to be incorporated.
The general solution procedure of dynamic analysis using global models is illustrated in
Fig.3.1.
Some of the phenomenological hysteretic models found from the literature are
shown in Fig.3.2, and the comparison of certain features among these models is indicated
in Table 3.1. Global models can be further classified into lumped models and distributed
models.
Fig. 3.1 Illustration of the solution procedure for global models (Mo 1994).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-4
Fig. 3.2 Models for hysteresis loops (Mo 1994).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-5
Table 3.1 Comparison of hysteretic models (Mo 1994)
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-6
3.2.1 Lumped Nonlinearity Models
As the inelastic behavior is often concentrated at the ends of beams and columns in
frames under seismic excitation, an early approach to modeling the nonlinear behavior of
RC members was by means of nonlinear rotational springs located at the member ends
(Zeris 1986). These models are referred to as lumped nonlinearity models. The earliest
lumped model was formally proposed by Gibson (1967), although it had been reportedly
used earlier. It consisted of an elastic element with two nonlinear rotational springs
connected at both ends of the elastic element and was thus also referred to as one
component model (Otani 1974). The configuration of this model is schematically
illustrated in Fig.3.3. The inelastic deformations of the member are lumped into the end
springs. The inelastic moment-rotation relationship of a spring was determined assuming
the point of inflection at the center of the member. For instance, Suko and Adams (1971)
determined the spring stiffness based on the location of the inflection point at the initial
elastic stage. This model is versatile in that various sources of nonlinearity can be
specified by addition of corresponding nonlinear springs. Thus, the phenomenological
constitutive relationship for lumped models can be easily incorporated in such models.
Nonlinear rotational springs
Fixed inflection point
Elastic member EI
Fig. 3.3 Lumped nonlinearity model (Giberson 1967).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-7
Review of several lumped spring constitutive models has been reported in Zeris
(1986) and Taucer (1991), and is summarized as follows: Such lumped plasticity
constitutive models include cyclic stiffness degradation in flexure and shear (Clough and
Benuska 1966, Takeda etal. 1970, Brancaleoni et al. 1983), pinching under reversal
(Banon et al. 1981, Brancaleoni et al. 1983, DAmbrisi and Filippou 1999) and fixed end
rotations at the beam-column joint interface due to bar pull-out (Otani 1974, Filippou and
Issa 1988, DAmbrisi and Filippou 1999). Nonlinear rate constitutive representations
have also been generalized from the basic endochronic theory (Bazant and Bhat 1977,
Rivlin 1981, Valanis 1981) formulation in Ozdemir (1981) to provide continuous
hysteretic relations for the nonlinear springs. An extensive discussion on the
mathematical functions that are appropriate for such models was given in Iwan (1978).
An interesting and perhaps one of the most sophisticated lumped models was
proposed by Lai et al. (1983). This model consisted of two inelastic zero-length
subelement at the ends of a RC member sandwiching a linear elastic line element, as
shown in Fig.3.4. For each inelastic subelement, there are four inelastic corner springs
and one center spring. Each of the corner springs represents the stiffness of the effective
reinforcing steel bars and the effective compression concrete. The center spring
represents the effective concrete in the center region and is only effective when in
compression. This model can be regarded as a fiber hinge model and was found to be able
to simulate the axial force-biaxial bending interaction in a more rational way than is
possible by classical plasticity theory as mentioned in section 3.2.3.
The basic advantage of the lumped model is certainly its simplicity that reduces
computational requirement and improves numerical stability. Most lumped models,
however, overlook certain aspects of the hysteretic behavior of RC members and are,
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-8
therefore, limited in applicability. For instance, the parametric and theoretical studies
presented by Anagnostopoulos (1981) demonstrated a strong dependency of the model
parameters on the imposed loading pattern and the level of inelastic deformation, which
revealed the sources of the hindrance to modeling the nonlinear behavior with two
zero-length end springs or elements. Also, lumped models are generally unable to account
for the deformation softening behavior of RC members. There are some other issues with
lumped element models as well as the lumped spring constitutive models. Some of the
issues are actually common to distributed nonlinearity models as well. These common
issues are to be discussed in the later sections with distributed models.
