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- muscles bring about movement at a joint - muscles can only pull they cannot push so two muscles are needed to move a bone back and forth. - a pair of muscles like these are called antagonistic. - a muscle that contracts to cause extension of a joint is called an extensor - a flexor contracts to reverse the movement - the hip, knee and ankle joints are examples of synovial joints - the bones that move in the joint are separated by a cavity filled with synovial fluid. - the bones are held in position by ligaments that control and restrict movement. -tendons attach muscles to the bones - cartilage protects bones within joints.
- synovial fluid: acts as lubricant - synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid - ligament: joins bone to bone and is strong and flexible - muscle - fibrous capsule: encloses joints - pad of cartilage: gives additional protection - cartilage: absorbs synovial fluid and acts as shock absorber - bone - tendon: joins muscle to bone At a joint there is:
- when the muscle contracts the dark band overlaps the intermediate band shortening the length of the muscle and the sarcomere. - there only myosin filaments occur there is a intermediate-coloured band. - where both actin and myosin filaments occur there is a dark band. - where actin filaments appear on their own there is a light band on the sarcomere. - contractions are made by the sliding of these protein filaments within the muscle sarcomeres. - the sarcomere is made up of two types of protein, mainly actin, and thicker ones made from the protein myosin. - these are made up of contractile units called sarcomeres - each muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils
- This hydrolysis causes a change in the shape of the myosin head. It returns to its upright position.The cycle starts again. - An ATPase molecule on the myosin head hydrolyses the ATP, forming ATP and Pi.
Carbohydrate oxidation
In low intensity exercise enough oxygen is supplied to cells to enable ATP to be regenerated through aerobic respiration of fuels. C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy released - in aerobic respiration the hydrogen stored in glucose is brought together with oxygen to form water again. - there is a release of energy that can be used to generate ATP. - glucose and oxygen are not brought together directly because this would release large amounts of energy too quickly and could damage the cell. - glucose is split apart in a series of small steps. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. - hydrogen from the glucose is reacted with oxygen to release large amounts of energy as water s formed.
ATP in water -> ADP in water + hydrated Pi + energy transferred when removed the phosphate group becomes hydrated, a lot of energy is released as bonds form between the water and phosphate. - when one phosphate group is removed from the ATP by hydrolysis, ADP forms. - ATP is created from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) - cells use the molecule ATP as an energy carrier molecule. - a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, known as respiration is linked to ATP synthesis. Releasing energy: The minimum energy requirement of the body at rest to fuel basic metabolic processes is called your BMI.
Releasing energy
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- the hydrogens are taken up by hydrogen acceptors (FAD and NAD which then become reduced FAD and reduced NAD)
Glycolysis
The initial stages of carbohydrate breakdown occur in the cytoplasm, including the sarcoplasm of muscle cells. - two phosphate groups are added to glucose from two ATP molecules, this increases its reactivity. It can now split into two molecules of 3-carbon (3C) compounds. - each intermediate 3C sugar is oxidised producing a 3-carbon compound, pyruvate. - two hydrogen atoms atoms are removed during the reaction and taken up by the coenzyme NAD, a non-protein organic molecule. - phosphate from the intermediate compounds is transferred to ADP, creating ATP. - this is called substrate level phosphorylation, because energy for the formation of ATP comes from the substrates ( the intermediate compounds.) - two ATP's are made, two pairs of hydrogen atoms and two molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate.
- each glucose provides two pyruvates so the cycle turns twice per glucose. The 2 carbon molecule made combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A (or acetyl CoA) the two hydrogens released are involved in ATP formation. The coenzyme A carries the 2C acetyl groups to the Krebs cycle. - dehydrogenated (two hydrogens are removed and taken up by the coenzyme NAD) -decarboxylated (carbon dioxide is released as a waste product) pyruvate is: If oxygen is available the 3C pyruvate created at the end of glycolysis passes into the mitochondria. There it is completely oxidised, forming carbon dioxide and water.
- as the hydrogen ions pass through the channel ATP synthesis is catalysed by ATPase in each stalked particle - the hydrogen ions diffuse down the electrochemical gradient through hollow protein channels in stalked particles on the membrane - making the intermembrane space more positive than the matrix - this creates a steep electrochemical gradient across the inner membrane - this energy is used to move hydrogen ions from the matrix, across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the intermembrane space. - energy is released as electrons pass along the electron transport chain how the electron transport chain leads to ATP synthesis:
Rate of respiration
n small organisms the rate of respiration can be determined by measuring the uptake of oxygen using a respirometer. - respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions - it is affected by enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature and pH. - the concentration also has a role in the control of respiration. - ATP inhibits the enzyme in the first step of glycolysis. The enzyme responsible for glucose phosphorylation can exist in two forms: - in the presence of ATP the enzyme has a shape that makes it inactive so it cannot catalyse the reaction. - as ATP is broken down the enzyme becomes an active form and catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose. - this is end point inhibition: the end product inhibits an early step in the metabolic pathway which controls the whole precess.
