Indian Philosophy Final Exam notes

1. Bring out the difference between Vedism and Hinduism a. Vedism was the religion of the Indo-European people who entered India at about 1500 BC, formerly of the Iran area. It is called Vedism from the collection of sacred texts known as the Vedas. The Vedas are the oldest stratum of religious activity in India having written materials. Vedism was the starting point of Hinduism. b. Vedism was a polytheistic, sacrificial religion. Hinduism is henotheistic, for, at different time periods, one god is held supreme, yet other gods are still considered. c. Late Vedic thought, which leads to Hinduism, became more philosophical and speculative search for harmony between macrocosm and microcosm. Brahman (universal soul) and atman (the innermost being of things, the essence of which is bliss), merging; atman (the self) and brahman (ultimate reality) becomes the basis for Hindu metaphysics. d. 600 BC, karma and release from the samsaric circle through meditation than sacrifice meant the end of Vedism and the appearance of Hinduism. 2. What is the central teaching of the Upanishads? Explain its importance. a. Upanishads also called the wisdom section because it dealt with philosophy and mysticism, and the emphasis was on knowledge alone. Knowledge the ultimate reality in all phenomena. There is a desire for mystical knowledge ensuring freedom from re-death. b. Death was not the end: samsaric circle of life and death c. Central teaching: Brahman is atman. Brahman, the greatest, also bursts forth into the manifested world, is viewed as nothing but atman (innermost self of man, but also the innermost self of all beings) d. Originally, atman = breath; but then it becomes that which pervades, that which gives, that which eats, and that which constantly accompanies 1. 2. 3. 4. i. Koshas (sheets covering the innermost being) Bodily self Vital self Thinking self Innermost self (bliss) ananda e. Also (see below); the first three being states of the self, contrasted with the fourth, which is transcendent (turiya) i. Waking (jagrat) ii. Dreaming (svapna) iii. Dreamless sleep (susupti) f. Spiritualization of Brahman and the universalization of atman g. neti-neti, not this or that, [negative] others uphold positively the all pervasiveness of Brahman h. Brahman: infinite, truth, knowledge, but also as consciousness, existence, bliss 3. Mention some of the Great Sayings and explain their significance.

f.

I am Brahman. The significance of this would be that of that of the Upanishad teaching of Brahman being atman. It is not the person saying this who is Brahman, yet Brahman can be experienced in the innermost person of the individual. Brahman, the greatest, resides in the individual, and thus the individual is part of, and harmonious with, the universe. g. That thou art. h. These short aphoristic statements summarize the teachings of the Vedas, and are easily recalled even by the lay people. By summarizing vedic teachings, the aphoristic statements make vedic teachings more accessible to the people, and thus less intimidating and complicated. Thus, vedic teachings become more personal. 4. Explain the meaning of karma in the context of liberation and the paths leading to it. f. Karma literally means action, and this action brings about either good or bad followings. Ones life goes on as this, and one is reborn based on the fruits of ones actions. One is reborn and blessed well if one did good in ones previous life. The same applies to bad following and bad action. g. Karma does not concern liberation, but rather the cycle of rebirth which still involves another cycle of a life pervaded by karma. Karma is part of the samsaric cycle of life and death. For the liberation of this, one can go to the Bhagavadgita and reiterate action without desire. h. Action without desire can be achieved devotion to God and discipline of action. i. Karma is an animating principle, not a reward. 5. Bring out the important distinction between Shruti and Smirti. f. Shruti What is heard. This contains the four Vedas. The Sama Veda (psalms), Atharva Veda, Rig Veda (verses), Yajur Veda (prose formulas), as well as the Upanishads, or the wisdom section. g. Vedas, along with Upanishads, are apauruseya, or that it is not composed by anyone. Thus, it cannot be contradicted by empirical evidence. The lack of an author makes for the eternality of the Vedas. Sayana (commentator): created by Brahma. h. Smirti What is recollected. This contains the traditional texts after the Upanishads, and concerns human memory. The Sutras and Shastras are part of Smirti. And Sutras, Vedangas, as well as Shastras, that aid in the implementation of rituals, especially in the performance and liturgy. i. Dharma sutra: manuals on dharma, duties at various stages of life 6. How do the Vedas differ from the Upanishads? f. The Vedas dealt more with rituals, for ritual sacrifices in return for material boons, and these ritual sacrifices were allegedly effective with songs and performances. In the Vedas, quality of life depended on the ritual, or that the thought which prevailed was more routinely, or mechanistic. g. The Upanishads, also called the wisdom section, is the last component of the Vedas, composed of mystically oriented and originally esoteric texts. Such texts spelt the beginnings of philosophy and mysticism in Indian thought. h. In the Upanishads, a knowledge concerning reality was more important than the mechanism of rituals because, at the time the Upanishads were composed

i.

Brahmanism made for the over-complexification of rituals, which sparked an intellectual movement. In the Vedas, the focus was on the rituals. In the Upanishads, knowledge alone.

7. Bring out the link between sacrifice and rta. f. Rta = cosmological rhythm, rhythm of nature, too, as seen in the repeating of the four seasons, since time, in Indian thought, is considered cyclical, and marked by yugas. Now, whenever there is a disturbance of the cycle, sacrifice is needed to influence the devas, or the cosmic engineers, so that they could put rhythm back on track.

8. How do Indian Philosophers distinguish the orthodox systems from the unorthodox? f. The orthodox systems are distinguished from deriving their systems from the authority of the Vedas. g. Unorthodox systems do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Usually, there exists a sort of negation, as what is common in the movements of and in Buddhism. There is a rejection of duty, or dharma, and also a rejection of a need to worship a supreme Being. Also, as seen in Buddhism, there is a denial of doctrine of Brahman is atman, for in the unorthodox system of Buddhism, there is no concept of the self, and that even Nirvana can be ephemeral. 9. Bring out the importance of the Epics. f. The Epics, like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the Bhagavadgita, all show the teachings concerning many aspects of community as well as dharma. These epics took shape out of the stories, mythology, and philosophies at that time. The symbolical and metaphorical literary style allows for the easy understanding of the meanings implied in the images, like power through a god having four arms, or fertility through a goddess having four breasts. Through the stories, people gain models worth following and modelling from. In the Epics, the existence of a storyline allows for the insertion of religious statements, especially concerning dharma, ethics, etc. g. In the Mahabharata, the triumph of good over evil is emphasized, and the story itself is implicated deeply in the religious aspect. h. In the Ramayana, Ramas reign becomes the prototype of a harmonious and just kingdom, to which all kings sould aspire to. Rama and Sita set the ideal for conjugal love; Rama to his father as filial love; Rama and Laksmana as fraternal love; everything in the mind designed for harmony. i. In the Bhagavadgita, devotion is given emphasis as well as discipline of action. 10. What do the dharm sutras and the shastras deal with? f. Dharma sutra are manuals on dharma, duties at various stages of life. Addresses people at various stages of life. Manu-smriti: various topics such as cosmogony, definition of dharma, sacraments, initiation, marriage, purification, etc. g. Juridical law embedded in religious law and practice: manifested in the caste system. Dharma Shastras: become the basis for Hindu law: Dharma Shastras of Manu, Smriti

h. Some sutras, too, deal with the performance of a ritual, of the correct performances, proper hymns, proper time period for the celebration of a ritual. Some sutras also include manuals on life. 11. Explain the central teaching of the Bhagavadgita. f. The central teaching deals with action with desire. Dharma without selfinterest, yet without the denial of the relevance of the discipline of knowledge g. Way of release is through devotion to God (bhakt-yoga) h. Three different ways of releasing the self from transmigration: i. Discipline of action: not the acts that bind, but the intentions; thus, dharma without any self-interest ii. Does not deny the relevance of the discipline of knowledge: one seeks release in an ascetic course of withdrawal and concentration iii. Discipline via devotion to God (bhakti-yoga); in response to this devotion, God will extend his grace, enabling them to overcome the bonds of this world. 12. What do the Puranas deal with? a. Puranas are voluminous texts that treat in encyclopedic manner the myths, legends, genealogies. b. Scripture of the common people, to women and even to the lowest class. Separation in terms of acknowledging certain gods popularly. Some important gods in the Vedas gain minor roles in Puranic literature. c. Sectarianism eventually creeps into Puranic mythology d. Cosmogony: Narayana (identified with Vishnu) floated on the snake Ananta (endless) on the primeval waters. From this navel grew a lotus, and there Brahma was seen reciting the four Vedas with his four mouths: egg of Brahma, containing all the worlds. End of the world: not ultimate, merely cyclical; periodic destruction; tandava dance of Shiva, doomsday, but only temporary (pralaya), after which creation begins in the same fashion. Manu: primordial ancestor of humankind. e. Cosmology: Heaven, earth, netherworld; heaven having seven layers, the tip of which is Brahma-loka, or the world of Brahma. On earth, there are seven circular continents, the central one surrounded by the salty ocean and each of the other concentric continents by oceans of other liquids; center of central mainland is India. 13. Bring out the significance of Purva-Mimamsa epistemology. a. According to Jaimini, Vedic injunctions not only describe, but also recommend actions as a means to a goal. Vedic injunctions make for the attainment of heaven. b. Only statements in scripture are sources of all valid knowledge of dharma (not from God, since these are natural); eternal, however c. Jaiminis central concern is dharma: i. dharma as a desired object, whose durability is testified only by the injunctive statements of the scriptures; ii. dharma not as an existent reality, but a future course of action which cannot be known by sense-experience; iii. only injunctive statements can state what ought to be done d. Mimamsa rejects the belief that these utterances are of God. Words themselves are authoritative

e. Shabara: epistemological themes of the sutras; intrinsic validity of experience; error due to the presence of defects in the ways of knowing; soul as separate entity that enjoys the results of ones actions in this or in the next life f. Vedanta-sutras: approves words and meaning relation is eternal. But the dispenser of fruits is Ishvara. Jaimini stresses on ritualism (dharma). Badarayana stresses philosophical portions (Upanishads) (focus on Brahman, or absolute reality). Badarayanas sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy; approves eternal relation of the words and their significations; however, the dispenser of fruits is Ishvara. Relation of Vedanta to the Mimamsa is difficult to ascertain. Karma against path of knowledge. To the Vedanta-sutras, only Brahman is external. 14. Comment on Samkhya metaphysics. d. theistic, as regards the unmanifested as the purusa (the self). Samkhya-sutras are theistic, yet the karikas are atheistic. e. Karikas: many selves (each being of the nature of pure consciousness). Self: neither original matter (prakrti) or an evolute. Matter has three gunas, but the self is not of the gunas. Matter, unlike the self, is creative. Existence of self through ordered arrangement in nature meant for another, this other being a conscious spirit. All selves are passive witnesses, essentially alone; neutral, non-agentic. f. Satkaryavada: effect is implicitly pre-existent in the cause prior to production g. Phenomenal nature is regarded as an evolution out of a primitive state of matter, known through satkaryavada h. Original prakrti is the primary matrix out of which all differentiations arise, within which all was contained in an indistinguishable manner. i. Prakrti: original matter is i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. uncaused, eternal, all-pervading, one, independent, self-complete, no distinguisable parts g. Matter has three gunas: (either being caused or uncaused) i. Non-discriminating ii. Object iii. General, non-conscious, creative h. Evolution: i. Buddhi: intelligence ii. Ahamkara: ego-sense iii. Manas: mind iv. Five tanmatras The sense data Color Sound Smell Touch

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

Taste v. Five organs of touch (five gross elements, including ether) i. Nature is said to consist of three gunas, originally in equilibrium, in states of mutual preponderance:

i. Light: harmony, reveals others ii. Activity: dynamic iii. Inertia: heaviness Mans varying psyhological responses are thus hypostatized and made into components properties or elements of nature (disproved by Shankara). 15. How does the Yoga-sutra understand God, self, and body? j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. Yoga-sutras define God: distinct self (purusa), untouched by suffering, actions and their effects, etc Gods existence through the degrees of knowledge found in finite beings, ascending, ending in omniscience, characterized by God; source of all secular and scriptural traditions. Self: distinct from the mind Mental state not self-intimating; it is known in introspection Unchangeable self Self knows = self is reflected in the mental state Aim of yoga: arrest mental modifications so that the self remains in its true, undefiled essence, not subject to suffering Attitude to the body: ambivalence; body treated as filthy, unclean Bodily perfection: Beauty, grace strength, adamantine hardness in final stage, mental modifications cease to be and self is left in its pure, undefiled state of utter isolation, freedom, or absolute independence j.

1.

i. Restraint ii. Observance iii. Posture iv. Regulation of breath v. Abstraction of senses vi. Concentration vii. Meditation viii. Trance Superconsious/ conscious 16. Spell out the Nyaya-Vaishesika epistemology.

a.

Both Nyaya-Vaishesika schools are realistic with regard to things, properties, relations, and universals. Pluralistic (selves) and theistic. External relations possible (inherence is only partly internal). Existence as the most comprehensive universal. Knowledge as the quality of the self, with correspondence (theory) with nature. pragmatism-cum-coherence regarding truths validation. b. Six modes of contacts by Uddyotakara of senses with their objects. Inferences into those whose major premise is universally present, those in which one has to depend only upon the rule: Whenever there is absence of the major, there is absence of the middle and those in which both the positive and the negative rules are at ones disposal. Argued that the meaning of a word is apprehended only by hearing the last letter of the word together with the recollection of the preceding ones. c. Mishra: perception into two kinds: o the indeterminate, nonlinguistic, and nonjudgemental

o d.

e. f.

g. o o h. o o o o i. o j.

a. b.

c.

d.

determinate and judgemental Mishra: in defining the invariable connection between the middle and the major premises, he introduced of a vitiating condition and stressed that the required sort of connection, if an inference is to be valid, should be unconditional. He also proposed a modified version of the theory of the extrinsic validity of knowledge by holding that inferences as well as knowledges that are the last verifiers are self-validating. Prashastapada: independent. All that is is knowable and also nameable. Knowledge: a distinguishing but not essential property of a self which arises when appropriate conditions are present. Consciousness as a manifestation of object, but is not itself self-manifesting known by an act of inner perception. Knowledge is memory; knowledge other than memory is either true or false; untrue knowledge is either doubt or error. Error: uncompromising realism by holding that the object of error is still real, but is only not here and now. True knowledge apprehends its object as it is. True knowledge perception, inference, verbal testimony or comparison. Perception: knowledge arising from the contact of senses with their objects, and viewed either indeterminate and nonlinguistic or as determinate and judgemental. Perception: either as ordinary (through the six modes of sense-object contact or extraordinary (perceiving through another sense synesthesia, or when, upon recognizing universals in a particular, one perceives all instances of the universal as its instances. Four conditions to a meaningful sentence: A word should generate an intention or expectancy for the words to follow Mutual fitness (appropriateness in the sequence) Proximity in space and time Proper intention of the speaker must be ascertained, otherwise there would be equivocation. Analyzing knowledge, judgemental knowledge can be analyzed into three kinds of epistemological entities in their correlations: qualifiers, qualificandum, or that which can be qualified, and relatedness This is a blue pot, The knowledge that has a qualificandumness in what is denoted by this is conditioned by a qualifierness in blue and also conditioned by another qualifierness in potness. Inference:posterior knowledge of an object with the help of knowledge of its mark. Navya-Nyaya: inference as knowledge caused by the knowledge that the minor term possesses the middle term, which is recognized as pervaded by the major term. 17. Critically examine Shankaras theory of unqualified non-dualism. Shankara extolled metaphysical knowledge as the sole means of liberation and regarded even the concept of God as false. Atmadvaita: the thesis that the one, universal, eternal, and self-illuminating self whose essence is pure consciousness without a subject and without an object from a transcendent point of view alone is real. The phenomenal world and finite individuals, though empirically real, are, from the higher point of view, merely false appearances. Reason can only be used to justify truths revealed in the scriptures. Metaphysics is based on a criterion of reality, which may be briefly formulated as follows: the real is that whose negation is not possible. The only thing that satisfies this criterion is consciousness, because denial of consciousness presupposes the consciousness that denies. It is conceivable that any object is not existent, but the absence of consciousness is not conceivable. Negation may be either mutual negation (of difference) or absence. The latter is either absence of a thing prior to its origination or after its destruction or absence of a thing in a place other than where it is present. If the negation of consciousness is not conceivable, then none of these various kinds of negations can be predicated of consciousness. If difference cannot be predicated of consciousness, then consciousness is the only reality and anything different from it would be unreal. If the other three kinds of absence are not predicable of it, then consciousness should be beginningless, without end, and ubiquitous. Consciousness is self-intimating; all objects depend upon consciousness for their manifestation. Difference may be either among members of the same class or of one

individual from another of a different class or among parts of one entity. None of these is true of consciousness. In other words, there are not many consciousnesses; the plurality of many centers of consciousness should be viewed as an appearance. e. There is no reality other than consciousnessno real matter, such a thing would only be an unreal other. consciousness does not have any internal parts; there are not many conscious states. The distinction between consciousness between blue and yellow is not a distinction within consciousness but one superimposed on it by a distinction among its objects, blue and yellow.pluralism is refuted. Reality is one, infinite, eternal, and self-shining spirit; it is without any determination, for all determination is negation. 18. Explain the concept of bhedabheda. a. The philosophies of trascendence and immanence assert both identity and difference between the world and finite individuals, on the one hand, and Brahman, on the other. The world and finite individuals are real and yet both different and not different from Brahman. b. Though Brahman as cause is different from Brahman as effect, the two are identical inasmuch as the effect dissolves the cause, as waves return into the sea. c. Bhaskara: Brahman as both the material and the efficient cause of the world. The doctrine of maya was totally rejected. Brahman undergoes the modifications by his own power. As the waves are both different from and identical with the sea, so are the world and the finite individuals in relation to Brahman. The finite selves are parts of Brahman, as sparks of fire are parts of fire. But the finite soul exists, since beginningless time, under the influence of ignorance. It is atomic in extension and yet animates the whole body. d. Corresponding to the material world and finite selves, Bhaskara, in his theory of knowledge, ascribed to God two powers of self-modification. Knowledge: selfconsciousness that is ever present and objective knowledge that passively arises out of appropriate causal conditions but is not an activity. Mind is a sense organ. e. Knowledge is intrinsically true, though falsity is extrinsic to it. f. Bhaskara: ethics: religious duties as binding at all stages of life. Performance of duties together with knowledge of Brahman leads to liberation. Bhakti is not mere feeling or devotion, also meditation directed towards the transcendent Brahman who is not exhausted in his manifestations. g. Bhaskara denied the possibility of liberation in bodily existence. 19. How does Ramanuja differ from Madhva in his theory of reality? a. Ramanuja: rejected Shankaras conception of reality. Brahman is a being with infinitely perfect excellent virtues, a being whose perfection cannot be exceeded. The world and finite individuals are eral, and together they constitute the body of Brahman. The category of body and soul is central to his way of thinking. Body that which can be controlled and moved for the purpose of the spirit. b. The material world and the conscious spirits, though substantive realities, are yet inseparable from Brahman and thus qualify him in the same sense as body qualifies soul. (Qua-lifies). Brahman is spiritual-material-qualified. c. Such a beginningless, positive ignorance could not have any locus or any object, and if it does conceal the self-shining Brahman, then there would be no way of escaping from its clutches. Ramanuja: uncompromising realism. Whatever is known is real, and only the real can be known. Even the object of error is realerror is really incomplete knowledgeand correction of error really is completion of incomplete knowledge. d. Madhva: uncompromsing dualism, traced back thought from Upanishads. Pluralist: glorified difference. Five types of difference central to Madhvas system: a. Difference between:

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

God and matter Soul and God Soul and soul Soul and matter Matter and matter

e. Brahman is the fullness of qualities, and by his own intrinsic nature, Brahman produces the world. The individual, otherwise free, is dependent only upon God. The Advaita concepts of falsity and indescribability of the world were severely criticized and rejected. f. God: cannot be proven, but learnt from scriptures. Devotion is the only way of release, but ultimately it is the grace of God that saves. 20. Bring out the place of bhakti in the philosophy of Caitanya. a. Rejected the intermediate Brahman. Brahman, has three transcendent powers: the trascendent power that is threefold (bliss, being, consciousness) and two immanent powers (creating souls and material world). b. Bliss the very substance of Brahman c. Caitanya: unique emotional fervor d. Jiva: Gods essential power: peripheral power that creates souls, and the external power (maya) that creates cosmic forms. The relation between God and his powers is neither identity nor difference, no-identity-with-difference. This relation, unthinkable and suprarational, is central to Caitanyas philosophy. e. Jiva: the relation between any whole and its parts is unthinkable. Bhakti is the means to emancipation. Bhakti is conceived as a reciprocal relation between man and God, and manifestation of Gods power in man.