3.2.2 Distributed Nonlinearity Models
The realistic nonlinear behavior can spread over a finite length of the member rather
than concentrates at a point. The other approach to modeling the hysteretic behavior of
RC member is, thus, to capture the global behavior of the member by weighted
integration of the responses of several monitoring cross sections along the member or by
Fig. 3.4 Fiber hinge lumped model (Lai et al. 1983).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-9
means of certain inelastic sub-elements of finite length.
One of the earliest distributed models was introduced by Clough and Johnston
(1966). The model consists of two parallel elements, one elastic-perfectly plastic to
represent yielding and the other perfectly elastic to represent strain-hardenig. The
ensemble element allows for a bilinear moment-rotation relation along the member. It
was referred to as two-component element (Otani 1974).
Otani (1974) presented an element model that consisted of two parallel flexible line
sub-elements (linearly elastic and inelastic) and two inelastic rotational springs at the
ends of the flexible line sub-elements. The inelastic deformations were lumped in the
rotational springs as in the lumped models, while the global behavior of the member is
derived by integration of the curvatures along the two parallel sub-elements. A fixed point
of contraflexure was assumed in the derivation of the stiffness matrix of this model,
which is supposed to be the main limitation of this and similar models.
Soleimani et al. (1979) proposed a model in which an inelastic zone spreading from
the beam-column interface into the member as a function of loading history was first
introduced. Asimilar model was developed by Meyer et al. (1983) and was later extended
by Roufaiel and Meyer (1987) to include the shear effect and the axial force effect based
on a set of empirical rules. Roufaiel and Meyers model is described in details in the
following paragraph.
An element is subdivided into three segments as shown in Fig.3.5: 1) an inelastic
segment of length X
i
at node i, with the average stiffness (EI)
i
; 2) an inelastic segment of
length X
j
at node j, with the average stiffness (EI)
j
.; and 3) a centered elastic segment of
length (L - X
i
- X
j
), with the initial elastic stiffness (EI)
e
. The (EI)
e
and (EI)
i
values are
obtained from the simplified bilinear moment-curvature envelope curve of the
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-10
corresponding cross sections together with a modified Takeda hysteretic
moment-curvature relationships (Takeda et al. 1970, Popov et al. 1972, Ma et al. 1976) as
shown in Fig.3.5. The stiffness ratio is defined as Q
i
= (EI)
e
/ (EI)
i
. The length X
i
, X
j
and
stiffness ratio Q
i
of the inelastic region at node i depend on the current branch of
moment-curvature diagram. The element stiffness matrix, then, can be calculated from
equations (3.1):
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
66 65 63 62
56 55 53 52
44 41
36 35 33 32
26 25 23 22
14 11
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
k k k k
k k k k
k k
k k k k
k k k k
k k
k
ij
, (3.1a)
where
L
EA
k k k k = = = =
41 14 44 11
(3.1b)
2
12 22 11
22
22
A A A
A
k

= (3.1c)
2
12 22 11
12
23
A A A
A
k

= (3.1d)
23 32
k k = (3.1e)
2
12 22 11
11
33
A A A
A
k

= (3.1f)
22 52
k k = (3.1g)
23 53
k k = (3.1h)
32 22 62
k L k k = (3.1i)
33 23 63
k L k k = (3.1j)
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-11
2
12 22 11
22
55
C C C
C
k

= (3.1k)
2
12 22 11
12
56
C C C
C
k

= (3.1l)
56 65
k k = (3.1m)
55 25
k k = (3.1n)
56 26
k k = (3.1o)
65 55 35
k L k k = (3.1p)
66 56 36
k L k k = (3.1q)
| |
3 3 3
11
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (
) ( 3
1
L Q Q X L Q X
EI
A
j j j i i
e
+ + = (3.1r)
( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
12
1 ) ( 1
) ( 2
1
L Q Q X L Q X
EI
A
j j j i i
e
+ + = (3.1s)
( ) ( ) | | L Q Q X L Q X
EI
A
j j j i i
e
+ + = 1 ) ( 1
) (
1
22
(3.1t)
( ) ( ) | |
3 3 3
11
1 ) ( 1
) ( 3
1
L Q Q X L Q X
EI
C
i i i j j
e
+ + = (3.1u)
( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
12
1 ) ( 1
) ( 2
1
L Q Q X L Q X
EI
C
i i i j j
e
+ + = (3.1v)
( ) ( ) | | L Q Q X L Q X
EI
C
i i i j j
e
+ + = 1 ) ( 1
) (
1
22
(3.1x)
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-12
Node j Node i
(EI)
(EI)
M
M
M M
Xi
Xj
i
i
j
j
e
y
y
L
1
2
3
4
5
6
(EI)
Fig. 3.5 Modeling with finite-length inelastic zone (Meyer et al. 1983).
