Leadership and Empowerment

DHS 7013 - Leadership & Organizational Effectiveness

Papers By

Mohd Zaini Bin M.Y. Shahabdeen 91972

For: Dr.Abdul Rahman Bin Ahmad

Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................3 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................4 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................................................5 2.1 DEFINING EMPOWERMENT .....................................................................................................................................8 2.2 ACTIVELY PROMOTING INDIVIDUAL EMPOWERMENT ................................................................................................9 2.3 ACTIVELY DEVELOPING COLLECTIVE (GROUP) EMPOWERMENT .................................................................................10 3.0 THE CHALLENGES OF EMPOWERMENT AND HOW TO DEAL WITH THEM................................13 3.1 THE BALANCE OF POWER....................................................................................................................................13 3.2 KEY ELEMENTS.................................................................................................................................................14 3.3 IDENTIFYING AN EMPOWERED PERSON...................................................................................................................16 3.4 IDENTIFYING AN EMPOWERING SERVICE.................................................................................................................16 4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................19

Executive summary

We have defined empowerment as: .the development of capacity and the opportunity for individuals and groups to play a full role in society in general, not only in economic terms but also in social, psychological and political terms, with those involved in the implementation of activities also taking part in decision making..

The idea of empowerment is that those who have little or no influence, such as excluded people, are able to acquire the capacity to have informed opinions, to take initiatives, make independent choices and influence change. It also means that those with influence actively change their attitudes and rules and change the way decisions are made through engaging with excluded people. We have identified four main principles of empowerment. To actively: promote individual empowerment; promote collective empowerment; involve beneficiaries in project design, development, management and evaluation; and find ways to change attitudes and behaviours of key partners, systems and structures.

The real challenge of empowerment is, however, that it signals a major move in the balance of power, away from those in positions of control (for example, partnership board members and project managers) and towards the intended beneficiaries. Communication must be honest, open and widespread; relationships must work on the basis of trust and freedom, with those involved able to take risks and try things out, even where project staff may suspect that the activity will not be successful.

1.0 Introduction The buzzword empowerment has become a strategic concern for managers, human resource professionals and consultants alike. Perhaps because of this, much of the literature is highly prescriptive. In their attempts to empower workers, therefore, managers have been encouraged to view empowerment in rather simplistic terms, and as a relatively unproblematic solution to a range of strategic management and labor management problems. Further to this, there is also the implication that the process of empowerment will lead to clear and desirable gains for both managers and workers. It seems then that the definition of empowerment which underscores empowering initiatives is accepted as being both self-evident and held in common by all groups in industry. This article will argue that this notion of empowerment is framed too narrowly. The article will argue that authors tend to shy away from defining empowerment in any meaningful, or contextual, way. It will argue that, when analyzed within the context of work, the definition of empowerment and the descriptions of states of empowerment offered seem strangely passive. Undue stress seems to be placed on the managerial role of empowerer at the expense of those who are to be empowered. Thus, a passive definition of empowerment is developed and passive roles are ascribed to those supposedly empowered. This raises key questions over the status and aims of empowering initiatives which this article will attempt to address.

2.0 Literature Review The multiple dimensions of employee empowerment make it a difficult concept to define. Additionally, writers on the concept use different words to describe similar approaches. Sullivan (1994) indicates that prior to 1990 empowerment could only be accessed through articles that discussed topics such as participative management, total quality control, individual development, quality circles, and strategic planning. Since 1990 the number of articles with employee empowerment as the key descriptor has exploded. This is partly because the term can be used to describe both the individual aspect of the concept as well as the organizational one. A complicating factor in defining employee empowerment is that by its very nature, in order for empowerment to be successful, each organization must create and define it for itself. Empowerment must address the needs and culture of each unique entity. Without this selfreference, employee empowerment invariably fails because the commitment, or the sense of ownership of the concept, is not created. Various researchers have looked at the dimensions of empowerment through different lenses. Control of ones own work, autonomy on the job, variations of teamwork, and pay systems that link pay with performance are all called empowerment. As this variety is examined, it becomes clear that some of them focus on an individuals ability and desire to be empowered. Menon (1995) terms this the empowered state. Alternatively, some of the items addressed, for instance: teams, job enrichment, pay for performance, employee stock ownership, are clearly not merely from the individual perspective. They are techniques that management uses to create an environment that allows for, and even facilitates, employees opting for an empowered state. Individuals must choose to take self-power or not. Leaders create an environment where individuals are able to make that choice. The beginnings of the concept of employee empowerment can be found in several places. The socio-technical approach (Lewin, 1951) combined two aspects of work in a systemic manner. The idea of job enrichment (Herzberg, Mausner et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968) work was focused on increasing control and decision-making in ones work. The literature on job autonomy, (Herzberg, Mausner et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968; Hackman and Oldham, 1976; Hackman and Oldham, 1980; Menon, 1995) addresses another component of what is today referred to employee empowerment.

