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Problems of

Connected Plankton
EkNEST

with for
GEIGER,

the

Possible Nutrition

Use

Human
M.D., PH.D.*

VER

SINCE

it of

was the problem and

recognized

that

proper

Army

Surgeon the is credited life in first the present In supplied

Vaughn great with 1847.

Thomas. physiologist the He first used

Officially, Johannes description a to v net of

nutrition sents a global tance, economists steadily ply.

searching Besides the

world population repre- however, of the highest impor- Muller nutritionists have been planktonic for new sources of food sup- for the terrestrial sources whkh, ac-reported may not be able toanimals of the population, the Helgoland. as the most promis- expedition
Today only a small

time for amazing

collecting richness

plankton and of minuscule

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cording to some predictions, keep up with the growth ocean has been considered
ing source of nutrients.

in the ocean water around 1872 the famous Challenger further important data to The use of be the when

fraction lized
surface

of for
fishes

the
and

food
other

grown
sea

in in

the ocean the


foods.

is utiform
Besides

human

nutrition two further

of

the morphology first official sonie plankton for request of Sir

and ecology of plankton. step toward the practical human nutrition seems John British and Graham Kerr in to Parliament use of plankton

to 1941

these,

however,

and

poibly

richer sources are not of these is the so-called lives in the bathypelagic
food source is represented

yet even tapped. deep sea animal which zone and the
by the drifting

much he asked the One the harvesting

investigate as a possible

minute According ing the duction in Moby


from

organisms to some

known authors

as

zooplankton. the idea of

means of relieving the food shortage resulting other from the German submarine warfare. During the Second World War experiments were also initiated and supported by the United States utiliz- Government, investigating the possible use of

the

pastures of the ocean for is an ancient one, and Melville Dick, as a proof, the following Obed Macys history of Nantucket, year 1690 some persons were on the other whales when to the our childrens predictions better than spouting and one observed ocean-is a grandchildren were poetic was only
of Van Biochemistry

food pro- plankton as emergency food for survival on life quoted rafts. The actual information on composition passage and nutritive value of plankton supplied by In this investigation is, however, very meager. a hill ob-It seems therefore that no actual data but thinking discussed plankton and that of is responsible in many represents it is only and available we material
#{176}

serving each pointing where bread. Such nothing

sporting with wishful tion, : Theregreen pasture marine will go forfood


nology

for the assumprecent papers, that a large source of a question of techof economics for practical from a in the to

harvesting

however visions discovered, in 1828 by

make this probably because the ri734 the accordBritish In the nutritional scientific
*

existence of plankton ing to some authors,


From Los the Angeles, Professor Department of and of Southern

following viewpoint literature.

intend to analyze the available data

Biochemistry
California Camp and School of Seafood Co., Nutrition, Medicine.

and NutriMedical school,

tion, University Island,


*

Terminal
Univer-

very
in

good

review
has

of

The
been

Role
recently

of

Algae

and

California.

Plankton by M.
Stratton,
394

Medicine

published Grune and

Schwimmer Inc., New

and York,

D. 1955.

Schwimnier,

sity of Southern

California

July-August,

1958]

GEIGER

395

Plankton

represents

mixture

of

drifting

ton

protein

are

quite

unsatisfactory.

Most

microscopic distinguished respectively. phytoplankton verters


herbivorous

essentials seem to be present but their plants and small animals which are of the relative quantities and their biologic availasphytoplankton and zooplankton have not been investigated as yet.#{176} The main importance of the ability The composition of fat is, according to 5evis that theyserve as good conauthors, very similar to the fat extracted of radiating energy to food on which the eral fish.#{176} It is characterized by long chain zooplankton thrives.46 The repre- from

sentatives
small (3 to

of
20 They

phytoplankton
,nm) to represent, of zooplankton be

are
harvested

usually
and

too
most

highly

unsaturated

fatty

acids.