M
1
2
8
3
9
7
13
6
11
5
10
12
4
|
M
1
2
3
4
|
2
3
3
4
Fig. 3.6 Hysteretic moment-curvature relationship (Takeda et al. 1970).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-13
Darvall and Mendis (1985) proposed a similar but simpler model with end inelastic
deformations defined through a trilinear moment-curvature relation (Taucer et al. 1991).
Filippou and Issa (1988) and DAmbrisi and Filippou (1999) also subdivided the element
in several subelements, but followed a different approach. Each effect, such as spread
plasticity, interface bond-slip, shear, was modeled by a subelement. All the subelements
were connected in series and/or in parallel to simulate the overall behavior of the member
in a similar manner as that of Otanis model (1974).
3.2.3 Limitations of Global Models
The simplicity of formulation and the resulting low computational demand and
numerical stability of global models are attractive features. Implementation of these
models in existing nonlinear dynamic analysis programs is also relatively straightforward.
However, there are some limitations common to lumped models and distributed models.
The axial force-bending interaction is typically neglected or is described by a yield
surface for the stress resultants and an associated flow rule according to classical
plasticity theory (Taucer et al. 1991). For example, among some plasticity-theory-based
models, Sfakianakis and Fardis (1991a, 1991b) proposed a bounding surface plasticity
model to describe the cyclic biaxial bending of RC sections. However, compared with the
fiber models to be introduced in the following section, global models are generally unable
to describe the axial force-bending interaction of RC columns in a rational way.
The hysteretic model involved in global model is phenomenological model of
member behavior, which is based on limited experimental data and cannot be easily
extended to general loading conditions. As has been pointed out by Meyer et al.(1991),
most models only approximate the effect of gravity loads; the interaction between
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-14
bending moment, shear and axial force is described by empirical rules, which can quickly
become extremely complex and are often valid only for the few cases for which they are
calibrated. Also, the parameters of these models cannot be readily established in many
cases, especially for lumped models as mentioned in section 3.2.1.
Finally, the stress and strain response of the cross sections cannot be directly traced
as can be easily done for fiber models. As a consequence, the measures of damage can
only be defined in such overall variables as rotation or moments, instead of more rational
local variable of strain.
3.3 Semi-local Models: Fiber Models
3.3.1 Literature Survey of Fiber Models
The semi-local model reported herein is different from the global model described
previously in section 3.2 in that the stress-strain responses of the cross sections are
calculated locally from the cyclic constitutive relationships of the materials. Thus, no
phenomenological hysteretic model is needed, and the local stress-strain response history
can be directly traced. Fiber element models for RC/PC members belong to the category
of semi-local models and have been regarded as one of the most promising approaches to
modeling RC member. Since a fiber element model is employed in this research, the
following discussion will be focused on the fiber models specifically.
As flexural behavior of frame elements is primarily governed by the longitudinal
normal stress-strain response of the cross sections of the element, the idea of subdividing
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-15
the cross section into layers or fibers is rather straightforward and has been employed by
many researchers since early 1970s. Warner (1969) proposed the concept of fiber
filaments for the analysis of the biaxial moment-curvature relationship of a RC column.
Park et al. (1972) presented a, now classical, layered model combing assumed cyclic
stress-strain relationships of steel and concrete, sectional moment-curvature analysis, and
twice integration of curvature to predict the cyclic load-displacement relation of simply
supported RC beam specimens. It is worth noting that 1 hour of computer (IBM 360/44)
time was required to compute the moment-curvature relation for each of the beam
sections in those early days. However, it was not a finite element approach, and was
limited to statically determinate members such as simply supported beam specimens or
cantilever column specimens. Also, this type of analysis is relatively time consuming
because it requires iteration in determining the position of the neutral axis for each cross
section.
Aktan et al. (1975) proposed the first finite fiber element model and applied this
model to dynamic analysis of RC columns subjected to biaxial earthquake excitations and
constant axial load. The classical stiffness approach with cubic shape functions were
employed. Mark and Roesset (1976) presented a fiber model with the incremental
stiffness approach and extended the application to static and dynamic analysis of the RC
frame specimens tested by Gulkan and Sozen (1971). Some of the numerical instability
problems caused by material and member softening were first identified; however, they
avoided numerical instability by using a fictitious concrete stress-stain curve without
strain softening. Kaba and Mahin (1983) employed the fiber model to study the cyclic
behavior of RC sections and later extended to dynamic analysis of RC columns and
frames (Kaba and Mahin 1984). This model incorporated the concept of force
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-16
interpolation functions, which was first proposed by Mahasuverachai and Powell (1982)
for the inelastic analysis of piping and tubular structures. By assuming linear variation of
the section flexibilities along the member and employing an event-to-event solution
scheme, Kaba and Mahins model appeared to be the first flexibility-based finite fiber
element model for RC frames.
Zeris (1986) and Zeris and Mahin (1988) improved the original Kaba and Mahins
model. They discussed two numerical problems: one at section level and the other at
member level. It was demonstrated that the tangent stiffness Newton-Raphson scheme at
the section level was unable to capture the softening behavior of the section. The
numerical problem at the member level was illustrated by a simple cantilever column
example as replicated in Fig.3.7. When a cantilever is displaced beyond the point of
maximum resistance, section 1 at the fixed base of the column starts softening. In order to
maintain equilibrium, sections 2 through 5 start unloading. This behavior generally
cannot be captured with a standard displacement-based model because of the assumption
of a linear distribution of curvature within the member length. They proposed a
four-phase element state determination procedure that mixed both force and displacement
interpolation functions. Their model showed satisfactory performance and was later
extended to biaxial bending problems (Zeris and Mahin 1991). However, as argued by
Taucer et al. (1991), the element state determination procedure is not theoretically clear
and is derived from ad hoc corrections of the Kaba-Mahin model rather than from a
general theory.
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-17
It had been recognized by late 80s (e.g. Meyer et al. 1991) that the flexibility-based
or forced-based formulation could be a remedy to the numerical problems induced by
softening. However, the determination of the element resisting forces, which is often
referred to as element state determination, is not so straightforward for force-based
formulation as for classical stiffness approach. The element state determination
procedures proposed by Zeris and Mahin can also lead to numerical problems because
compatibility is not guaranteed.
This problem had actually been solved in a paper authored by Ciampi and Carlesimo
(1986), in which a flexibility-based beam element formulation with sophisticated local
hysteresis models was presented. They proposed a set of procedures that requires
iterations at the element level and implemented the procedures in a general
displacement-based FEM program (ANSR) for the first time. This approach was later
adopted and further clarified by Taucer et al. (1991), Spacone et al. (1996a, 1996b,
1996c), and Petrangeli and Ciampi (1997) and was applied to the implementation of fiber
beam-column element for RC members. Through an apparently more cumbersome
approach (Petrangeli and Ciampi 1997), this method has proved to be a much more stable
and robust algorithm than the previous methods. Neuenhofer and Filippou (1997)
proposed a modified version of this method, by which the iterations at the element level
Fig. 3.7 Illustration of numerical problems at member level (Zeris and Mahin 1988).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-18
can be circumvented. Neuenhofer and Filippou (1998) later extended the modified
method to include geometrically nonlinear behavior. Most recently, Coleman and
Spacone (2000) discussed the sensitivity of this method to the number of integration
points or the so-called localization issues; they proposed a regularization technique for
softening sections to improve the problems of loss of objectivity in both the section
moment-curvature response and in the element force-displacement response. These
studies have generally demonstrated the superiority of the approach on account of its
robustness in the presence of strength softening and the lower number of model degrees
of freedom for comparable accuracy in global and local response (Neuenhofer and
Filippou 1998). Therefore, this approach is employed in this research. The procedures of
this approach are to be described in details in Chapter 4.
3.3.2 Displacement-based Formulation Vs. Force-based Formulation
For most of the finite element programs, the displacement-based approach is
employed. Typically, variations of the well-known Newton-Raphson iterative procedure
are used for non-linear FE analysis (Cook et al. 1989, Crisfield 1991). The
Newton-Raphson (N-R) iterative procedure is illustrated in Fig.3.8. With the N-R method,
the standard procedures of displacement-based FE analysis are listed in Table 3.2.
Fig. 3.8 Illustration of Newton-Raphson procedure (Cook et al. 1989).
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-19
Table 3.2 Procedures of displacement-based FE analysis
(1) Iteratively ((Newton-Raphson) solve the system of equations for the incremental
nodal displacement u
i
(2) For each element, all the section deformation increments are approximated from
u
i
by using the displacement interpolation function (shape function), a(x)
d
i
(x) = a(x)u
i
(3.2)
and the current section deformation vector is
d
i
(x) = d
i-1
(x) +d
i
(x) (3.3)
(3) From section deformation d
i
(x) and the section force-deformation relation (section
constitutive relations), the section stiffness k
t
i
(x) and the section force vector D(x)
can be obtained.
(4) Element stiffness and element resisting forces are calculated from integrating k
t
i
(x)
and D(x) along the member length:
( ) ( )dx x x x
L
i
t
T i
t
a k a K
}
=
0
) ( (3.4)
( ) ( )dx x x x
L
T i
R
a D a P
}
=
0
) ( (3.5)
(5) Assemble the elements stiffness to get the global stiffness K
t
i
(6) Proceed to the next (Newton-Raphson) iteration.
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-20
In the displacement-based approach, the section deformations are approximated
from the nodal displacements by using the displacement interpolation function (or shape
function) as indicated by Eq.(3.2).The cubic Hermitian polynomials are often adopted as
the displacement interpolation function, as cubic interpolation functions produce exact
solution for elastic frame elements. Cubic displacement interpolation function, however,
would result in linear curvature. The curvature of a RC member is highly nonlinear
especially after the maximum resistance has been reached, as shown in Fig.3.7.
Consequently, the adoption of cubic Hermitian displacement interpolation function
generally does not maintain equilibrium along the member and a finer element mesh
would be needed to avoid numerical instability.
In contrast to the inevitable inaccuracy of the displacement interpolation function,
the distribution of the section forces along the member is rather simple. For example,
when there are only nodal forces, the bending moment is linear and the axial force is
constant along the member. Thus, for a member as shown in Fig.3.9, the section force
vector can be expressed in terms of nodal force vector by
( ) ( )P b D x x = , (3.6)
where section force vector
( )
( )
( )
( )

=
x M
x M
x N
x
y
z
D
, (3.7)
nodal force vector

=
yj
yi
zj
zi
M
M
M
M
N
P
, (3.8)
Chapter 3 Finite Element Analysis of RC Frames
3-21
force interpolation function
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
x
L
x
L
x
L
x
x
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
b
, (3.9)
and N(x), M
z
(x), and M
y
(x) are the axial force and bending moments at section x .
The force interpolation function b(x) is not only simple, it is exact. Thus, equilibrium
along the member is always satisfied in a strict sense. However, the calculation of the
element resisting forces in the force-based approach is not so straightforward as that in
the displacement-based approach (Eq.(3.5)). The procedure proposed by Ciampi and
Carlesimo, as mentioned in section 3.3.1, has to be used to calculate the element resisting
forces. This procedure will be described in details in Chapter 4.
x
y
z
Fig. 3.9 Element local coordinates.
node i
node j