The approach to leadership that empowers subordinates as a primary component of managerial and organizational effectiveness is also called employee empowerment (Bennis, 1989; Block, 1987; Kanter, 1977; Kanter, 1979; Kanter, 1989; McClelland, 1975). Another dimension has its beginnings in the analysis of internal organization power and control (Kanter, 1979; Tannenbaum, 1968) which showed that the sharing of power and control increases organizational effectiveness. Others identify the team dimension of empowerment (Beckhard, 1969; Neilsen, 1986). Research on alienation (Seeman, 1959) and discussion of employee participation (Lawler, 1992) are also precursors of the idea of employee empowerment[1]. Empowerment stands at the front of a long line of managerial initiatives developed to address both the contemporary and the perennial problems which beset organizations. In order to understand the growing interest in empowerment we have to be aware of the nature of these problems and how they impact on organizations. In previous periods management initiatives and innovations focussed on approaches to management such as Taylorism and its associated practices of scientific management. Following scientific management, or sometimes in tandem with it, managers and workers have endured further developments such as the human relations movement, socio-technical systems approaches and so on. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s further refinements to management thought and practice took place as Britain, for example, struggled to cope with unofficial strikes and a range of macroeconomic problems[1,2]. This led managers to concentrate on a range of labor management problems and in the late 1960s, for example, managers sought formalization in, and control over, labor management issues. Later, innovations such as worker participation schemes, the development of autonomous work groups and a range of other techniques, designed to allow for the collaborative redesign of work, came to the fore. As we entered the 1980s, managers were forced to confront a new range of business problems and opportunities in a changed political environment. Considered together, these factors called previous innovations into question. In response managers became more assertive. McIlroy[3] notes that in some organizations this reassertion took on a rather violent, perhaps even a vengeful tone. He quotes Ian McGregor, the chairman of the National Coal Board in Britain, who was noted as saying: People are now discovering the price of insubordination and insurrection. And boy are we going to make it stick[3, p. 190]. This is perhaps an extreme example. Gill[4] probably captures the more typically held view.
6

Vogt (1997), in his paper, Transfer of Power discusses two, often overlooked, factors: (1) empowerment has boundaries, and (2) empowerment requires skills, including decision making, problem solving and the ability to gather and to use data. As to boundaries, Blanchard (1997) talks of creating autonomy through boundaries, as a key to successful empowerment. The problem is that many managers fear losing control when they give up some decision making power to another employee (Vogt, 1997). Trust is a critical component of empowerment, therefore, in that we must trust the people we empower (Mountford, 1997). But the trust has limits; systems and policies still need to be developed that protect both the employee and the manager. A hotel employee might be allowed (even encouraged) to spend $200 to make a guests stay memorable, but $1,000 probably would be excessive. Employees need to be given boundaries within which to innovate. Mountford also discusses accountability a measurement system that monitors employees who make decisions about productivity, quality and profit. Ward, (1996), claims that accountability is the key to successfully empowering employees. Three conditions, however, must be met. First, managers must assess the capabilities of employees to perform a particular task. Second, managers must lead in a manner that gives employees these capabilities and third, managers and employees must understand completely the structure in which tasks are to be carried out. It is not enough, then, to state: We are an empowered organization. Managers need to change the way they manage. They need to overcome fears to perceived loss of control, concerns about employee competence and doubts as to whether or not employees possess the necessary skills. Perhaps the managers main fear, however, is how their jobs might change. Indeed, many feel they may become redundant (Perry, 1997). Another, much different, issue is that managers do not know if empowerment has any effect on profitability. The concept remains difficult to quantify. Ettorre (1997), for example, suggests that for empowerment to be measurable, there must be a direct relationship to the organizations strategic goals and accountability at every level in the hierarchy, calling for a kind of courage, honesty and strategic tracking foreign to most managers. The list of concerns and fears that impede the application of empowering management tec hniques continues: (1) Consultant Thomas McCoy (President of T. J. McCoy and Associates) suggests that many managers are afraid of allowing employees to take action, because they dont feel that