- the net yield is just 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. - anaerobic respiration partially breaks down glucose to make a small amount of ATP. - the pyruvate created during glycolysis is reduced to lactate and the oxidised form of NAD is regenerated. - it is possible to oxidise the reduced NAD without oxygen. - most respiration reactions cannot continue. - The reduced NAD created during glycolysis, the link reaction and the krebs cycle is not oxidised. - without oxygen to accept the hydrogen ions and electrons the electron transport chain does not work: In exercise oxygen demand in the cells exceeds supply:
Anaerobic respiration
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- the substrate may no longer bind to the enzymes active site. - the attraction between charged groups on the substrate and in the active site will be affected. - as hydrogen ions from the lactic acid accumulate in the cytoplasm they neutralise the negatively charged groups in the active site of the enzyme. - enzymes function best over a narrow pH range. - lactate forms lactic acid in solution so as lactate accumulates the pH of the cell falls inhibiting the enzymes that catalyse the glycolysis reactions. - it builds up in the muscles and must be disposed of The end product of anaerobic respiration is lactate:
- this is known as the ATP/PC system its is used for regeneration of ATP. - the reactions do not require oxygen and provide energy for 6-10 seconds of intense exercise. - creatine phosphate breakdown starts as soon as exercise starts. - This energy can be used to regenerate ATP from ADP and phosphate, the phosphate is given by the creatine phosphate. - this is a substance stored in muscles that can be hydrolysed to release energy. - at the start of exercise immediate regeneration of ATP is achieved using creatine phosphate (PC)
Stroke volume
Is the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time the ventricle contracts. - how much blood the heart pumps out with each contraction is determined by how much blood is filling the heart, this is the volume of blood returning to the heart from the body. - during exercise there is greater muscle contraction so more blood returns to the heart this is called venous return. - in diastole during exercise the heart fills with a larger volume of blood. - the heart muscle is stretched to a greater extent, this increases stroke volume and cardiac output.
- being able to go for long periods of strenuous exercise depends on maintaining a constant supply of ATP, and this depends on aerobic capacity: ability to take in/transport/use oxygen.
Peak performance
- resulting from thickening of the muscle cell walls. - this is because increase in size of the heart - Endurance training produces a lower resting heart rate - It will expel more blood with one beat and so does not have to beat as frequently to keep the circulation of blood constant. - A larger heart usually has a lower resting hear rate. differences in resting heart rate are caused by:
Heart rate
- but it is also used to detect heart problems only when the heart is working hard. - an ECG is usually performed when the patient is at rest. - there is a small electrical current that can be detected on the skins surface. - when there is a change in polarisation of the cardiac muscle. - electrodes are attached to the person's chest and limbs to record the electrical currents produced during the cardiac cycle. - it is the most common test to check for problems with the heart. - the electrical activity can be detected and displayed on an electrocardiogram (ECG).
-hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: is an inherited condition in which gene mutations cause abnormally thick walls in the left ventricle.
- and arrhythmias is caused which is irregular beatings of the heart caused by electrical disturbances. an ECG can provide information about: - this causes the normal electrical activity and rhythm of the heart to be disrupted. - during a period of ischaemia the heart muscle does not receive blood due to atherosclerosis causing blockage of the coronary arteries. - a heart rate of more than 100bpm is known as tachycardia. - a heart rate of less than 60bpm is known as bradycardia.
ECG
- adrenaline causes an anticipatory increase in hear rate before the start of a race. - this maximises blood low to the active muscles. - it also causes constriction of arterioles going to the digestive system and other non-essential organs. - adrenaline also causes dilation of the arterioles supplying skeletal muscles - it has direct on the SAN increasing the heart rate to prepare the body for physical demands. - adrenaline has an effect on the hear rate similar to stimulation by the sympathetic nerve. - fear, excitement and shock cause a release of the hormone adrenaline into the blood from the adrenal glands located above the kidneys.
- the volume of air taken into the lungs in one minute is the minute ventilation. This is calculated by:
Inhalation
- the ventilation centre sends nerve impulses every 2-3 seconds to the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. both sets of muscles contract using inhalation. - when inhaling the external intercostals and diaphragm muscles are also used.
Exhalation
- as the lungs inflate stretch receptors in the bronchioles are stimulated. - the stretch receptors send inhibitory impulses back to the ventilation centre. - impulses to the muscles stop and the muscles relax stopping inhalation and allowing exhalation. - exhalation is caused by the elastic recoil of the lungs and gravity helping to lower the ribs. - the internal intercostal muscles only contract during deep exhalation.
- the maximum volume of air we can inhale and exhale is out vital capacity (most people 3-4 dm3).
- the volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath is our tidal volume (at rest around 0.5 dm3).
Lung volumes
- the various chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 levels and to changes in blood temperature increase the depth and rate of breathing via the ventilation centre. - ventilation is also increased in response to impulses reaching the ventilation centre from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement. - impulses from the motor cortex have a direct effect on the ventilation centre in the medulla increasing ventilation sharply.
