Macromolecules Macromolecules are giant molecules with many atoms and very large masses for a molecule.

Nearly all macromolecules include the element carbon as a building block, because it is the only element that readily forms giant chains or networks by bonding to other carbon atoms and other elements. Chemists can create macromolecules in laboratories or in factories. Most of the synthetic (laboratory-made) macromolecules are polymers, molecules created by linking together many identical units, called monomers. Living organisms build polymers and other complex macromolecules through natural processes. A polymers properties depend on its size, its monomers, the strength of its bonds, and whether links form between different parts of the molecule. Larger molecules tend to have higher melting points, so macromolecules tend to be solid at room temperature. The type of monomer or monomers affects the polymer structure and its properties. The repeating monomer unit may be polar or nonpolar, depending on the types of atoms it contains and whether they form polar bonds. If the monomers are polar, attractions can form between different parts of the molecule or between the monomers and other molecules. The bonds between the units may be stable, or they may break easily in water or in other substances. Hydrogen bonds linking two parts of a polymer can make it hold a special shape or strengthen it. Synthetic polymers include the plastics polystyrene, polyester, nylon (a polyamide), and polyvinyl chloride. These polymers differ in their repeating monomer units. Scientists build polymers from different monomer units to create plastics with different properties. For example, polyvinyl chloride is tough and nylon is silk-like. Synthetic polymers usually do not dissolve in water or react with other chemicals. Strong synthetic polymers form fibers for clothing and other materials. Synthetic fibers usually last longer than natural fibers do. Living organisms produce three main types of biological polymers: polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids. Polysaccharides are made of linked sugar molecules, such as fructose and glucose. Plants use sugars to make polysaccharides, such as starch and cellulose, to store energy and form cell walls. Animals eat plants to gain energy from the plants sugars and polysaccharides. These molecules are important sources of energy for both plants and animals. Proteins consist of amino acids linked together. There are over 20 different amino acids, which can combine in a myriad of ways to form the protein molecules an organism needs. Protein chains can curl or twist in upon themselves and hold a special form because of hydrogen bonds and other bonds between parts of the molecule. Proteins perform a variety of functions in a living organism. They form the enzymes that make chemical reactions possible in the human body. The protein hemoglobin carries oxygen to cells. Other proteins in the cells use the oxygen to break down the sugar glucose to create the energy the body needs. Proteins also form important bodily structures. Proteins are, for instance, the important part of muscles that enables limbs to bend and the heart to pump. They also form fingernails and hair to protect the skin. Nucleic acids are macromolecules found in the cells nucleus and cytoplasm. There are two classes of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA forms an organisms genetic codethe set of hereditary instructions that govern the activities of every cell. The DNA instructions serve as blueprints for all the proteins a cell needs to make. RNA enables a cell to use the DNA blueprints to build proteins. In nucleic acids, sugars link together with phosphorus and oxygen atoms (which together form the phosphate group) to form the macromolecules backbone. Nitrogen-containing side chains,

called bases, link to the sugars of the backbone. The sequence of the bases forms the code that the cell uses to make proteins. During cellular replicationwhen a cell divides into two daughter cellsthe DNA code is copied so that each daughter has a complete set of the original genetic code. (Donald K. Brandvold, Encarta 2000)

1. Answer the following questions: a) What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer? b) What are synthetic polymers used for? c) What is the role of nucleic acids? d) What is the role of enzymes? 2. Make up questions for the following short answers: a) As a building block. b) Twenty. c) Living organisms. d) Its size, monomers, the type of bonds, etc. e) The cell nucleus and cytoplasm. 3. Reinsert the following words in the text: accurate when differentiate through element between himself chloride table why received split electricity while ions. Discovery of Molecules Until the 1800s chemists did not understand the difference ionic and molecular compounds. They considered anything that contained more than one to be a compound. Investigators, such as British scientists Michael Faraday and Henry Cavendish, began to the two when they realized that some compounds, dissolved in water, made the water conduct electricity more easily, while others did not. Cavendish gave electric shocks to measure the conductivity of these water solutions. His results were surprisingly . Dutch chemist Jacobus Hendricus Vant Hoff (who the first Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1901) and Swedish chemist Svante August Arrhenius explained different water solutions conduct electricity differently. Vant Hoff determined that saltssuch as sodium chloride (NaCl), or salt, and potassium (KCl)split into two particles when they dissolve in water, substances such as glucose do not split apart when they dissolve. Arrhenius realized that the dissolved salts not only split, but they split into two electrically charged particles, or . The ions move the water to conduct electricity. Substances such as glucose do not and thus dissolve into uncharged compound particles that do not conduct , that is, into molecules. 4. Each line contains a mistake. Correct it in the space provided. A number of 9 lines are correct. When chemists understand the relationships among a molecules structure and the properties of the substance containing the molecule, he can create new molecules with best properties or molecules that copy natural substances. For example, pharmaceutical chemists study molecular structures to develop new drugs. Some drugs that dull pain work by fiting into slots on nerves in the body. A scientist can examine the structure of molecules that fit the slot to develop a similarly shaped molecule that works better. Scientists have used their understanding of molecules and molecular structure to make many useful materials, such as the plastics nylon and

Teflon, vitamins, pharmaceuticals, and artificial skin and bones. Scientists can also determine weather a substance is likely to be harmful by comparing its molecular structure with the structures of other molecules that are know to be harmful. Chemists use many tools to study molecules, including lasers, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), X-Ray systems , spectroscopes, and computers.

5. Rephrase the following sentences so as to preserve the initial meaning: a) Scientists have recently developed devices that allow them to study a single molecule at a time. Recently ..allow the .. b) The nuclei of hydrogen atoms and several other atoms act like small magnets. The magnet-like. c) When X rays pass near electrons, they diffract, or bend. ..occurs when d) Certain groups of atoms commonly found together in molecules absorb certain wavelengths of light. Certain wavelengths .. Codex Alimentarius The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for "food code" or "food book") is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and food safety under the aegis of consumer protection. These texts are developed and maintained by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a body that was established in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The Commission's main aims are stated as being to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection. Practice: In the previous paragraph, find the English equivalents of: sub egida; comisie; siguranta alimentelor; consumatori; standarde recunoscute international; organism; scop; comert; directive; protectia consumatorilor; punct de referint. Scope The Codex Alimentarius officially covers all foods, whether processed, semiprocessed or raw, but far more attention has been given to foods that are marketed directly to consumers. In addition to standards for specific foods, the Codex Alimentarius contains general standards covering matters such as food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, and procedures for assessing the safety of foods derived from modern biotechnology. It also contains guidelines for the management of official (i.e., governmental) import and export inspection and certification systems for foods.The Codex Alimentarius is published in Arabic, Chinese, English, French and Spanish. Not all texts are available in all languages. Practice: Ask questions to which the underlined words are the answers.

General texts Food labeling (general standard, guidelines on nutrition labeling, guidelines on labeling claims) Food additives (general standard including authorized uses, specifications for food grade chemicals) Contaminants in foods (general standard, tolerances for specific contaminants including radionuclides, aflatoxins and other mycotoxins) Pesticide and veterinary chemical residues in foods (maximum residue limits) Risk assessment procedures for determining the safety of foods derived from biotechnology (DNA-modified plants, DNA-modified micro-organisms, allergens) Food hygiene (general principles, codes of hygienic practice in specific industries or food handling establishments, guidelines for the use of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point or HACCP system) Methods of analysis and sampling. Specific standards Meat products (fresh, frozen, processed meats and poultry) Fish and fishery products (marine, fresh water and aquaculture) Milk and milk/ dairy products Foods for special dietary uses (including infant formulae and baby foods) Fresh and processed vegetables, fruits, and fruit juices Cereals and derived products, dried legumes Fats, oils and derived products such as margarine Miscellaneous food products (chocolate, sugar, honey, mineral/ plain water) Authority The 28th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission was held July 4 - July 9, 2005. Among the many issues discussed were the "Guidelines for Vitamin and Mineral Food Supplements", which were adopted during the meeting as a new global standard. This text has been the subject of considerable controversy, in part because many member countries regulate these substances as therapeutic goods or pharmaceuticals and not as foods (if they were not foods, they would be excluded from the Codex Alimentarius). The text does not seek to ban supplements, but to subject them to dosage, labeling and composition requirements. The Guidelines have attracted concern from both consumers and industry due to the potential for restrictions on vitamins and minerals as dietary supplements. The health freedom movement has pointed to greater concerns related to restrictions on dietary supplement ingredients in Europe via the European Union's Food Supplements Directive (which utilizes approved lists of ingredients and ingredient forms) and potentially restrictive dosage limits to be based on a Codex model via the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) Nutrient Risk Assessment Project.

Practice: Answer the following questions: When was the 28th session held? What was adopted as a new global standard? Why has this text been subject to controversy? What does the text not seek? Why have the guidelines attracted concern? What are the concerns related to?

Translate into English: a. Carnea de pasre i produsele din pete sunt recomandate n diete. b. Produsele lactate conin lactoz i de aceea se pot dovedi mai greu de digerat, cauznd balonare. c. Au existat probleme cu etichetarea acestui lot de produse. d. Suplimentele alimentare sunt supuse unor reglementri stricte n Uniunea European. e. Conferina s-a desfurat sub egida Organizaiei Mondiale a Sntii. f. Laptele praf pentru sugari se obine de la farmacie. g. Igiena i sigurana alimentelor constituie preocupri de baz pentru ingineria alimentar.

Biotechnology Biotechnology is technology based on biology, agriculture, food science, and medicine. Modern use of the term refers to genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. However, the concept encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on mechanical and higher systems approaches to interfacing with and exploiting living things. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. Practice. Ask questions for the underlined answers. Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. Practice. Find the equivalents of: mase plastice biodegradabile, recolt, genetic, celul, mediu nconjurtor, arme biologice, ngrijirea sntii, strns legat, reziduuri. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy.

Answer the following questions: a. What is the significance of the colour blue/green/red/white applied to biotechnology and where does it get its symbolism from? b. How may computational biology be defined? c. What is bioeconomy? d. What is white biotechnology also known as? e. What is the use of enzymes in industrial processes? f. What does green biotechnology hope to achieve? g. What is red biotechnology applied to? h. What does Bt corn stand out by? Complete the following with words derived from the words given in capitals: Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of [GENE] altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the [PRODUCE] of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also

used to [MANUFACTORY] certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology [APPLY] is the development of plant-made [PHARMACY]. Put the verbs in brackets into the right form: Modern biotechnology can (use) to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products (be) medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech (develop) synthetic humanized insulin by (join) its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, previously (extract) from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. According to a 2003 study (undertake) by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin (be) commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin. Yet in its position statement, the IDF (write) that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly-purified] animal insulins (remain) a perfectly acceptable alternative. Modern biotechnology (evolve), making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today (base) on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites (expect) to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets. (adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology). Translate into English. a. Initial insulina era extras din pancreasul animalelor sacrificate n abatoare, precum vitele saau porcinele . b. I s-au administrat medicamente pentru coagularea sngelui. c. Noile medicamente se pot fabrica relativ usor si ieftin. d. Se discut nc dac aceste produse duneaz sau nu mediului nconjurtor. e. Exist probe n sprijinul acestei ipoteze stiintifice. f. Aceste enzime se folosesc pe scar larg drept catalizatori industriali. g. Aceste organisme modificate genetic au certe virtuti terapeutice. Food Preservation Food preservation is defined as the branch of food science and technology that deals with the practical control of factors capable of adversely affecting the safety, nutritive value, appearance, texture, flavor, and keeping qualities of raw and processed foods. Since thousands of food products differing in physical, chemical, and biological properties can

undergo deterioration from such diverse causes as microorganisms, natural food enzymes, insects and rodents, industrial contaminants, heat, cold, light, oxygen, moisture, dryness, and storage time, food preservation methods differ widely and are optimized for specific products. Food preservation methods involve the use of heat, refrigeration, freezing, concentration, dehydration, irradiation, pH control, chemical preservatives, and packaging applied to produce various degrees of preservation in accordance with the differing use patterns and shelf-life needs of unique products. Thermal processes to preserve foods vary in intensity. True sterility to ensure total destruction of the most heat-resistant bacterial spores in nonacidic foods may require a treatment of at least 250F (121C) of wet heat for at least 15 min to be delivered throughout the entire food mass. The term commercial sterility refers to a less severe condition that still assures destruction of all pathogenic organisms, as well as organisms that, if present, could grow in the product and produce spoilage under normal conditions of handling and storage. Many foods are subjected to still less severe heating by methods that produce pasteurization to assure destruction of pathogens and extend product shelf life. The slowing of biological and chemical activity with decreasing temperature is the principle behind cooling (refrigeration) and freezing preservation. In addition, when water is converted to ice, free water required for its solvent properties by all living systems is removed. Commercial freezing methods utilize refrigerated still air; high-velocity air, which is faster and more efficient; and high-velocity air made to suspend particulate foods, such as peas, as in a fluidized-bed fast freezer. Indirect contact freezing utilizes hollow flat plates chilled with an internally circulated refrigerant to freeze solid foods, or with refrigerated tubular heat exchangers that rapidly slush-freeze liquids. Immersion freezing involves direct contact of the food or its container with refrigerants approved for food or a fast-freezing cryogenic liquid. When sufficient water is removed from foods, microorganisms will not grow, and many enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions will cease or be markedly slowed. Concentration preservation can be achieved by physically removing water, as by boiling or with lowertemperature vacuum evaporation, or by binding water through the addition of sugar, salt, or other solutes. Foods preserved by dehydration contain considerably lower water activity and less total water than concentrated foods. Most dehydration methods utilize heat to vaporize and remove water. The heat and oxygen sensitivity of many foods necessitates vacuum dehydration for high quality. Under vacuum, water can be removed at reduced temperature, and oxidative changes are minimized. In freeze-drying, foods are frozen quickly and placed in a chamber under high vacuum. A food's structure remains rigid as it goes directly from the frozen state to dryness. Food irradiation remains highly controversial, partly because of fears that the safety of products and processes cannot be adequately regulated. The natural acids of certain fruits and vegetables, acid added as a chemical, and acid produced by fermentation can inhibit or partially inhibit several pathogenic and spoilage organisms. The pH of acidic foods, however, is rarely sufficiently low to assure long-term preservation from acid alone. Many acidic and fermented foods further depend upon prior pasteurization of their ingredients, the addition of salt and other chemicals, and refrigeration. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration and comparable agencies in various countries vigorously regulate the chemicals that may be added to foods as well as the conditions of their use. Chemical preservatives and similar substances include antimicrobials, enzyme inhibitors, and antioxidants. There is much pressure to remove chemicals from the food supply, especially where their effects can be achieved by other means.

Packaging protects foods from contamination, moisture gain or loss, flavor loss and odor pickup, the adverse effects of light, physical damage, and intentional tampering. Ultimately, a food product's quality and storage life are determined largely by its package. ( http://www.answers.com/topic/food-preservation) 1. Derive nouns from the following: to include, to lose, to determine, to pack, to achieve, to inhibit, to protect, to preserve, to regulate, to treat, to add, to remove, to assure, to irradiate, to refrigerate. 2. Ask questions for the following answers: a. The practical control of factors influencing raw and processed foods. b. At least 121 degrees. c. It is less severe than sterilisation. d. They are used to slush-freeze liquids. e. Enzymatic or nonenzymatic reactions slow down or cease. f. Considerably lower water activity. g. Because of the lack of safety regulation of foods. h. Contamination, moisture gain or loss, odor pickup, etc. 3. Translate into English: a. Se ncearc ndeprtarea aditivilor din alimente pentru a nu pune n pericol sntatea consumatorilor. b. Substanele antimicrobiene, inhibitorii enzimatici i antioxidanii fac parte din categoria conservanilor chimici. c. Aceste produse au fost supuse tratamentului termic. d. Utilizarea aditivilor alimentari este atent reglementat i monitorizat mai ales n ultimii ani. e. nmulirea microorganismelor se poate controla i ncetini apreciabil prin deshidratare, refrigerare sau congelare. Food Manufacturing Food manufacturing is defined as a total sequence of food operations, including the growth and selection of raw materials, harvesting, processing, preservation, and distribution. In general, the aim of all food manufacturing operations is to extend the availability of seasonal crops to year-round use. The products of food manufacturing differ from traditional foods of plant or animal origin which have undergone minimal treatment. For example, the quality of apples sold in the winter can be maintained, through the use of controlled-atmosphere storage, which retards the ripening process by controlling the levels of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the storage facility. Atmosphere control is also used to hasten ripening so that fruits may be harvested in the unripe stage for ease of handling and then ripened rapidly in storage. In other cases the package itself allows the diffusion of only certain atmospheric gases and thus maintains quality. There are certain foods that cannot be maintained in a state close to the raw product. Tomatoes, for example, are not amenable to freezing or long periods of storage. Therefore, such products as heat-processed sauces, pastes, and stewed tomatoes have been developed. Other food products are even further removed from the raw product: oil is produced from seed; and plant proteins are used as extenders or substitutes for meat, as additives for nutritious beverages, and as bases for many formulated foods.

There are many other forms of food preservation representing both ancient and modern technologies. The ancient operation of sun-drying was first employed when it was realized that dried fruits remained wholesome and edible for long periods of time. Today, with the additional knowledge that drying, evaporation, and concentration all reduce the water activity or increase the osmotic pressure of a food to the point where bacteria will not grow, this technology is used for sophisticated products such as powdered milk and freeze-dried mushrooms. Food additives, such as salt, sugar, and other solutes, which reduce the water activity or increase the osmotic pressure, and acids, which inhibit bacterial growth, also achieve the preservation effect. Many food additives are natural in origin, and their preservative effect was noted in nature prior to their use as food additives. Freezing, heat sterilization (canning), pasteurization, fermentation, baking, and meat curing are other wellknown forms of preservation. Irradiation processes for food have also been developed, and low-level irradiation has been approved in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Food manufacturing is not solely involved with the preservation of food but is also concerned with the production of high-quality, appealing, wholesome food. To fulfill these goals, five broad categories of food additives are often used: flavors, coloring agents, preservatives, texturizing agents, and miscellaneous. The last category includes a variety of substances that may retain moisture, control acidity, act as leavening agents, or provide nutrients such as vitamins and minerals. The final operation in the manufacturing process is that of packaging, which is governed by the physicochemical attributes of the food, the preservation process involved, the gaseous permeability desired, the conditions under which the product is to be stored, the desirability of viewing the product through a clear film or glass, and the expense. Historically, metal and glass have been used to package heat-processed foods; more flexible films are used for foods which undergo less vigorous treatment. Adoption of the regulation allowing the use of hydrogen peroxide as a package sterilant has permitted the use of nonrigid flexible packages for heat-sterilized foods (aseptic packaging). This type of packaging is very cost-effective. (http://www.answers.com/topic/food-manufacturing) 1. Complete with one word: There ................. many other forms of food preservation representing both ancient and modern technologies. The .................... operation of sun-drying was first employed when it was realized that dried fruits remained wholesome and edible for .................. periods of time. Today, with the additional knowledge that drying, evaporation, and concentration all reduce the water activity or increase the ..................... of a food to the point where bacteria will not grow, this technology is used for sophisticated products such as powdered milk and freezedried mushrooms. Food additives, ............... as salt, sugar, and other solutes, which reduce the water activity or increase the osmotic pressure, and acids, .................... inhibit bacterial growth, also achieve the preservation effect. Many food additives are natural in origin, and their ............................ effect was noted in nature prior to their use as food additives. Freezing, heat sterilization (canning), pasteurization, fermentation, baking, and meat curing are other well-known ....................... of preservation. Irradiation processes for food have also ......................... developed, and low-level irradiation has been approved in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2. a. b. c. Answer the questions: What is food manufacturing? What is atmosphere control used for? What happens to sun-dried foods?

d. Which are the categories of food additives? e. Why is packaging important? 3. Derive verbs from: administration, moisture, irradiation, preservation, package, manufacturing, loss, gain, growth, additive. Food Engineering Food engineering is the application of engineering concepts and principles to the conversion of raw foods into safe consumer products of the highest possible quality. The entire spectrum of food engineering is associated with operation and maintenance of food processing plants as well as sophisticated research involving process design. The applications of engineering in food handling, processing, packaging, and distribution can be described in terms of unit operations. There are many different unit operations associated with the conversion of raw food materials to consumer products. The movement of foods and other materials within the processing plant requires the use of unique equipment and processes. For example, special sanitary pumps are used to transport liquid foods, and the material-handling equipment for solid foods requires careful design for product-contact surfaces. The importance of thermal treatments for food preservation requires that a broad range of heat-exchange equipment be used. Heat exchangers for liquids are unique in terms of sanitary design and cleanability of surfaces following thermal processing. A special component of thermal preservation is the design of thermal processes. Several unit operations involve heat transfer in order to achieve the desired preservation even though storage stability is not the direct result of thermal treatment. An excellent example is the freezing process, where removal of thermal energy reduces product temperatures to levels where deterioration reactions are significantly inhibited. Concentration processes achieve a degree of preservation by reducing the availability of water for deterioration reactions, although the primary aim is reduction of liquid-product mass and volume. Although traditional concentration processes have used thermal energy to evaporate water, membranes of various types are now used to achieve the same results. The preservation of food products is achieved by reduction of the water content to low levels by means of dehydration processes which use thermal energy. These processes are applied to liquid foods and to products that are naturally solid. Another series of unit operations is used to alter the product composition or structure in some manner. These include separation, mixing, and extrusion. Separation processes are designed to divide food products into two or more components. While a variety of physical or chemical properties of the product components are used in the various separation processes, two of the most important processes are filtration and extraction. Filtration, a physical process, has several applications in addition to its use for separating product components. Extraction is most often designed to remove a specific or unique product component for use in a separate operation or product formulation. After separation, the final product is obtained through the use of a mixing process which includes a variety of equipment types. Finally, the extrusion process involves the use of both thermal and flow properties to achieve product preservation as well as some specified set of structural and textural characteristics. The importance of cleaning and sanitation must be emphasized due to direct relationships to final product quality. The required operations vary considerably depending on the type of product handled and the type of equipment used. The processes required to manage the wastes generated during food handling, processing, packaging, and distribution

are all similar, and many of the waste-handling and treatment operations are the same as those used directly with the food products. The final operation to which the product is subjected before distribution is packaging. The package barrier is important for maintaining food products at desirable quality levels. Food packaging involves the selection of equipment needed for placing the product in the package as well as the selection of packaging material needed to protect the product in an optimum manner. An engineering input to food handling, processing, packaging, and distribution that is applied to almost all unit operations is process control. The use of instrumentation and associated electronic controls has a significant impact on the efficiency of all components of the food delivery system. (http://www.answers.com/topic/food-engineering)

1. Complete the following with words from the text: a. Food and catering are major parts of the food trade nowadays. b. While food, workers should wear gloves in order to avoid contamination. c. sterilization such as boiling kills the harmful microorganisms. d. In order to obtain high quality finished products, one needs top . materials. e. When they are defrosted, fruits and vegetables lose some . characteristics. f. The .. material should be both resilient to protect the product inside and appealing to the customer. g. This retail shop sells a wide of food products. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Answer the questions: What is food engineering associated with? What are sanitary pumps used for? Why should material-handling equipment be carefully designed? Why are heat exchangers considered unique? Is storage stability the result of thermal treatment? What is the primary aim of concentration? What products may be subjected to dehydration? What does separation achieve?

3. Give questions for the following answers: a. ..? The conversion of raw materials into consumer products. b. ..? The use of unique equipment and processes. c. ..? It significantly inhibits deterioration reactions. d. ? The type of product handled and the type of equipment used. e. ? For maintaining food products at desirable quality levels. f. .? The use of both thermal and flow properties.

4. Translate into English: a. Exist o multitudine de operaii care trebuie ndeplinite pn cnd materiile prime se transform n produse finite, gata de a fi livrate consumatorilor. b. Manipularea produselor alimentare se realizeaz n condiii perfecte de igien. c. Selectarea procesului de ambalare se realizeaz n funcie de tipul produsului, dar i de termenul de valabilitate. d. Prin reducerea temperaturii n refrigerare sau congelare, procesele chimice de deteriorare i alterare din interiorul alimentelor sunt semnificativ ncetinite sau chiar stopate. e. Prin deshidratare se reduce coninutul de ap din alimente. 5. Complete with the right word : Another series of unit operations is used to alter the (1). composition or structure in some manner. These (2).. separation, mixing, and extrusion. Separation processes are designed to divide food products (3) two or more components. While a variety of physical or (4). properties of the product components are used in the various separation processes, two of the most important processes are (5) and extraction. Filtration, a physical process, has several applications in (6).. to its use for separating product components. Extraction is most often designed to remove a specific or unique product (7). for use in a separate operation or product formulation. After separation, the final product is (8) through the use of a mixing process which includes a variety of equipment types. Finally, the extrusion process involves the use of (9) thermal and flow properties to achieve product preservation as (10). as some specified set of structural and textural characteristics. Vitamin A Vitamin A is a fat-soluble nutrient that occurs in nature in two forms: preformed vitamin A and provitamin A, or carotene. Preformed vitamin A is concentrated only in certain tissues of animal products, in which he animal has metabolized the carotene contained in its food supplement. One of the richest natural sources of preformed vitamin A is fish oil, which is classified as a food supplement. Some animal products, such as cream and butter, may contain both preformed vitamin A and carotene. Carotene is a substance that must be converted into vitamin A before it can be utilized by the body. It is abundant in carrots, from which its name is derived, but it is present in even higher concentrations in certain green leafy vegetables, such as beet greens, spinach and broccoli. If, owing to any disorder, the body is unable to use carotene, a vitamin A deficiency may arise. Vitamin A aids in the growth and repair of body tissues and helps maintain smooth, soft, disease-free skin. Internally it helps protect the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, throat and lungs, thereby reducing susceptibility to infection. This protection also aids the mucous membranes combating the effects of various air pollutants. The soft tissue and bladder are also protected. In addition, vitamin A prompts the secretion of gastric juices necessary for the proper digestion of proteins. Other important functions of vitamin A include the building of strong bones and teeth, the formation of rich blood, and the maintenance of good eyesight. Many people are unaware of the importance of vitamin A in fighting infection. By giving strength to cell walls, it helps protect the mucous membranes against invading bacteria. People who live in environments with high air-pollution counts are more susceptible to

infection and colds than people who live in environments with cleaner air. If infection has already occurred, therapeutic doses of vitamin A will help keep it from spreading. Vitamin A can be used successfully in treating several eye disorders, such as blurred vision, night blindness, cataracts and crossed eyes. Therapeutic dosages of vitamin A are necessary for the treatment o0f glaucoma and conjunctivitis, an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the eyelids. Administration of vitamin A has helped shorten the duration of communicable diseases, such as measles, scarlet fever, the common cold and infections of the eye, middle ear, intestines, uterus, ovaries and vagina. It also has been effective in reducing high cholesterol levels and atheroma, fatty degeneration or thickening of the wall of the larger arteries. Vitamin A protects the epithelial tissues like the skin, the stomach and the lungs from becoming cancerous. It has also proved successful in treating cases of brochial asthma, chronic rhinitis and dermatitis. Vitamin A has been found to be extremely important in this repair process. There is increasing evidence that vitamin A is related to sexual development and reproduction. It is essential in the chemical processes whereby cholesterol is converted into female estrogens and male androgens. Insufficient supply of these sex hormones results in degenerations of the sex organs. Vitamin A given to animals in this condition resumed normal hormone activity. Researchers believe that the vitamin counters the cancerous process by activating the body`s immune system and preventing the thymus gland from shrinking. When animals injected with a tumour-virus are given large doses of vitamin A their tumours diminish and the thymus returns to normal size. Externally, vitamin A is used in treating acne. When applied locally, it can clear up impetigo, boils, carbuncles and open ulcers. Vitamin A applied directly to open wounds hastens the healing process in cases where healing has been retarded because cortisone has been used. It also stimulates the production of mucus, which in turn prevents scarring. A treatment using injections of vitamin A has proved effective in the removal of plantar warts. 1. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. Answer the following questions: What forms can vitamin A be found in? Why is it useful? What is carotene? What products contain vitamin A? What happens if the body is deprived of it? What is the role of vitamin A in sexual development and reproduction? What are its external uses? Make up questions for the following answers: They are necessary for the proper digestion of proteins. It is an inflammation of the mucous membrane in the eyelids. A normal hormone activity. They are derived from cholesterol. It proved efficient in removing warts on the soles. It is delayed when using cortisone.

3. Fill in the blanks with just one word: The Recommended Dietary Allowances of A, as established the National Research Council, are 1500-4000 IU children and 4000-5000 IU for . These amounts increase during disease, trauma, pregnancy lactation. Requirements vary

for people smoke, those who easily absorb vitamin A and those who have their stored of vitamin A depleted by pneumonia or nephritis. An increased intake of vitamins C and E will prevent excessive oxidation of stored vitamin A. 4. Fill in with the suitable word according to the text: People living in a polluted environment are affected by vitamin A deficiency. #If you take in the necessary amount of vitamin A, you will have bones and teeth. #There is a concentration of vitamin A in spinach than in carrots. #The duration of communicable diseases is if vitamin A is administered. #If you eat a lot of products rich in vitamin A your skin will be and . #A wound heals if you apply vitamin A.

Chemical Industry The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. It is central to modern world economy, converting raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, minerals) into more than 70,000 different products. Polymers and plastics, especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industrys output worldwide. Chemicals are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands inputs to agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and service industries. The chemical industry itself consumes 26 percent of its own output. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals is nearly a $3 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers. Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35 to 37 percent of the dollar output), life sciences (30 percent), specialty chemicals (20 to 25 percent) and consumer products (about 10 percent. Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Typical growth rates for basic chemicals are about 0.5 to 0.7 times GDP. Product prices are generally less than fifty cents per pound. Polymers, the largest revenue segment at about 33 percent of the basic chemicals dollar value, includes all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. The largest-volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make pipe for construction markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers to clothing and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging as well as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals.

Chemicals in the bulk petrochemicals and intermediates are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, and crude oil. Their sales volume is close to 30 percent of overall basic chemicals. Typical large-volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These chemicals are the starting points for most polymers and other organic chemicals as well as much of the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12 percent of the revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric, phosphoric, and sulfuric), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals. Life sciences (about 30 percent of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins, and crop protection chemicals. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have very high pricesover ten dollars per pound growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25 percent of sales. Life science products are usually produced with very high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Crop protection chemicals, about 10 percent of this category, include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. Coatings make up about 15 percent of specialty chemicals sales, with other products ranging from 10 to 13 percent. Specialty Chemicals are sometimes referred to as "fine chemicals". Consumer products include direct product sale of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Every year, the American Chemistry Council tabulates the U.S. production of the top 100 basic chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production of the top 100 chemicals totaled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume, though much smaller in dollar revenue terms due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_industry)

1. Answer the following questions: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. What does the chemical industry comprise? What does the chemical industry produce? What are the major categories of chemical business? What are basic chemicals? What is the most important polymer product and what is its use? Name at least two crop protection chemicals. Why are specialty chemicals also called fine chemicals? Name at least three consumer products issued from the chemical industry.

2. Give questions for the following short answers: a. About 80% of the industrys output. b. Generally less than 50 cents per pound. c. Bulk petrochemicals. d. The Food and Drugs Administration. e. Their innovative aspects. f. Inorganic chemicals. 3. Fill in with one word from the text: Basic chemicals, or "............... chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other ..................... and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Typical growth ..................... for basic chemicals are about 0.5 to 0.7 times GDP. Product prices are generally less than fifty cents ......................... pound. Polymers, the largest revenue segment at about 33 percent of the basic chemicals dollar value, ......................... all categories of plastics and manmade fibers. The major markets for plastics are .........................., followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. The largestvolume polymer product, ........................., is used mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make pipe for construction markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller ........................, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers to ....................... and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging as .................. as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including ......................, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal .................... materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals.

4. Translate into English: a. Policlorura de vinil cu numele prescurtat PVC este o substan din categoria materialelor termoplastice cu o structur amorf.

b. O alt utilizare a wolastonitului este n industria maselor plastice, unde folosirea acestui mineral determin crete rezistenei i elasticitii maselor plastice (poliesteri, poliamide, sau polipropilen). c. Pesticidele sunt substane sau un amestecuri de substane ce conin ingrediente biologic active mpotriva duntorilor. d. Sulfatul de magneziu este folosit ca ngrmnt chimic n agricultur servind ca surs de magneziu pentru plante e. Petrom este cea mai important companie romneasc de petrol i gaze, cu activiti n sectoarele Explorare i Producie, Rafinare i Produse Petrochimice, Marketing, Gaze Naturale i Energie.

Land Surveying Cadastral land surveyors are licensed by State governments. In the United States, cadastral surveys are typically conducted by the Federal government, specifically through the Cadastral Surveys branch of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), formerly the General Land Office (GLO). In the states that have been subdivided as per the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), the BLM Cadastral Surveys are carried out in accordance with said system. This information is required to define ownership and rights in real property (land, water, mineral, easements, rights-of-way, etc.), to resolve boundary disputes between neighbours, and for any subdivision of land, building development, road boundary realignment, etc. The aim of cadastral surveys is normally to re-establish and mark the corners of original land boundaries. The first stage is to research relevant records such as land titles (deeds), easements, survey monumentation (marks on the ground) and any public or private records that provide relevant data. The job of a boundary surveyor retracing a deed or prior survey is to locate such monuments and verify their correct position. Over time, development, vandalism and acts of nature often wreak havoc on monuments, so the boundary surveyor is often forced to consider other evidence such as fence locations, woodlines, monuments on neighboring property, parole evidence and other evidence. Monuments are marks on the ground that define location. Pegs are commonly used to mark boundary corners, and nails in bitumen, small pegs in the ground (dumpys) and steel rods are used as instrument locations and reference marks, commonly called survey control. Marks should be durable and long lasting, stable so the marks do not move over time, safe from disturbance and safe to work at. The aim is to provide sufficient marks so some marks will remain for future re-establishment of boundaries. Examples of typical man-made monuments are steel rods, pipes or bars with plastic, aluminum or brass caps containing descriptive markings and often bearing the license number of the surveyor responsible for the establishment of such. The material and marking used on monuments placed to mark boundary corners are often subject to state laws/statutes. A total station or GPS is set-up over survey marks which were placed as part of a previous survey, or newly placed marks. The bearing datum is established by measuring between points on a previous survey and a rotation is applied to orientate the new survey to correspond with the previous survey or a standard map grid. The data is analysed and comparisons made with existing records to determine evidence which can be used to establish boundary positions. The bearing and distance of lines between the boundary corners and total station

positions are calculated and used to set out and mark the corners in the field. Checks are made by measuring directly between pegs places using a flexible tape. Subdivision of land generally requires that the external boundary is re-established and marked using pegs, and the new internal boundaries are then marked. A plat (survey plan) and description (depending on local and state requirements) are compiled, the final report is lodged with the appropriate government office (often required by law), and copies are provided to the client.

The art of surveying

Many properties have considerable problems with regards to improper bounding, miscalculations in past surveys, titles, easements, and wildlife crossings. Also many properties are created from multiple divisions of a larger piece over the course of years, and with every additional division the risk of miscalculation increases. The result can be abutting properties not coinciding with adjacent parcels, resulting in hiatuses (gaps) and overlaps. The art comes in when a surveyor must solve a puzzle using pieces that do not exactly fit together. In these cases the solution is based upon the research and interpretation of the surveyor, and following established procedures for resolving discrepancies. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying) 1. Answer the following questions: a. b. c. d. e. f. Who are cadastral surveys conducted by? What is the first stage in land surveys? What is the job of a boundary surveyor? What are pegs used for? Give examples of man-made monuments. What is a plat?

2. Give questions for the following short answers: a. b. c. d. e. State governments. To re-establish original land boundaries. They are called dumpys. By measuring directly between pegs. Gaps and overlaps.

3. Fill in with one word from the text: The aim of cadastral surveys is normally to re-establish and mark the ............. of original land boundaries. The first stage is to research relevant records such as land .................... (deeds), easements, survey monumentation (marks on the ........................) and any public or private records that provide relevant data. The job of a boundary ....................... retracing a deed or prior survey is to locate such monuments and verify their correct position. Over time, development, vandalism and acts of nature often wreak .................... on monuments, so the boundary surveyor is often forced to consider other evidence such as .................... locations, woodlines, monuments on neighboring ...................., parole evidence and other evidence. Monuments are marks on the ground that define ..................... . Pegs are commonly used to mark boundary corners, and ...................... in bitumen, small pegs in the ground (dumpys) and steel .................... are used as instrument locations and reference marks, commonly

called survey control. Marks should be durable and ...................... lasting, stable so the marks do not move over time, safe from disturbance and safe to work at. The aim is to provide sufficient marks so some marks will ......................... for future re-establishment of boundaries. Examples of typical man-made monuments are steel rods, pipes or bars with plastic, aluminum or brass caps containing descriptive markings and often ................... the license number of the surveyor responsible for the establishment of such. The material and marking used on monuments placed to mark boundary corners are often .................... to state laws/statutes. 4. Translate into English: a. b. c. d. e. Tocmai a fost angajat pe postul de inginer msurtori cadastrale. Jaloanele care delimitau acel teren au fost indeprtate. Monumentele din ora au fost deteriorate de condiiile meteo. Au depus la notariat actele doveditoare ale dreptului de proprietate. Studenii au msurat distana dintre jaloane.

Supplementary materials 1. As cities expand rapidly, the supply of food to them will become one of the major food security issues facing the world. FAO's Marketing Group has for a long time concentrated on this subject with the objective of providing a detailed analysis and evaluation of the organization of the urban food marketing systems, the way they operate and their overall performance in terms of efficiency to satisfy the needs of city dwellers. Emphasis is not on the supply of specific food types but on the urban channels of distribution and marketing, facilities (i.e. infrastructure, wholesale and retail markets) and services (i.e. information, credit, advice and assistance) through which the food needs of consumers are satisfied. Answer the questions: 1. Why will the supply of food become a major issue? 2. What has FAO concentrated on? 3. What is emphasis on? 4. What are the urban channels of distribution and marketing? 5. What are the urban services? 6. How are the food needs of consumers satisfied?

2. Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency), texture, and flavour; factors such as federal grade standards (e.g. of eggs) and internal (chemical, physical, microbial). Food quality is an important food manufacturing requirement, because food consumers are susceptible to any form of contamination that may occur during the manufacturing process. Many consumers also rely on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know what ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements (kosher, halal, vegetarian), or medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, or allergies). Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the food processing environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible

food for the consumer. A recent example of poor sanitation recently has been the 2006 North American E. coli outbreak involving spinach, an outbreak that is still under investigation. Food quality also deals with product traceability, e.g. of ingredient and packaging suppliers, in case a recall of the product is required. It also deals with labeling issues to ensure there is correct ingredient and nutritional information. 3. Fill in with the right word from the list: genetic includes standards discipline which adequate medium Food safety is a scientific (1).. describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This (2) a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth (3).. for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Debates on (4). food safety include such issues as impact of genetically modified food on health of further generations and genetic pollution of environment, (5).. can destroy natural biological diversity. In developed countries there are intricate (6). for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of (7).. safe water, which is usually a critical item. 4. Put the following verbs into the right form: Although not normally (think) of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly (fit) the broad definition of "using a biological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture (become) the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers (can). select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields (become) increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products (be).. used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through (introduce) them to new environments and breeding them with other plants--one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India (develop) the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of (use).. malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were (break) down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma. Later other cultures (produce) the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation (be). also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteurs work in 1857, it (be) still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form. 5. Reinsert the following adverbs and adjectives into the text: biological simply universal complex outer terrestrial global currently various generally

Although there is no agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the . manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be . the characteristic state of organisms. Properties common to organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, etc) are that they are cellular, carbon-and-water-based with . organization, having a metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these properties is .. considered life. However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life. The biosphere is the part of Earth's .. shell including air, land, surface rocks and water within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the .. ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). the entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons (150 trillion pounds or about 6.8 x 1013 kilograms) of biomass (life), which lives within .. environments within the biosphere. 6. Agriculture refers to the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science (the related practice of gardening is studied in horticulture). Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties. Cultivation of crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century a distinction has been made between sustainable agriculture and intensive farming. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly increased the output of meat. The more exotic varieties of agriculture include aquaculture and tree farming. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, raw materials, pharmaceuticals and illegal drugs, and an assortment of ornamental or exotic products. In the 2000s, plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics, and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Drugs include tobacco, alcohol, opium, cocaine, and digitalis. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products. In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture. However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2003 for the first time in history the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide. Despite the fact that agriculture

employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products). Answer the questions: a. What does agriculture refer to? b. What is animal husbandry? c. What is horticulture defined as? d. What remains at the foundation of agriculture? e. Why have cultivation yields increased? f. Why has the meat output increase? g. What do the more exotic varieties include? h. What useful materials are produced by plants? i. What do biofuels include? j. How many workers were employed in agriculture in 2007?

7.FOOD ADDITIVES To regulate food additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number. Initially these were the "E numbers" used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved for use. E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkanet, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987 Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The United States Food and Drug Administration listed these items as "Generally recognized as safe" or GRAS and these are listed under both their Chemical Abstract Services number and FDA regulation listed under the US Code of Federal Regulations. Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents

Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. Flavors Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. Flavor enhancers Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially. Flour treatment agents Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking. Humectants Humectants prevent foods from drying out. Tracer gas Tracer gas allows for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life. Preservatives Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. Stabilizers Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions. Sweeteners Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhea. Thickeners Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.