employees understand the ramifications of their decisions on the organizations costs and profits. (2) Tschohl (1997) writes that some managers dont trust the customer. They feel that by empowering employees to bend the rules, customers will take unfair advantage. They dont trust the ability of front line employees to make decisions. (3) Employees too, may fear empowerment, especially when they make decisions, as they are taking risks that could lead to reprimand or firing. Jordan (1997), however, found that in an achievement-oriented environment, when employees are empowered to do what is right, guided by their knowledge of organizational values and their own personal beliefs, they generally will make the right decisions. Thus, Crouch (1997) indicates that although many innovative managers are beginning to dislike the word empowerment, fundamental concepts behind the idea are critical to organizational success. Even so, autonomy cannot be given without perimeters, or chaos will result until an appropriate framework is put in place. The truly professional manager, therefore, knows that in order to have power, one must give up power (Champy, 1997). Despite the reticence to adopt empowerment strategies, companies in which staffs are empowered consistently outperform their competitors, as employees begin to accept more and more responsibility. It has also been found, for example, that managers who dont promote personal development, tend to lose the best employees to more forward thinking companies (Brown, 1997). 2.1 Defining empowerment

Empowerment is a challenging concept to define precisely, as well as to deliver in practice. Most importantly, practical empowerment requires a change in the balance of power away from the 'expert' to the 'beneficiary'. So, it signals a major change which needs fresh thinking and new approaches. Empowerment has been described as giving people a voice, though we feel this statement immediately prompts the questions what do me mean by a voice? and do we have the right to give people a voice?'. Giving a 'voice' is only empowering if there is an audience that is listening, and the 'voice' has the tools to make itself heard and understood. Empowerment has also been described as increasing the ability of individuals and groups to make choices, and increasing the range of choices they have access to

The following definitions provide a further picture of the different ways empowerment can be viewed. verb (empowered, empowering) (empower someone to do something) to give them authority or permission to do it. (Chambers Encyclopaedic English Dictionary (1994)). empowerment is the development of capacity and the opportunity for individuals and groups to play a full role in society in general, not only in economic terms but also in social, psychological and political terms.

empowerment means that those involved in the implementation of activities should also take part in the decision making. empowerment is an enabling process that removes unnecessary restrictions from staff at all levels. It moves the responsibility for control from the manager to the team - a move from reliance on control through systems and bureaucracy, towards control through trusting.

So, we have defined empowerment as: .the development of capacity and the opportunity for individuals and groups to play a full role in society in general, not only in economic terms but also in social, psychological and political terms, with those involved in the activities also taking part in decision making.... Empowerment is vital to create the real, lasting and sustainable change needed to integrate socially-excluded and marginalised groups into communities, and to build the capacity of those communities and the people within them. To make it happen, individuals and communities must be able to take control of their own future by accessing resources and developing the skills to generate opportunities for themselves. These guiding principles are: actively promoting individual empowerment; actively developing collective empowerment; involving beneficiaries in managing projects; and Identifying ways of changing the attitudes and behaviour of key people, and adapting more formal systems and structures to mainstream empowerment.

The information which follows indicates the types of activities that will help you to follow these guiding principles. 2.2 Actively promoting individual empowerment

At the individual level - empowerment means establishing and then respecting the choices made by the people you are working with and not imposing your own views and needs . You should also make sure you are working at an appropriate speed for the individuals within your target group and, though it may seem obvious, are working together with them. Promoting individual empowerment involves increasing peoples motivation through confidence building, recognising achievements and offering practical direct experience such as

Support to improve quality of life including information on: accommodation; health; and Managing finances and credit. Support for wider employment including help with: basic skills; communication; team working; information technology (IT); and other vocational skills. Personal development including help with: confidence; motivation; self-respect; self-identity; organisational skills; independence; and taking the initiative. Participation including giving people: opportunities to take part designing, delivering and evaluating projects; appropriate childcare; and access to information and support so they can use this information to make decisions. Remember, empowering individuals is likely to start with support for basic quality-of-

life needs such as accommodation and financial management. For example, finding accommodation for someone who is homeless is a first step, but they will need to organise furniture and financial support before they are able to move on to considering their training and employment needs. At first, their need for support will be high, but as they gain confidence and skills, their need for support will fall. 2.3 Actively developing collective (group) empowerment

10

At the group level, empowerment consists of improving an organisations ability to get involved with the intended target groups and develop a sense of joint ownership of a project. To achieve this you should involve people in making decisions or in running your project (or both). You might want to consider creating new structures as well as thinking about new ways of doing things or involving people. Examples of the different types of activities that will achieve collective empowerment include the following.

