CombatingDiscriminationBasedon SexualOrientationandGenderIdentity

TheRightsofSexualandGenderMinoritiesin InternationalHumanRightsLaw
NitinSood,December2011

ABSTRACT Year 2011 marked a significant development for the human rights of sexualandgenderminorities.TheUNHumanRightsCounciladopteda resolutionsupportingthecombatagainstdiscriminationbasedonsexual orientation and gender identity, and produced a report in mid December2011thathighlightsthestrugglesoflesbian,gay,bisexualand transgender people all over the world. This paper will examine human rightsinstrumentsandtheirapplicationtosexualandgenderminorities. Furthermore it will investigate how the existing human rights treaties have been used by GayRussia to support the rights of Russian lesbian, gay,bisexualandtransgenderpeople.

TableofContents
Introduction........................................................................................3 LegalFramework.................................................................................5 RussiaViolatinginternationalhumanrights?..................................11 Conclusion.........................................................................................14 WorksCited.......................................................................................17 LegalDocumentsCited......................................................................19

Introduction
After sixty years of adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, over seventy states continue to decriminalize the consensual sexual conduct between adultsofthesamesexandmakeitpunishablebyimprisonmentandevenbydeath in seven UNmember states. However, 2011 has been a remarkable milestone for advocatingtherightsofsexualandgenderminoritiesintheinternationalcommunity astheUNHumanRightsCounciladoptedthefirsteverUNresolutiononthehuman rightsoflesbian,gay,bisexualandtransgenderpeople.1Asaresultoftheresolution passedonJune17earlierthisyear,theUNHighCommissionerpublishedthefirst everUnitedNationsreportonhumanrights,sexualorientationandgenderidentity, which urges the States to apply the international legal framework to end human rightsviolationsconcerningsexualandgenderminorities.2 Althoughtheyear2011hasbeenparticularlyvictoryforrealizingthehumanrightsof lesbian,gay,bisexualandtransgenderpeople,thestruggleisnotoverinanypartof theworld,includinginEuropeannationsorinSouthAfrica,whichisoneofthefew countriesintheworldthathasexplicitlyprohibiteddiscriminationbasedonsexual orientation and gender identity in its constitution. Human Rights Watch highlights the magnitude of violence and discrimination against South African black lesbians and transgender men in its report Well Show Youre a Woman and pinpoints that the Netherlands, the first country in the world to legalize samesex marriages, violatestherightsoftransgenderpeoplebecauseofthe1985law,article28ofthe civil code, which allows trans people to change their gender on official documents onlyonconditionthattheyrepermanentlyandirreversiblyinfertileandhavegone through hormonetherapy and surgery.34Even though both countries are far more 1 HumanRightsCouncil,AgendaItem8,HRC/17/L.9/Rev.1(2011) 2 HumanRightsCouncil,AgendaItems2and8,HRC/19/41(2011) 3 "Report: We'll Show You Are A Woman." Human Rights Watch. www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/southafrica1211.pdf (accessed December 21,2011). 3

progressedwhencomparedtothemostofthestatesinworld,furtherworkmustbe done is needed to guarantee the rights and protection of sexual and gender minorities. In this research I will examine what rights the international human rights legal framework provides for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals of the world and how major international and regional human rightstreaties support the combat against discrimination based on individuals sexual orientation and gender identity.InparticularIassessRussiasviolationsofhumanrightslawinregardsto sexualandgenderminoritiesandpayspecificattentiontothenotoriousantigaybill passed in St. Petersburg just few weeks prior to the publication of UN report on humanrights,sexualorientationandgenderidentity.Thebill,whichbanspromotion ofhomosexuality,transsexualityandpaedophiliatominors,stirredrageamongthe human rightsactivists who condemn the bill to violate the international human rightslaws.AseveralcaseshavebeenfiledagainstRussiaforviolatinghumanrights in regards to sexual and gender minorities, and in this paper I will particularly investigate how GayRussia, a Russian NGO, has used the existing human rights instruments to challenge Russian authorities, that persist to violate the rights of LGBTpeople.

4 "The Netherlands: Transgender Law Violates Rights." Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/09/13/netherlandstransgenderlawviolatesrights (accessedDecember22,2011). 4

LegalFramework
EuropeanConventiononHumanRights,alegallybindingdocumentandratifiedby allmemberstatesofCouncilofEurope,includingRussia,makesnoexplicitreference tosexualorientation.However,theEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsconfirmedinits ruling in 1999 that Article 14 on the prohibition of discrimination includes sexual orientation.5Inadditionsexualandgenderminoritieshavesuccessfullyarguedthat theArticle8ofECHRontherighttorespectforprivatelifeallowssamesexsexual activity,whichwasconfirmedbytheEuropeanCourtinitsdecisioninDudgeonvUK. Besides ECHR, Committee of Ministers adopted a Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. Article 4(3) prohibits discrimination on sexual orientation and gender identity and the report by Commissioner for Human Rights advertises the convention to be the first legally bindinginternationaltreatytoincludeexplicitlybothsexualorientationandgender identityasprohibitedgroundsofdiscrimination.6However,onlyeighteenEuropean states have signed the convention, which prohibits discrimination on grounds of sexualorientationandgenderidentity.7Russiaisnotasignatorymember. European Social Charter, a legally binding instrument of Council of Europe, also affirmsopenendednondiscriminationprovisioninarticleEbutmakesnoreference to sexual orientation or gender identity. However in 2009 European Committee of SocialRights,institutionthatmonitorstheCharter,concludedinInternationalCentre for the Legal Protection of Human Rights (Interights) v. Croatia that Croatias curriculum covering sex education discriminates on the basis of sexual orientation. AccordingtothecommitteeCroatiabreachedArticle112ofthe1961Charter(right 5 Moutav.Portugal,(Appno.33290/96),ECHR21December1999. 6 Council of Europe, Comissioner for Human Rights. Discrimination on grounds of sexualorientationandgenderidentityinEurope.p.38 7 "Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence." Council of Europe. http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=210&CM=1&DF=&C L=ENG(accessedDecember22,2011). 5

to protection of health) and asserted that educational materials [should] not reinforce demeaning stereotypes and perpetuate forms of prejudice which contribute to the social exclusion, embedded discrimination and denial of human dignityoftenexperiencedbyhistoricallymarginalisedgroupssuchaspersonsofnon heterosexualorientation.8 In 2010 Committee of Ministers approved a recommendation on measures to combatdiscriminationongroundsofsexualorientationorgenderidentity.Although the nature of the instrument is not binding, the recommendation encourages memberstatestoexaminetheirpoliciesandlegislationandinvestigateiftheyfulfil thecriteriaimplementedintherecommendation.However,preciselybecauseofits nonbinding characteristic the significance of the recommendation is merely more thanjustsymbolic. In contrast to the instruments of Council of Europe, in 2011 the United Nations passed one of its kind resolution concerning the rights of sexual and gender minoritiesandconsequentlyproducedfirsteverUNreportonhumanrights,sexual orientation and gender identity. The report is a significant milestone for guaranteeing LGBTQrights as it is the first UNdocument to recognizes that all people, including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender, are entitled to enjoy the protectionsprovidedbyinternationalhumanrightslaw,includinginrespectofrights tolife9EvenfurtheritaddressestheincompetenceofInternationalCovenanton CivilandPoliticalRightsandInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCultural Rights and assets that specific grounds of discrimination referred to ICCPR and

8 InternationalCentrefortheLegalProtectionofHumanRights (Interights)v.CroatiaCollectiveComplaintNo.45/2007,decisionof30March2009, paragraphs6061. 9 OHCHR Report: Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity UN Doc A/HRC/19/41 6

other human rights treaties are not exhaustive and should include sexual orientationandgenderidentity.10 The report also underlines the state obligations under international human rights law and the responsibility of the state to protect gender and sexual minorities. It emphasizes that the states must protect the right to life, liberty and security of persons irrespective of sexual orientation and gender identity with accordance to Article3oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandArticle6ofICCPR,bothof whichguaranteetherighttolife.UnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncilalsoaffirmed that the states may not expel or return a refugee to a place where their life or freedom would be under jeopardy on account of sexual orientation or gender identity as laid down on Article 33 of ICCPR (sexual and gender minorities may constitute as part of particular social group). Although the report significantly elaboratessexualandgenderminoritiesarediscriminatedonthebasisofeducation, healthandemploymentandhowstatesmustpreventdiscriminationonthegrounds of sexual orientation and gender identity, it holds (disappointingly) that States, underinternationallaw,arenotrequiredtoallowsamesexcouplesmarry.11InJoslin v. New Zealand the Human Rights Committee concluded that there were no violations of ICCPR when New Zealand prevented Juliet Joslin from marrying her partner.12ThecommitteearguedtherighttomarryunderArticle24(2)ICCPRrefers to a right of a man and a woman, hence samesex marriage is excluded from the protectionoftheCovenant. However, Human Rights Council is not the first and only UNinstitution to address therightsofsexualandgenderminorities.TheCommitteeonEconomic,Socialand Cultural rights has highlighted the sexualorientationrelated discrimination in its general comments. In General Comments 14 (the right to the highest attainable 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 Joslinv.NewZealand(CCPR/C/75/D/902/1999),10IHRR40(2003). 7

standardofhealth),15(therighttowater)and18(therighttowork)thecommittee hasspecifiedthattheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights prohibits any discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.131415It based its decision on terms of the antidiscrimination provision included in Article 2(2) of ICESCR,whichproscribesdiscriminationonavarietyofgroundsaswellonetermed other status. In general comment 20, the committee specifies that other status includessexualorientationandStatespartiesshouldensurethatpersonssexual orientation is not a barrier to realising Covenant rights, for example, in accessing survivors pension rights.16The committee also recognizes that article (3) of the Covenant that addresses equal rights of men and women, is also a basis for its prohibitionofsexualorientationrelateddiscrimination.17 BesidestheCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsalsotheCommittee on the Rights of the Child has addressed the issue of sexual orientationrelated discrimination in general comment 4, where it states state parties have the obligationtoensurethatallhumanbeingsbelow18enjoytherightssetforinthe Convention [on the rights of child] without discrimination (art. 2), including with regard to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnicorsocialorigin,property,disability,birthorotherstatus.Thesegroundsalso cover adolescents sexual orientation and health status (including HIV/AIDS and mentalhealth).18SimilarlytotheapproachofCommitteeonEconomic,Socialand CulturalRights,theCommitteeonRightsoftheChildplacessexualorientationinthe otherstatuscategory.

13 CESCR,GeneralComment14,E/C.12/2000/4(11August2000) 14 CESCR,GeneralComment15,E/C.12/2002/11(20January2002). 15 CESCR,GeneralComment18,E/C.12/GC/18(6February2006). 16 CESCR,GeneralComment20,E/C.12/GC/20(10June2009). 17 CESCR,GeneralComment18,E/C.12/GC/18(6February2006). 18 CRC,GeneralComment4,CRC/GC/2003/4(1July2003). 8

Furthermore notable figures such, as the General Secretary of the United Nations Ban Kimoon, have spoken against the discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. In his speech on human rights day last year (2010) he announced his commitment to repeal laws that criminalize homosexuality, that permit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, that encourage violence. 19 A few months prior to his speech High Comissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, notes that even though human rights instruments may not explicitly refer to sexual orientation and gender identity, inclusiveness of the languageonnondiscrimination,intheUniversalDeclaration,andinothertreaties, provides a good basis for extending protection in this direction (sexual orientation andgenderidentity.20InadditionsheemphasizedArticles1and2ofUDHR,which declare that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, to illustrate the inclusion of all sexual orientations and gender identities in the parametersofhumanrights. Perhapsthemostnotablesetofhumanrightsprinciplesconcerningwiththerights of gender and sexual minorities is Yogyakarta Principles, which aims to provide a consistent understanding on the application of international human rights law in relationtosexualorientationandgenderidentity.Twentynineinternationalhuman rights specialists, including civil servants from the United Nations, drafted the Yogyakarta Principles and regardless of its nonbinding nature the principles substantiatehowexistinghumanrightslawmustbeappliedtopersonsofanysexual

19 Kimoon,Ban."ConfrontPrejudice,SpeakOutagainstViolence,SecretaryGeneral Says at Event on Ending Sanctions Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity." United Nations. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/sgsm13311.doc.htm (accessedDecember23,2011). 20 Pillay, Navi. "Ending violence and criminal sanctions based on sexual orientation and gender identity." Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights / OHCHR Welcome page . http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10717&La ngID=E(accessedDecember22,2011). 9

orientationorgenderidentity.Theprinciplesalsocontaindetaileddescriptionofthe obligationsthatthestateshavewithregardtoeachoftherightsthatareaffirmed. Yogyakarta Principles were taken into consideration when the Organization of AmericanStatespassedaresolutionin2008,whichcondemnsdiscriminationbased on sexual orientation and gender identity. 21 Therefore OAS became the second regionaltotaketheinitiativetocondemnhumanrightsviolationsanddiscrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.22Consequently OAS has adopted twootherresolutionsonhumanrights,sexualorientationandgenderidentity,the latest resolution from earlier this year (2011), where it urges all the states to take necessarymeanstocombatagainstdiscriminationbasedonsexualorientationand genderidentity.2324InthisresolutionitrequestedtheInterAmericanCommissionon Human Rights (IACHR) to pay particular attention to its work plan titled Rights of LGTBIPeopleandasksmemberstatestoconsideradoptingpublicpoliciesagainst discriminationbyreasonofsexualorientationandgenderidentity.

21 Organization of American States, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity, General Assembly Res AG/RES. AG/RES. 2435 (XXXVIIIO/08) (Medellin 3 June2008) 22 Fabeni,Stefano."HumanRights,SexualOrientationandGenderIdentity." OrganizationofAmericanStates.www.oas.org/dil/esp/CPCAJPINF12010_esp.pdf (accessedDecember20,2011). 23 OrganizationofAmericanStates,HumanRights,SexualOrientationandGender Identity,GeneralAssemblyResAG/RES.AG/RES.2504(XXXIXO/09)(SanPedroSula, 4June2009) 24 Organization of American States, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,GeneralAssemblyResAG/RES.2653(XLIO/11)(SanSalvador7June2011) 10

RussiaViolatinginternationalhumanrights?
Russiaisnotoriousforviolatingtherightsofsexualandgenderminorities,although therehasbeenasignificantimprovementsincetheSoviettimes.Thestatebanned Moscow Pride several years in row and more recently the country caused uproar among human rights activists, when St. Petersburg passed a bill, which bans promotion of homosexuality, transsexuality and paedophilia to minors. Not only Moscow attempts to breach the right to freedom of expression, it also juxtaposes sexualandgenderminoritiestopaedophiles,implyingthatmentionedgroupsshare something in common. Russia is a signatory member to European Convention on Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Politics Rights and also International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and these instrumentshaveallowedGayRussia,aLGBTHumanRightsNGObasedinRussia,to file(several)courtcasesagainstthestateofRussia. Thebillthatpassedthefirstreadinginthelocallegislatureisnotfirstofitskindin Russia.SimilarlawalreadycameintoforceinRyazanandArkhangelsk,andtheyve been under consideration in Moscow, Ukraine and Lithuania for some time. The formerRussianDeputyPrimeMinisterDmitryKozakpromotesthebillintroducedin St. Petersburg and encourages the law to be applied nationally as it would punish disgustingactivity.25GayRussiahasbroughtcaseagainstbeforeRussiabeforethe UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommittee,becauseIrinaFedotovaheldasignsaying homosexualityisnormalinfrontofaprimaryschoolinRyazanandthereforewas arrested for spreading propaganda of homosexuality to minors. GayRussia argues that the imprisonment violates the Articles 19, which guarantees the right to hold opinions without interference and Article 26, the right to be treated equal before law.Russianauthoritiesmayassettheirrightrestricttherighttofreedomofopinion 25 Gray,Stephen."RussiandeputyPrimeMinister:Anationalgaypropagandalaw should be considered PinkNews.co.uk." PinkNews.co.uk. http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2011/12/02/russiandeputyprimeministeranational gaypropagandalawshouldbeconsidered/(accessedDecember23,2011). 11

under the section Article 19(3(b)), which allows restrictions to the right to hold opinion without interference for the protection of national security or of public orderorofpublichealthandmorals. WhenSt.Petersburgintroducedthegaypropagandabill,GayRussiainitiated10000 letterstoECHRandtheUNandencouragedallindividualstosendletterstodifferent institutions and demanding speeding up the process of hearings. The campaign resultedinUNHumanRightsCommitteeannouncinginNovember2011thatitwill considerthecaseofIrinaFedorovainJuly2012GenevaSession.26Theorganization also bought similar case before the European Court of Human Rights, highlighting thebreachofArticle10(freedomofexpression)andArticle14(enjoymentofrights andfreedomswithoutdiscriminationonanyground)oftheEuropeanConventionon HumanRights. GayRussia has been active in using the existing human rights instruments to challenge the discriminatory policies of Russia and successfully has won one court against the state: Nikolay Alekseyev brought a case before the European Court of HumanRightsconcerningtheforbiddingof2006,2007and2008gaypridemarches in Moscow. The campaign for Freedom of Assembly was initiated in 2005 when NikolaiAlekseyevannouncedthelaunchofMoscowPrideforthefollowingyear.The mayor of Moscow Yuri Luzhkov banned the public actions of sexual and gender minoritiesrepeatedlyinthefollowingyearsandGayRussiasystematicallyappealed the prohibition of gay pride march through Russia courts before the case was broughttoEuropeanCourtsofHumanRights.

26 "UN to consider Russia's laws on propaganda of homosexuality to minors in July 2012 Geneva Session." GayRussia. http://www.gayrussia.eu/en/russia/3140/ (accessedDecember22,2011). 12

AlekseyevcontestedthatthebanningofgaypridemarchinMoscowwasaviolation oftheirrighttofreedomofassemblyunderarticle13oftheEuropeanConvention on Human Rights and furthermore he argued that Russia failed to provide an effectiveremedyunderArticle13againsttheviolationofArticle11.Additionallyhe arguedthatRussiabreachedArticle14(protectionagainstdiscriminationinaccessto rights under the Convention). The Court unanimously agreed that Russia had violated all of three stated articles, and disagreed with the Government on many accounts.OneofthemostremarkableaspectofthejudgementwasthattheCourt disagreed with Russias stand on lack of consensus between member states to legitimacyofhomosexuality,emphasizingthattherewasalongstandingconsensus onthematterandreferringtocasessuchasDudgeonV.UnitedKingdom,Smithand Grady v. United Kingdom and Karner V. Austria. The Court also highlighted that banning of pride marches was disproportional action as Russias reasoning behind the prohibition was protection of children and vulnerable adults from homosexual propaganda. It also dismissed Russias claim it was legitimate to ban the pride for conflictingwiththemoralvaluesofthemajorityandreligiousdoctrine. GayRussiahasseveralpendingcasesagainsttheRussianauthoritiesregardingright toeducation(Alekseyevv.Russia9689/06,initiated15.05.2006),righttofreedom of expression (Alekseyev, Bayev, Nepomnyaschiy v. Russia, 39954/09, initiated 22.09.2009) and right to freedom of association (Alekseyev v. Russia, ./11 no number yet, initiated 20.05.2011) among others. Furthermore the organization challenges the government before Human Rights Committee regarding freedom of assemblyandfreedomofexpression.27

27 "Legal Cases." GayRussia. www.gayrussia.eu/en/campaigns/legalcourtcasesby gayrussia.php(accessedDecember22,2011). 13

Conclusion
Although most existing human rights instruments lack an explicit mentioning of sexual orientation and gender identity, it by no means that gender and sexual minoritiesareleftwithoutnorightsinthehumanrightslegislation.Treatiessuchas theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRightsmaybeusedtopromotethe rightsofallsexualorientationsandgenderidentities,andthecreationofYogyakarta Principlesdemonstratehowtoapplytheinternationalhumanrightslawinrelation tosexualorientationandgenderidentity. GayRussiahastakenadvantageofICCPR and European Convention on Human Rights to combat discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and successfully won cases against Russia. Theirnext case willbeheard at HumanRights CommitteeinGenevainJune2012, andIhopethecommitteeiscommittedtofollowguidelinesithasservedinthevery firstUNreportontheissuesofsexualandgenderminorities. United Nations and several institutions of the UN have realized the importance of combatingdiscriminationbasedonsexualorientationandgenderidentity,andthe recent developments at the intergovernmental organization are wellpraised by human rights activists. High Commissioners for Human Rights at the Council of Europe and at the United Nations emphasize the importance of including sexual orientation and gender identity into human rights law, but more importantly they both have recognized that all individuals have the right to life and are born equal evenifthedeclarationsandchartersmaylackthementioningofsexualorientation andgenderidentity. However,regardlessofthesedevelopmentsandbindingtreaties,suchasICCPR,over seventy UN member states continue to criminalize consensual samesex activity, harshest punishments being execution. Several other committees such as the U.N. Committee on the International Convention Elimination of All Forms of Racial

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Discrimination has yet to address the rights of racial sexual and gender minorities. ProtectionandrightsofLGBTrelationshipsandfamiliesinhumanrightsinstruments arelimited.EventhoughOrganizationofAmericanStateshasadoptedaresolution, urgingthestatestocombatagainstdiscriminationbasedonsexualorientationand genderidentity,anumberofCaribbeannations,includingJamaicaandBelize,have outlawed samesex actuality with possible sentence of 10 years in prison. The parliaments of Uganda, Nigeria and Cameroon propose legislation to increase the penalty for samesex activity, in Uganda homosexual acts may be punishable by deathifthebillpasses. The struggle for realization of LGBTrights persists. But as stated there has been significant development in combating discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. The successful campaign of GayRussia against Russian authorities on the ban of Moscow Pride and favouring court decision of ECHRmeansthatMoscowPridemarch2012willbethefirstauthorizedassemblyof sexualandgenderminoritiesandtheirallies.ObamahasinstructedtheUSofficials to take into account how countries treat their gay and lesbian population when allocatingforeignaid.28SimilarlythePremieroftheUK,DavidCameroon,announced that countries receiving British aid should respect gay rights.29One may dispute if thesemeasurementsarerightwaytosupportthesexualandgenderminorities,but the their statements and the developments at the UN in regards to LGBTrights illustratethatthereisastrongpoliticalwilltoimprovethelivesandrightsoflesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender in countries, that still legally endure homo and transphobia.Severalcountriesandintergovernmentalorganizationshaveprovento becommittedtoeradicatelegislationandstateactionsthatviolatethehumanrights 28 Mcveigh, Karen. "Gay rights must be criterion for US aid allocations, instructs Obama | World news | The Guardian ." The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/07/gayrightsusaidcriteria (accessed December22,2011). 29 Martin,David."DavidCameron:Foreignaidtobecutforantigaycountries."Mail Online. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article2047254/DavidCameronForeign aidcutantigaycountries.html(accessedDecember22,2011). 15

ofsexualandgenderminoritiesaroundtheworld.Andthecommitmentdoesmake a change: following the announcements of Obama and Cameron, Malaws justice minister, Ephraim Chiume, stated that the country will review its discriminatory laws.30Thestatementisastepforwardineliminatingdiscriminationbasedonsexual orientationandgenderidentity. WordCount:3214

30 Kim,Kyle."Malawitoreviewantigaylaws."Advocate. www.advocate.com/News/Daily_News/2011/12/13/Report_Malawi_Reviewing_Anti gay_Law/(accessedDecember22,2011). 16

WorksCited
"Conventiononpreventingandcombatingviolenceagainstwomenanddomestic violence."CouncilofEurope. http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=210&CM=1&DF=&C L=ENG(accessedDecember22,2011). Fabeni,Stefano."HumanRights,SexualOrientationandGenderIdentity." OrganizationofAmericanStates.www.oas.org/dil/esp/CPCAJPINF12010_esp.pdf (accessedDecember20,2011). Gray,Stephen."RussiandeputyPrimeMinister:Anationalgaypropagandalaw shouldbeconsideredPinkNews.co.uk."PinkNews.co.uk. http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2011/12/02/russiandeputyprimeministeranational gaypropagandalawshouldbeconsidered/(accessedDecember23,2011). Kimoon,Ban."ConfrontPrejudice,SpeakOutagainstViolence,SecretaryGeneral SaysatEventonEndingSanctionsBasedonSexualOrientation,GenderIdentity." UnitedNations.http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/sgsm13311.doc.htm (accessedDecember23,2011). Kim,Kyle."Malawitoreviewantigaylaws."Advocate. www.advocate.com/News/Daily_News/2011/12/13/Report_Malawi_Reviewing_Anti gay_Law/(accessedDecember22,2011). "LegalCases."GayRussia.www.gayrussia.eu/en/campaigns/legalcourtcasesby gayrussia.php(accessedDecember22,2011). Martin,David."DavidCameron:Foreignaidtobecutforantigaycountries."Mail Online.http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article2047254/DavidCameronForeign aidcutantigaycountries.html(accessedDecember22,2011). Mcveigh,Karen."GayrightsmustbecriterionforUSaidallocations,instructsObama |Worldnews|TheGuardian."TheGuardian.

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http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/07/gayrightsusaidcriteria(accessed December22,2011). Pillay,Navi."Endingviolenceandcriminalsanctionsbasedonsexualorientationand genderidentity."OfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights/OHCHR Welcomepage. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10717&La ngID=E(accessedDecember22,2011). "Report:We'llShowYouAreAWoman."HumanRhgtsWatch. www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/southafrica1211.pdf(accessedDecember 21,2011). "TheNetherlands:TransgenderLawViolatesRights."HumanRightsWatch. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/09/13/netherlandstransgenderlawviolatesrights (accessedDecember22,2011). "UNtoconsiderRussia'slawsonpropagandaofhomosexualitytominorsinJuly 2012GenevaSession."GayRussia.http://www.gayrussia.eu/en/russia/3140/ (accessedDecember22,2011).

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LegalDocumentsCited
Organization of American States, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity, General Assembly Res AG/RES. AG/RES. 2435 (XXXVIIIO/08) (Medellin 3 June2008) Organization of American States, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,GeneralAssemblyResAG/RES.AG/RES.2504(XXXIXO/09)(SanPedroSula, 4June2009) Organization of American States, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,GeneralAssemblyResAG/RES.2653(XLIO/11)(SanSalvador7June2011) Moutav.Portugal,(Appno.33290/96),ECHR21December1999. Joslinv.NewZealand(CCPR/C/75/D/902/1999),10IHRR40(2003). InternationalCentrefortheLegalProtectionofHumanRights(Interights)v.Croatia CollectiveComplaintNo.45/2007. OHCHR Report: Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity UN Doc A/HRC/19/41 HumanRightsCouncil,HRC/17/L.9/Rev.1(17June2011) CESCR,GeneralComment20,E/C.12/GC/20(10June2009). CESCR,GeneralComment18,E/C.12/GC/18(6February2006). CRC,GeneralComment4,CRC/GC/2003/4(1July2003). CESCR,GeneralComment14,E/C.12/2000/4(11August2000) CESCR,GeneralComment15,E/C.12/2002/11(20January2002).

19