It

is

probable,

therefore, of

that

these

easily value sterols but

oxidizable of have their the

fatty plankbeen biologic

them
trifuges. in

cannot
harvesting

be

separated

even
in

by
fact, because

regular
a

cen- acids nuisance ton


clog isolated

affect the nutritional itself.#{176} Some specific from zooplankton

they

effect has not yet been investigated. The inorganic composition of some species The zooplankton represents a general catein zooplankton is well discussed in gory of drifting invertebrate life and not any present Vinogradovs monumental work48 which was particular species. The size of the zooplankton published in an English translation by varies between 0.5 to 30 mm and the relative recently University. (A relatively high magneparticipation of the different component species Yale silicon, iodine, iron, and arsenic content shows considerable geographic and seasonal sium,
variations. These changes in the species is characteristic. Plankton is relatively low in

the

holes

of the

nets.

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composition considered quantitative


on an overall

of in data

the plankton evaluation which some of are


analysis

will of the based plankton

have

available to be available generally samThe

calcium

and
TABLE

sulphur.)
I

(Table

I.)

Average

Inorganic

Composition

ples. Copepods, plankton, euphasids fish and


phores cious

crustaceans, pelagic tunicates are whales.


present

living and

on phytoshrimp-like foods for the ctenovorazooplankton.

%
Chlorine
Sodium Phosphorus

of

dry

weight

14.9
21.1 0.76

the
in

most important The medusa and


zooplankton on are small very

Potash
Calcium Magnesium Sulphur

1.42
0.96 1.29 0.71

animals

living

Others present are syphonophores, fish eggs, and fish larvae. The dry weight of the zooplankton between preliminary ing with position
harvest,

satittae, varies to the by wash- its cornmixed The

vitamin

-l content
who found

was

first
that

investigated
cod receives

14,
sea

11, and treatment

5 per cent such as

according squeezing, general on a

Drummond

of
is

or fresh water. zooplankton,#{176}


as follows:

The based

vitamin A such as copepods, lusca which are of

through larval present actual the

several intermediaries decapodes, and in plankton. The vitamin growth A content test, with

molinof the

%
Protein Fat Ash Carbohydrate (by difference)

of dry 52 19

weight

vestigation zooplankton

the with

to 59 7 32 to

4to

antimony trichloride test, and with the absorption Spectruln gave, however, negative results. It was therefore assumed that zooplankton contains some precursors of vitamin A. Recent investigations have shown that all proA activity resides in the non-carotinoid by multi- vitamin 6.25. Wefraction of the plankton oil. This shows that pigments other than comthis nitro- fish use zooplankton carotinoids for the elaboration of vitamin protein. mon in plank- A.7 The question arises naturally

13 to 17

The plying do gen The not is data

protein the total know, actually on the

content nitrogen however, present amino

is

calculated content much in

by of

how acids

available present

396

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL

OF

CLINICAL

NUTRITION

[Vol.

6,

No.

whether mammals The


weakly

this for vitamin


positive

material formation D content


result

can be of vitamin of
with the

used A.

also a
test,

be by permissible conclusions
whale.

at from the value Second


claimed

this the

time

to

draw

far habits German


has

reaching of sciena

feeding War that

the

gave

line

with was
D

the obtained.
content

x-ray
of D

examination It
seems The

a shown
was be literature present

negative that the


negligible. in on

was
zooplankton to

but Before result tists had vitamin nutritive

World
that

phytoplankton

similar

to

of

rye

flour nutritive no support

and

Provitamin able

considerthe ian is very

that value data

zooplankton to the have been

is equivalent best meat. published which

in its Unfortunately would

cm,4 meager. vitamin show producers


assume of this

vitamin We B,, that


that factor.4
THE

C,and did

vitamin not find

B content any Recent bacteria

data

on

content. some marine vitamin


zooplankton

investigations are excellent therefore


be a good

these occasional claims. As a further proof for the the nutritive value of zooplankton, it is usually mentioned that the Chinese and some Scannations paste Thor
of

of

B,,

and
may

we

dinavian may a tasty Kon-Tiki


consisting

use with

zooplankton a shrimp-like in
pelagic

as his that
crabs

a base flavor. of
and

for Fithe

source nally,

Heyerdahl, voyage,
copepods,

report

mentioned fish eggs and

zooplankton

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other

NUTRITIVE

VALUE

OF

PLANKTON

crustaceans,

of

fish

larvae

was

The
to fore, be it

nutritive
somewhat does not An

value
similar seem

of
to

phytoplankton
that to of represent grass.

potential
pastures.

source high in that of mineral

of protein
additional

than of the The data

grass
is

seems consumed by some is given There- information material was a better this was eaten at grown onfood
the

members however consumed the same only that

of the crew. No on how much of and what other time. These rezooplankton can its the in

disadvantage

ports

therefore but value organs

show do not or when

very ent cates tion


any

content

diatomes

phytoplankton. the available are


as to

preceding on the sufficient


nutritional

pres- be eaten nutritional mdicomposi- digestive to draw considerable The only

say anything about about its effect on consumed chronically to evaluate the nutritive has

zooplankton is

not
its

conclusions

value.

quantities. approach

The on
shows pyramid

inference the so-called


that supplies

usually nutritional

indirect
on the

and pyramid
base zooplankton, of

is

phytoplankton food

of zooplankton experimentally based value by Clarke and Bishop. which attempted authors investigated the growth and this
of weanling rats for a period of 13 days

been

These survival
and of

for

for

rats for a period of 22 days. The plankoysters, mussels, and cockles, and that this adult used was obtained from the Vineyard herbivorous zooplankton represents then the ton food for the larger fishes and for the marine Sound and was frozen at 18#{176} after C reaching It was squeezed with moderate mammals.#{176} Particularly the fact that some the laboratory. to remove excess sea water and conwhale varieties that live nearly exclusively onpressure tamed about 14 per cent of dry material. The plankton (Krill, euphasia superba) grow to 60
-

feet that
subject do

in length zooplankton
to not know

in

two years must be


also.

led an

to the excellent
This because the

conclusion food
we

terrestrial

mammals further presently

conclusion nutritive

investigation (a)

diet mixtures were prepared on the basis of the weight. As control feed Purina-Growena fordry was used. Rats fed on plankton only lost is weight rapidly and died within 4 to 19 days, but recontrols survived on about total 30 starvation. per cent Rats longer fed than on a

quirements digestive

diet composed of two-thirds meal and one-third the plankton and two-thirds plankton and oneefficiency of food conversion. third meal failed to grow as fast as rats on a We do know, however, that the food requirefull diet. The authors do not present detailed ments of terrestrial mammals such as, for inon food consumption but state only that stance, that of horses, of men, and of lions aredata ate only about two-thirds of the ration quite different and therefore it does not seem tothe rats

of the faculties

whale ; of this

(b) the mammal;

particular (c)

July-August,

1958]

GEIGER

397

offered therefore, rats but tion

when it arrive

contained at the nourishment assimilate observed

plankton. conclusion from only a also that was of these

that

They, testinal flora. theand Bishops without experimental the that no nutritive and

It is quite experiments pointing out approach.

amazing were the

that widely weak It is

Clarke publiin

derived some were able to of it. They the and

plankton cized small frac- their the stom- also undigested congested intestine. plankton on

points surprising been

ach of material

animals that fecal and in in also

contained material the the

other fundamental value of zooplankton In our opinion, do not conclusion the supply as Bishop

investigations have experiments enough to the

published. Clarke

of Inafood

in the cecum They investigated consumption


ments
, No grams
a day.

hind effect

they
toxic (wet

write
effects weight) maximum at

man. as follows:
developed of the time psychological

About

terial expen- value

to draw any of zooplankton.


ECONOMIC

PROBLEMS

after during eaten was 100 and digestibility at was of sea. certainly plankton in

eating the by any grams. distasteful. entered of Such true gave the stomach

100-200 course oe Larger into the factors that the of

material

not

negligible of

problem

seems collection.

to

be

the

The
subjects were probable

quantity one unacceptable

of economics

zooplankton

Before

the
amounts It is

definitely that palatableness laboratory to evaluate. 30-40 eating.

factors and

the
are

matter in

of the

this question and the technical harvesting can be seriously following matters will have
first, whether zooplankton can

approach of considered, the to be clarified:


be used directly

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plankton

the
o,,lv

and It grams undigested

not

easy of of hours

fora
im-

human

nutrition

or

indirectly livestock. consider low-priced value

by

feeding In

it

quantity pression several

re,naining after

to poultry for connection ently large supplements able meal. such


We

and to other we will have to quantities of with as


also

this that presprotein are or


the

Clarke
ments conditions sions:
Plankton was ergy plankton life could daily raft all in be calculated content

and
with and

Bishop
particular came

performed
observation to the

these
of following

experilife raft conclu-

high meal,
to have

biologic meat
realize

availblood
chemi-

fish

scrap,
that

with to
of

the have

observed an dry thus or about weight.

chemical approximate maximum The be / of

coniposition en2400 cc. from if it average of

cal industry vitamins and which


of
a

recently amino
from

made acids much


natural

some available than locating and


material.

essential at prices the cost which the best

are further the best

generally problem harvesting

lower one of

4 cal./g. could hours would

which 24

theoretically

obtained a mans

production

provide788 calories,

A are

is

assi,nilated,

grounds

requirements.

A sults the

critical shows present

experiments objections smaller


plankton

seasons to collect zooplankton.6424 The varof plankton is such that it would be review of Clarke and Bishops re-iability exceedingly difficult to predict what type and that their methods were not up to what amount would be encountered in any standards by which nutritional situation, at least until that area has should be designed. Some of the given studied for a long time.9 It was found are that the rats consumed much been

quantities
than from

from
the

the
control

diet
diet.

containing
Further-

by

several in

authors

that

the

distribution

of

zoo-

plankton44
changes

is

patchy,

that
as well

there
as

are
in

abrupt
amounts,

iiore, (S per
quantities

we

see

that of
have

due the
been

to

the

high

water diet,

content too

composition

cent) of

experimental
offered.

content dilution content utilization.

the

diet

may

lead

of the of the

digestive juices. diet may have large

large that there is a ertical v diurnal variation so that species climb several hundred feet in The high water some evening toward the surface of the ocean. to an abnormal this, there is the recently discovered seaThe high salt sides sonal vertical variation in plankton distribution. influenced the quantities
Also of recently described is the as an important

the Be-

Furthermore,

source

undigested material were stagnating in the testinal tract. This may have influenced only the utilization of the diet itself but the ilnportant nutritional function of the

in-of zooplankton between notexists the alsoproaches insunrise and

scattering and

layer2

which ft and sunset apand

900 surface consists

2,700 between mainly

which

of small crus-

398

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL

OF

CLINICAL

NUTRITION

[Vol.6,

No.4

taceans. the available


plankto&6

We

have of
needs

to

realize

furthermore depends The


and

that on phytoare
i.e.,

vided the the

that to

people

would A

eat, further

digest,

and

utilize be harphytorep-

gro

vth

zooplankton

zooplankton. be that without

complication cannot of some always

sunshine

minerals

seems for vested explankton.

zooplankton admixture of phytoplankton

its the

development
or if the

and
water

if

the
is not

minerals
plowed,

hausted,

minerals

are

not

replaced or

from dies.2139 with river of West coast.35


sho

layers, the phytoplankton ing with deeper water curs the


gations
fib

at the western
in

shallow South
the

coasts American
North

if The deeper resents This mix- highly water ocstance Africa and waters Investiproduce

collection

the

a hazard because toxic representatives Gonyaulax catenella and Gymnodium extensive fish that forms which turn a highly there living may otherwise toxic lead

there are different kno vn, for inin the California dinoflaggalates mortality. are many in different to poisoning fish Another and We which have

Atlantic

main to

vering in

in summer

spring and Not


the

and a

waning second

of crop

the in

populaautumn

assume plankton

other toxic geographic of fish seafood danger in or

tion or the
tudes

winter. abnormally
near

well explained, high density in


Poles.

however, the high

locations is which

edible oo#{176}

lati- into

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consumption of plankton The question as to the feasibility of collect- ing of stinging forms ing plankton has been discussed by scientists sumption of Portuguese and lay authors and we have to realize that serious consequences. both usually go overboard in their predicWe want to emphasize
tions.* Some authors, for instance, claim vesting

may be the swallowas for instance the conMan-O-War may have


that instead of har-

that ganic about the earths much

the

sea

yields per as the sea land.4 with that

from

one

to

three

material as much ocean as surface the

acre per one acre about produces Other these plants

year. of forest. 70 per about authors,

of or-and This means crease Because haden cent twice and ocean of as however, theeasily
nutritious countries

tons

zooplankton more economical the catch of and trashfish. provided the food were where sufficient
seems

it

would for the This human augmented.

be more realistic time being to inof could demands manbe done for this In many availurgent of the

herring-varieties,

represents

the

do not agree son assumes

calculations, in the

Niel- able in fix 12 problem

animal protein quantities, the tobe the preservation

is not most

million tons of carbon yearly the 19 Inillion tons fixed by Most of these estimates include plankton. The was experimentally and Sears4 who during maximal plankton pus found Heyerdahl
of zooplankton. constructed suitably

compared with fishcatch in palatable form ready for transporland plants.947 tation from the fishing areas to the interior.4 phyto and zoo- The reluctance to accept fishflour as food inactual yield on zooplankton gredient for human consumption, as observed determined by Bigelow recently in many underprivileged countries, found in the upper water layers in my opinion, raises a serious doubt as to production 0.5 to 0.8 ml zoo- whether dried zooplankton will ever be acand Bum- ceptable to 1.0 mi.8trition. 2.5
that men could

per m3 of water. Clarke in the shallow stratum 0.3 obtained during


Hardy#{176} nets two

as seems the

protein first

supplement the value

for problems of plankton

human connected and

nu-

one
predicts

day

to
with

5 kg
col-

It

with

that nutritive

the

lect daily 588 lb of plankton Scotland enough to feed think however, that it should
*

feasibility of feeding it to men and animals must on the coasts of be solved, and then the different harvesting 357 people. Weterritories will have to be investigated for posbe added: pro- sible contamination of the crop with toxic maan of krill article in shortage. the based Antarctic on

It was

suggested that the Scient. worlds Amer.

recently, trawhing

in

terial. portance, and


E.

This latter however,

problem because

seems of minor imof the geographic forms. collection harvesting is and

sheer area, help Pequegnat:

speculation, may to solve be more

profitable
food 198:

than
protein 84, 1958.)

whaling

and

may
(W.

the

seasonal limitation further problem development of

of toxic in plankton efficient

July-August,

1958]

GEIGER

399

drying

equipment.4

Recently

excellent

rotary

These

investigations but
our

may they service


also to

be
As

time yield
such,

consuming some
they

filters purposes
could

and
be

driers and
well

have it
adapted

been that
for

developed such with


of the and plankton

seems connection
evaluation in

other and expensive equipment answers to


harvesting.

for

would not

basic
would

problem.

represent
of of may Ourshort nutrition

a great
but

only

to

the

science
they

The
seems plankton

final
to

step
be the collection

in

our
cents.

problem

humanity

because

economics

dollars

answer cut
whether

the possible

question in the
can

of whether nutritional
be utilized

there is a pyramid,
directly

present
be has now solve never there or

abundance
for been has even not seriously

of
the actually been

food
fact an study

resources
that investigated. urgent these this

seems
question Until necessity problems,

toi.e.,

plankton

responsible

for feeding There is plankton to and


on

a for we

of man possibility such will


food

and that
may

terrestrial animals. the utilization not in


in

of

purposes have to

be the
the

feasible future
form

that
intermediary

rely

also
of

but
of

we
certain

quote
made

in
alternatives

this
by

connection
Lucas there to

the the
not the

following
be the

converters

statements incentive to

I: n
may solve

presence
technical

fish vert form

and other conventional the nutrients present which


man and

seafoods which in plankton to and can be

conto utilized

attempt

is acceptable
terrestrial
REFERENCES

problems be solved The food,


tap

which might easily-and if these alternatives be a much quantity,


discouraged

were

profitablyby no longer.

Downloaded from www.ajcn.org by guest on May 15, 2012

animals.

result might in far greater


originally new source. a

cheaper source of than those whose 1.


the urge to
2.

abundance

BAJIKOv, food in
T BELLOC,

A. : Utilization emergei,cy. A rmy


1945. FABRE, R., nd a

of marine A ir Force

plaiikto,, Serial No.

as

SEAL-5H-4-184, G.,

SIMMONET,

H.

The The 191:

SUGGESTIONS

FOR

FURTHER

NUTRITIONAL

RESEARCH

study study 160,

of of 1930.

the sterols

biological of plankton.

activity ompt.

of

sterols. rend.

Before
connected seriously

any
with

economic
the the

or
utilization

technical
of question

problems
plankton should are 3. first

VAN
in

BENEDEN,

G.

: Presence Bull. centre II and : 216,


M.

of

vitamin

and
et Univer-

C
docu-

considered,

plankton.

Beige 1949. : harvard

etude

be
as

investigated
such or or these the as for a points

whether
supplementary the of livestock

plankton
food nutrition. amino plankton In acid for

can
order

be
human to

used
4.

nient
BIGELOW,

eaux H.

(Liege) B.

SEARS,

feeding clarify and

sity. oirs. 54: 5.


BONNOT,

Museum 189, P. T. 1939. and

of

Comparative :

Zoology. Red water.

Men:-

composition protein will

PHILLIPS,

B.

digestibility

Calif. 6.
CHACE,

Fish and F. A. : Exped.

Game

24:

57, the

1938. Bermuda
V.) 25:

have

to

be

investigated. may of this give information protein and


food.

Animal experiments the biologic value


efficiency sible may presence be utilized
be

on on its
poswhether

ogr. 1940.

Plankton of IX. Zoologica

Ocean117.

(N.

as studied

supplementary of unidentified and also

The question same birds. the excess

7.
8.

CLARKE,

G.

: : G.

Discussion

Plankton

as

food

source
CLARKE,

for
G.

man. Elements L. of

Science of

89:

602, Ecology. D. W.

1939. Wiley, : The New nutri-

growth

factors which
nutritional It will of

the

York,

1954. and BISHOP, marine value 1948.


G. , DRUMMOND, GUNTHER,

the
be
also

provitamins
by in
necessary

present
fish mammals
to

in
have

plankton
the and how

can

9.

CLARKE, tional 29:54,

zooplankton.

Ecology

importance

study be

10.

COLLIN,

minerals
as magnesium

and nutritive

particularly
can

of
eliminated.

some crops

cations harvested

such at11.

and Biol.
CORLETT,

E. of

R.

J. C. , HILDITCH, : Observations
plankton. phyto-plankton I andJ. 1953. C. : An. Methionine Fac. Sanit.,
GUNTHER,

T.

P.,

on J. at

the Exper. Ocean (Cocystin

fatty

constituents 11: 198, T. :

marine 1934. Net

The different Finally, should

value should a crucial toman

of be

localities as be fed

compared. plankton controlled well


12.
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