Personal development through team working Opportunities for groups to gain new skills include: team working; experience in handling relationships; and interacting with others.

Group development Developing a shared interest and common agenda includes: providing mutual support and a definition of common principles; and setting aims, objectives and priorities. Group capacity This includes developing skills to: organise; manage; demonstrate leadership qualities; and lobby. Group representation This involves a group taking part in: developing and managing projects; and negotiating with other stakeholders and organisations. Creating new formal and informal structures This is to involve and represent excluded people.

It is worth stressing here that 'people' includes not just your the target group but also any partners that you might be involved with, such as local and community-sector organisations, employers, trade unions and so on. So, for example, you will need to consider:

how to involve them fully in developing and designing activities; whether they need specific training so they can take part in the range of activities, to become empowered; and how to help them to recognise the need to empower others.

Figure 2 provides examples of empowerment as an outcome and as a process:

11

Figure 2: Is empowerment an outcome or a process? Outcome Process A Development Partnership that aims to A Development Partnership that empowers its empower beneficiaries as a direct outcome. partners through the process of achieving its DP objectives. Examples: Providing education and training on basic Examples: skills to help people to find work. Using involvement mechanisms such as focus groups, management boards and community Organising business breakfasts for key forums, to involve beneficiaries in managing stakeholders as part of a process to change the activity. attitudes. Providing training to support the running of target group organisations.

In this context, you may also find the following EMPOWER acronym a useful reference: Engage communities and partners Motivate and support Participative and inclusive Ownership and influence Work to build capacity Evaluate and communicate effectively Respond to needs and adopt a creative approach

12

3.0

The challenges of empowerment and how to deal with them

This chapter discusses a number of challenges and issues you may come across in your attempts to develop empowerment through practical and achievable activities. The first issue is the balance of power. This is a fundamental factor in developing sustainable empowerment, and covers a number of key elements: communications and information; freedom and trust; responsibility and authority; and accountability and rewarding success. We have included a number of questions about empowerment for you to consider.

3.1

The balance of power

For empowerment to be sustainable, controlling its development, activities and events must move away from people in positions of power and towards the intended beneficiaries. So it presents new challenges to both those in power and those who have no power: Those who are currently have no power must:

have access to resources and opportunities to express their needs through open communications; have access to information and support to use the information; and be able to take part in decision making and be able to influence change.

Those who have power, authority and influence must:

hand over some of that power and let relationships work on the basis of trust and freedom; negotiate with other partners; change and widen attitudes; and adapt rules and reorganise decision making processes.

The process of balancing power is not easy, and training and capacity building may be required to close the gap between intention and reality. This process is two-way; those with less power will require greater knowledge and skills for effective partnership working, those holding the power will have much to learn in order to impart information and power, and to facilitate the transfer.

13

3.2

Key elements

As we have hinted so far, difficulties with the idea of empowerment stem from a lack of understanding of what it means and confusion over its desired ends. What does empowerment look like? What are its different parts? And what are the barriers to meaningful empowerment? Earlier we identified four key principles of empowerment: actively promoting individual empowerment; actively developing collective empowerment; involving beneficiaries in developing and managing projects; and changing attitudes and the behaviour of key partners, systems and structures.

Underlying all these principles are the elements that may prove to be the key conditions to achieving Sustainable empowerment. These are: communications and information; freedom and trust; responsibility and authority; and accountability and recognising success.

These four elements depend on particular key features being in place for you to achieve sustainable empowerment. So, for example, if you are involving beneficiaries in project management, communication must be two-way. You must have systems in place for feedback, and you must train your project workers to listen and act on the views of the people they are working with. Likewise, you may need to train and support beneficiaries so they can take full responsibility for their actions - perhaps in teamwork or negotiating skills. You may also need to make sure that project workers do not always push their usual practice as the correct way of doing things, but allow lay people to try out different ways of working with the opportunity to try things which might or might not work. You can easily measure the contribution that these elements are making to the success of your DP - we have included suggestions on how you might do this in Table 2. Table 2 Empowerment: key elements, definition and measurement Key element Communication Information Definition ideal Communication is open, two-way, understandable, accessible and widespread. Measurement tools Communications audit, using structured questionnaires, focus groups, individual interviews, informal soundings and reviews of communication methods. research research

Information is disseminated Participatory in the widest possible way methods

i.e.

14

Key element Freedom and trust

Definition ideal and effectively. Relationships should work on a basis of trust and freedom. Freedom means freedom of choice and freedom to try things and be supported if you fail as part of learning and development.

Measurement tools involving beneficiaries Explicit job and role definitions and descriptions. Frequent one-to-one reviews and supervisory sessions. Formative evaluation processes. Formative evaluation processes take place during the life of the DP, to adjust evaluation actions whilst the DP is running. research

Responsibility authority

and Responsibility runs parallel Participatory with authority. People need to methods. know the boundaries of their responsibilities and what their role is in the project. People are accountable for their actions and recognise their input and actions and rewarded where appropriate. Acknowledging successful empowerment is in itself empowering, but more importantly there has to be mutual agreement between partners as to what constitutes empowerment success, and how it will be achieved and measured.

Accountability Reward recognition

15

3.3

Identifying an empowered person

Table 3 Identifying an empowered person Indicators of success Confidence Broken down into Methods of measuring Determination to achieve Regular review and goals. supervision. Positive feeling about One-to-one interviews. oneself. Observation. Self-assessment questionnaires. Awareness of issues. Self-assessment Access gained to a questionnaires. desired service or provision. Better understanding of subjects and issues. Ability to make a Self-assessment contribution towards questionnaire. empowering others One-to-one interviews. through knowledge and Regular review and sharing experience. supervision. Observation. Peer review. Ability to make own One-to-one interview. decisions. Self-assessment Show control over own questionnaire. life. Regular review and supervision. Observation.

Personal development

Assertiveness

Independence

3.4

Identifying an empowering service

The checklist shown in Table 4 has also been drawn from the empowerment guide for EMPLOYMENT projects. We have also amended this one to provide a number of suggestions on how you can identify an empowering service.

16

Table 4 Identifying an empowering service Indicators of success Broken down into Reception, including Welcoming staff. environment and staff Orderly and welcoming environment. Accessibility Satisfactory opening hours. Information provided on the services and their availability. Physical location. Access for people with disabilities. Positive attitude of staff such Show empathy. as advisers Flexible appointment times. Friendliness. Good communication skills (verbal, written and approachable ). Effective organisational Equal opportunities. policies Family friendly. Confidentiality. Open, accessible. Active follow-up Monitoring people who have left. Giving further support. Methods of measuring Questionnaires. Own experience. Observation. Questionnaires. Leaflets. Sources of adverts and publicity. Observation. Research.

Contact evaluation forms. One-to-one interviews. Own experience. Observation. Research.

Group discussion. Staff interviews. Organisations policies. Questionnaires. Planned and structured follow-up procedures. Group discussion. Organisations own records and procedures.

17

Developing an empowerment toolkit

Aim to achieve empowerment The empowerment ladder: 10-step plan through:

End result employment toolkit

empathy mutual interest power obligations, opportunities and openness workable solutions ethics and equality rights and responsibilities motivation enabling change and understanding not delegating responsibility trust and training.

Specifically for transport sector Transferable format Contents The Business Case Benefits Suggested activities Research and statistics Best practice Case studies Monitoring and evaluation Suggested reading and sources of information.

Fuirich Transport Development Partnership - Widening Diversity in the Transport Industry G Williams and T Morrison

18

4.0 Conclusion and recommendations The practice of employee empowerment appears to be ahead of the scholarly research on the topic. Of the over 200 articles on employee empowerment located in a literature search, only four were in scholarly, refereed journals (Conger and Kanungo, 1988; Keller and Dansereau, 1995; Spreitzer, 1996; Thomas and Velthouse, 1985). Most were in professional or trade journals, with a few appearing in popular business magazines. However, interest in researching the concept appears to be growing in strength as at least ten dissertations have been written on the topic in the past two years. Also it appears as though employee empowerment is on the rise in organizations. As well, it looks as though it is an evolutionary process that cannot be achieved in the short term. Initially, there will be mistakes as both employees and management internalize what it means to be empowered. Finally, it seems that employee empowerment is multi-dimensional. No single set of contingencies can describe it. The aim of this guide has been to provide some ideas on how you can make empowerment tangible, sustainable and measurable. A crucial objective for you must be to look at where the control lies over decision making and direction in the individual projects has the balance of power moved toward your beneficiaries or is it still in the control of your staff and project workers? Have you developed ways of measuring changes in confidence and selfesteem? Have you tailored your strategies to the needs of your own target group, area, objectives and resources? Another important objective is to make the distinction between empowerment as a product and as a process. Empowerment as a product means that empowering groups or individuals is the desired outcome of your activities. As we have stressed, it is important to measure whether or not your strategies for doing so have been successful. Empowerment as a process means that beneficiaries will be involved at all stages of your projects life-cycle. This involvement will include a wide variety of activities - from taking part in consultative forums to membership of management boards and working parties. At whatever level, you must be clear about the role beneficiaries are playing, in particular making sure that it is not just token participation. So, you need to have a review process in place that carefully records and considers the changes that take place.

When you are aiming to empower, we recommend that you should do the following: 1 Use the definitions included in this guide to check the context (product or process) you are working with and refine your actions accordingly. Review the four main principles we have outlined and check if you are: actively promoting individual empowerment; actively promoting collective empowerment; actively involving beneficiaries in designing, developing, managing and evaluating your project; and actively finding ways to change attitudes and behaviours of key partners, systems and structures.

3.

Review whether your main emphasis is on empowerment as a product or process, and whether this is what you intended. Be honest when reviewing where the control and power lie in your grass-roots projects, and think about whether your staff also need support and training to succeed. Commit yourself to monitor, measure, review and change throughout the lifetime, asking yourself the following key questions. Are you developing understanding, knowledge and skills to support empowerment? Does the information in your project and programme flow in a clear, accessible manner? Do you recognise people as equal partners and involve them in making decisions? Do you recognise diversity in the way you design and develop your project?

4.

5.

Finally dont forget to promote the benefits and principles of empowerment as part of mainstreaming your successes and involving support. Managers, more than anyone else in an organization, are caught on the horns of a dilemma when the word empowerment starts being tossed around. They may understand the argument for it, but be unable to see themselves making a valid contribution within the new scheme of things. By helping and developing them to see themselves as leaders rather than managers, the need for, and purpose of, their role becomes clear, and they become the engines of the process rather than a potential impediment.

20

References Adkins, K. E. (1994, May/June), Tapping the power of peers, Human Resources Professional, 7(3), pp. 12-14. Alder, H. (1992), A model for personal success, Management Decision, 30(3), pp. 23-25. Belcourt, M. and P. C. Wright (1996), Managing Performance Through Training and Development, Scarborough: Nelson Canada. Blanchard, K. (1997). Out with the old and in with the new. Incentive. 171(4), pp. 59-61. Brown, R. (1997, April), Coaching helps you reach for the stars, Works Management, pp. 3436. Champy, J. (1997), Somebody has to be in charge, Forbes, 160(9), p. 242. Charter-Scott, C. (1997), The value of respect, Executive Excellence, 14(7), p. 13. Cleary, M. (1995), Youre the coach, Credit Union Management, 18(9), pp. 40-42. Coppola, B. (1995, October), Coaching the under-performing manager, HR Magazine. Crouch, N. (1997, September 25), Winning ways, People Management, 3(19), pp. 40-43. Ettorre, B. (1997), The empowerment gap: Hype vs. Reality, HR Focus, 74(7), 1,5+. James, P. and Wark, V. (1995, May 31), Replacing the ladders, People Management, 1(11), pp. 28-31. Jones, L. (1995), Cocooned and cynical employees, Journal for Quality and Participation, 18(18), pp. 52-57. Leykam, G (1997), Train the trainer through empowerment, Telemarketing and Call Center Solutions, 15(11), pp. 98-104. A review of the literature on employee empowerment, Linda Honold , Empowerment in Organizations; Volume: 5 Issue: 4; 1997 Literature review

21