- slow twitch fibres are associated with numerous capillaries to ensure a good oxygen supply. - it acts as an oxygen carrier within muscle cells - it has a high affinity for oxygen, and only releases it when the concentration of oxygen in the cells falls very low. - they also contain large amounts of the dark red pigment myoglobin. - they also have a little sarcoplasmic reticulum and a low glycogen content. - they have many mitochondria and high concentrations of respiratory enzymes to carry out the aerobic reactions. - they can cope with long periods of exercise to do this they carry out a lot of aerobic respiration - slow twitch fibres are specialised for slower sustained contraction
- they hypothalamus detects changes and turns on effectors when needed to return to norm temp. - the system involves receptors that detect changes in the blood temperature. these receptors are located in the hypothalamus.
Homeostasis
- homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. - this is partly achieved by maintaining stable conditions within the blood. - in the blood the concentration of glucose, ions, carbon dioxide, water potential, pH and temperature of the blood also needs to be kept within narrow limits. - each condition that is controlled has a norm value or a set point that the homeostatic mechanisms are trying to maintain. - receptors are used to detect changes from the norm. - these receptors are connected to a control mechanism which turns on or off effectors to bring conditions back to the norm.
- in humans temperature is maintained by a negative feedback system. - At lower temperatures the reactions would occur too slowly for the body to remain active, and at higher temps the enzymes could denature. - our body stays at around 37 degrees, this allows enzyme-controlled reactions to occur at a reasonable rate. - thermoregulation is the control of body temperature.
Temperature control
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- skeletal muscles to contract in shivering - liver to raise metabolic rate - hair erector muscles to contract
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- this is known as vasodilation. - blood flows closer to the surface so more energy is lost. - blood flows through the arterioles making them dilate. - in warm conditions the shut vessel constricts and muscles in the walls of the arterioles relax. - constriction of the arterioles and shunts is controlled by the hypothalamus. when warm:
- energy loss by conduction involves direct contact between objects, and energy transfer from one to the other.
Conduction:
- our bodies are usually warmer than the surrounding environment so we radiate energy. - energy can be radiated from one object to another through air, or through a vacuum, as electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation :
- some scientists believe there is a U-shaped relationship between risk of infection and amount of exercise.
- two main factors that can contribute to higher infection rates: - upper respiratory tract infections (sore throat and flu-like symptoms) are most common. - athletes engaged in heavy training programmes seem more prone to infection than normal.
Moderate exercise:
- increases the number of a lymphocyte called natural killer cells. - they are found in the blood and lymph - they are not like B and T cells because they do not use specific antigen recognition. - they provide non-specific immunity against cells invaded by viruses and cancerous cells. - they are sctivated by cytokines and interferons and they target cells that are non self - they release the protein perforin which makes pores in the targeted cell membrane.
- both of these hormones are known to suppress the immune system. - physical exercise and psychological stress cause secretion of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. - this then reduces the amount of antibody being produced. - the decrease in T helper cells reduces the amount of cytokines available to activate lymphocytes. - after vigorous exercise the number of some cells in the immune system falls: Vigorous exercise:
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- is an artificial body part used by someone with a disability to enable him or her to regain near to normal function. Prostheses: - damage to the cruciate ligaments in the knee can be tackled particulary well with keyhole surgery. - keyhole surgery on joints is known as arthroscopy. - it is possible to repair damaged joints or to remove diseased organs through small holes. - using fibre optics or minute video cameras Keyhole surgery:
- the vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane releasing their content by exocytosis.
- most are produced either in an inactive form or packaged within secretory vesicles by the golgi apparatus.
- hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood from endocrine glands.
Hormones
- causes reabsoption of water in kidneys - controles testes and ovaries - antidiuretic hormone - follicle-stimulating hormone
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Hormones continued
glands and hormones: Ovary: hormone - oestrogen function - promotes development of ovaries - promotes female secondary sexual characteristics testis: hormone - testosterone function - promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics - each hormone affects only specific target cells modifying their activity - hormones are carried around by the blood stream - they either entr the target cells or they bind to complimentary receptor molecules on the outside of the cell membranes.
Pancreas: hormone - insulin Adrenal gland: hormone - arenaline Thyroid gland: hormone - thyroxine
Hormones continued
function - lowers blood glucose concentration function - raises basal metabolic rate function - raises basal metaboic rate - prepares the body for action - dilates blood vessels
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- the hormone- receptor complex functions as a transcription factor, switching enzyme synthesis on or off. - steroid hormones are formed from lipids and have complex ring structures. - the second messenger brings about chemical changes in the cell by affecting gene transcription - this receptor activates another molecule in the cytoplasm called a second messenger - they bind to a receptor on the cell membrane - even though they are relatively small molecules they can not pass through cell membranes easily because they are charged - peptide hormones are protein chains
- some side effects include diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, kidney damage and muscle cramps.
Testosterone:
- is a steroid hormone - produced in the testes by males and in the adrenal glands in males and females - testosterone is in a group of male hormones called androgens - it causes the development of the male sexual organs - testosterone binds to androgen receptors
- it is also synthesised in the body from the amino acids glycine and arginine - once ingested it is absorbed and unchanged and carried in the blood to tissues - it is naturally found in meat and fish - it is amino acid derived - it is considered to be a nutrition supplement - is not banned Creatine: