Fluent VOF Model

Chapter 20.
General Multiphase
Models
This chapter discusses the general multiphase models that are available
in FLUENT. Chapter 18 provides a brief introduction to multiphase mod-
eling, Chapter 19 discusses the Lagrangian dispersed phase model, and
Chapter 21 describes FLUENTs model for solidication and melting.
Section 20.1: Choosing a General Multiphase Model
Section 20.2: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
Section 20.3: Mixture Model
Section 20.4: Eulerian Model
Section 20.5: Cavitation Eects
Section 20.6: Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Section 20.7: Solution Strategies for General Multiphase Problems
Section 20.8: Postprocessing for General Multiphase Problems
20.1 Choosing a General Multiphase Model
As discussed in Section 18.4, the VOF model is appropriate for stratied
or free-surface ows, and the mixture and Eulerian models are appropri-
ate for ows in which the phases mix or separate and/or dispersed-phase
volume fractions exceed 10%. (Flows in which the dispersed-phase vol-
ume fractions are less than or equal to 10% can be modeled using the
discrete phase model described in Chapter 19.)
To choose between the mixture model and the Eulerian model, you
should consider the following, in addition to the detailed guidelines in
Section 18.4:
c Fluent Inc. November 28, 2001 20-1
General Multiphase Models
If there is a wide distribution of the dispersed phases, the mixture
model may be preferable. If the dispersed phases are concentrated
just in portions of the domain, you should use the Eulerian model
instead.
If interphase drag laws that are applicable to your system are
available (either within FLUENT or through a user-dened func-
tion), the Eulerian model can usually provide more accurate results
than the mixture model. If the interphase drag laws are unknown
or their applicability to your system is questionable, the mixture
model may be a better choice.
If you want to solve a simpler problem, which requires less com-
putational eort, the mixture model may be a better option, since
it solves a smaller number of equations than the Eulerian model.
If accuracy is more important than computational eort, the Eu-
lerian model is a better choice. Keep in mind, however, that the
complexity of the Eulerian model can make it less computationally
stable than the mixture model.
Brief overviews of the three models, including their limitations, are pro-
vided in Sections 20.1.1, 20.1.2, and 20.1.3. Detailed descriptions of the
models are provided in Sections 20.2, 20.3, and 20.4.
20.1.1 Overview and Limitations of the VOF Model
Overview
The VOF model can model two or more immiscible uids by solving a
single set of momentum equations and tracking the volume fraction of
each of the uids throughout the domain. Typical applications include
the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the
motion of liquid after a dam break, and the steady or transient tracking
of any liquid-gas interface.
Limitations
The following restrictions apply to the VOF model in FLUENT:
20-2 c Fluent Inc. November 28, 2001
You must use the segregated solver. The VOF model is not avail-
able with either of the coupled solvers.
All control volumes must be lled with either a single uid phase
or a combination of phases; the VOF model does not allow for void
regions where no uid of any type is present.
Only one of the phases can be compressible.
Streamwise periodic ow (either specied mass ow rate or spec-
ied pressure drop) cannot be modeled when the VOF model is
used.
Species mixing and reacting ow cannot be modeled when the VOF
model is used.
The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the VOF model.
The second-order implicit time-stepping formulation cannot be used
with the VOF model.
The VOF model cannot be used for inviscid ows.
The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the VOF
model.
Steady -State and Transient VOF Calculations
The VOF formulation in FLUENT is generally used to compute a time-
dependent solution, but for problems in which you are concerned only
with a steady-state solution, it is possible to perform a steady-state cal-
culation. A steady-state VOF calculation is sensible only when your
solution is independent of the initial conditions and there are distinct in-
ow boundaries for the individual phases. For example, since the shape
of the free surface inside a rotating cup depends on the initial level of the
uid, such a problem must be solved using the time-dependent formula-
tion. On the other hand, the ow of water in a channel with a region of
air on top and a separate air inlet can be solved with the steady-state
formulation.
20.1.2 Overview and Limitations of the Mixture Model
Overview
The mixture model is a simplied multiphase model that can be used to
model multiphase ows where the phases move at dierent velocities, but
assume local equilibrium over short spatial length scales. The coupling
between the phases should be strong. It can also be used to model
homogeneous multiphase ows with very strong coupling and the phases
moving at the same velocity.
The mixture model can model n phases (uid or particulate) by solv-
ing the momentum, continuity, and energy equations for the mixture,
the volume fraction equations for the secondary phases, and algebraic
expressions for the relative velocities. Typical applications include sedi-
mentation, cyclone separators, particle-laden ows with low loading, and
bubbly ows where the gas volume fraction remains low.
The mixture model is a good substitute for the full Eulerian multiphase
model in several cases. A full multiphase model may not be feasible
when there is a wide distribution of the particulate phase or when the
interphase laws are unknown or their reliability can be questioned. A
simpler model like the mixture model can perform as well as a full mul-
tiphase model while solving a smaller number of variables than the full
multiphase model.
Limitations
The following limitations apply to the mixture model in FLUENT:
You must use the segregated solver. The mixture model is not
available with either of the coupled solvers.
Only one of the phases can be compressible.
Streamwise periodic ow (either specied mass ow rate or speci-
ed pressure drop) cannot be modeled when the mixture model is
used.
Species mixing and reacting ow cannot be modeled when the mix-
ture model is used.
Solidication and melting cannot be modeled in conjunction with
the mixture model.
The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixture model.
with the mixture model.
The mixture model cannot be used for inviscid ows.
The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the mix-
ture model.
20.1.3 Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model
Overview
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of
multiple separate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids,
gases, or solids in nearly any combination. An Eulerian treatment is
used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-Lagrangian treatment
that is used for the discrete phase model.
With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases
is limited only by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any
number of secondary phases can be modeled, provided that sucient
memory is available. For complex multiphase ows, however, you may
nd that your solution is limited by convergence behavior. See Sec-
tion 20.7.3 for multiphase modeling strategies.
FLUENTs Eulerian multiphase model diers from the Eulerian model in
FLUENT 4 in that there is no global distinction between uid-uid and
uid-solid (granular) multiphase ows. A granular ow is simply one
that involves at least one phase that has been designated as a granular
phase.
The FLUENT solution is based on the following:
A single pressure is shared by all phases.
Momentum and continuity equations are solved for each phase.
The following parameters are available for granular phases:
Granular temperature (solids uctuating energy) can be cal-
culated for each solid phase. This is based on an algebraic
relation.
Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained from appli-
cation of kinetic theory to granular ows. Frictional viscosity
is also available.
Several interphase drag coecient functions are available, which
are appropriate for various types of multiphase regimes. (You can
also modify the interphase drag coecient through user-dened
functions, as described in the separate UDF Manual.)
All of the k- turbulence models are available, and may apply to
all phases or to the mixture.
Limitations
All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction with
the Eulerian multiphase model, except for the following limitations:
Only the k- models can be used for turbulence.
Particle tracking (using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model)
interacts only with the primary phase.
Streamwise periodic ow (either specied mass ow rate or speci-
ed pressure drop) cannot be modeled when the Eulerian model is
used.
Compressible ow is not allowed.
Inviscid ow is not allowed.
with the Eulerian model.
Melting and solidication are not allowed.
Species transport and reactions are not allowed.
Heat transfer cannot be modeled.
The only type of mass transfer between phases that is allowed is
cavitation; evaporation, condensation, etc. are not allowed.
Stability and Convergence
The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently dicult, and
you may encounter some stability or convergence problems, although
the current algorithm is more stable than that used in FLUENT 4. If
a time-dependent problem is being solved, and patched elds are used
for the initial conditions, it is recommended that you perform a few
iterations with a small time step, at least an order of magnitude smaller
than the characteristic time of the ow. You can increase the size of the
time step after performing a few time steps. For steady solutions it is
recommended that you start with a small under-relaxation factor for the
volume fraction.
Stratied ows of immiscible uids should be solved with the VOF model
(see Section 20.2). Some problems involving small volume fractions can
be solved more eciently with the Lagrangian discrete phase model (see
Chapter 19).
Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is
taken during the setup and solution processes (see Section 20.7.3).
20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
The VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more uids (or
phases) are not interpenetrating. For each additional phase that you
add to your model, a variable is introduced: the volume fraction of the
phase in the computational cell. In each control volume, the volume
fractions of all phases sum to unity. The elds for all variables and prop-
erties are shared by the phases and represent volume-averaged values,
as long as the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at each
location. Thus the variables and properties in any given cell are either
purely representative of one of the phases, or representative of a mix-
ture of the phases, depending upon the volume fraction values. In other
words, if the qth uids volume fraction in the cell is denoted as
q
, then
the following three conditions are possible:

q
= 0: the cell is empty (of the qth uid).

q
= 1: the cell is full (of the qth uid)
0 <
q
< 1: the cell contains the interface between the qth uid
and one or more other uids.
Based on the local value of
q
, the appropriate properties and variables
will be assigned to each control volume within the domain.
20.2.1 The Volume Fraction Equation
The tracking of the interface(s) between the phases is accomplished by
the solution of a continuity equation for the volume fraction of one (or
more) of the phases. For the qth phase, this equation has the following
form:
q
t
+v
q
=
S
q
q
(20.2-1)
By default, the source term on the right-hand side of Equation 20.2-1 is
zero, but you can specify a constant or user-dened mass source for each
phase.
The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase;
the primary-phase volume fraction will be computed based on the fol-
lowing constraint:
n
q=1
q
= 1 (20.2-2)
20.2.2 Properties
The properties appearing in the transport equations are determined by
the presence of the component phases in each control volume. In a two-
phase system, for example, if the phases are represented by the subscripts
1 and 2, and if the volume fraction of the second of these is being tracked,
the density in each cell is given by
=
2
2
+ (1
2
)
1
(20.2-3)
In general, for an n-phase system, the volume-fraction-averaged density
takes on the following form:
=
q
(20.2-4)
All other properties (e.g., viscosity) are computed in this manner.
20.2.3 The Momentum Equation
A single momentum equation is solved throughout the domain, and the
resulting velocity eld is shared among the phases. The momentum
equation, shown below, is dependent on the volume fractions of all phases
through the properties and .
t
(v) + (vv) = p +
_
_
v +v
T
__
+g +

F (20.2-5)
One limitation of the shared-elds approximation is that in cases where
large velocity dierences exist between the phases, the accuracy of the
velocities computed near the interface can be adversely aected.
20.2.4 The Energy Equation
The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.
t
(E) + (v(E +p)) = (k
e
T) +S
h
(20.2-6)
The VOF model treats energy, E, and temperature, T, as mass-averaged
variables:
E =
n
q=1
q
E
q
n
q=1
q
(20.2-7)
where E
q
for each phase is based on the specic heat of that phase and
the shared temperature.
The properties and k
e
(eective thermal conductivity) are shared by
the phases. The source term, S
h
, contains contributions from radiation,
as well as any other volumetric heat sources.
As with the velocity eld, the accuracy of the temperature near the inter-
face is limited in cases where large temperature dierences exist between
the phases. Such problems also arise in cases where the properties vary
by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a model includes liquid
metal in combination with air, the conductivities of the materials can
dier by as much as four orders of magnitude. Such large discrepancies
in properties lead to equation sets with anisotropic coecients, which in
turn can lead to convergence and precision limitations.
20.2.5 Additional Scalar Equations
Depending upon your problem denition, additional scalar equations
may be involved in your solution. In the case of turbulence quantities,
a single set of transport equations is solved, and the turbulence vari-
ables (e.g., k and or the Reynolds stresses) are shared by the phases
throughout the eld.
20.2.6 Interpolation Near the Interface
FLUENTs control-volume formulation requires that convection and dif-
fusion uxes through the control volume faces be computed and bal-
anced with source terms within the control volume itself. There are four
schemes in FLUENT for the calculation of face uxes for the VOF model:
geometric reconstruction, donor-acceptor, Euler explicit, and implicit.
In the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, FLUENT
applies a special interpolation treatment to the cells that lie near the
interface between two phases. Figure 20.2.1 shows an actual interface
shape along with the interfaces assumed during computation by these
two methods.
The Euler explicit scheme and the implicit scheme treat these cells with
the same interpolation as the cells that are completely lled with one
phase or the other (i.e., using the standard upwind, second-order, or
QUICK scheme), rather than applying a special treatment.
The Geometric Reconstruction Scheme
In the geometric reconstruction approach, the standard interpolation
schemes that are used in FLUENT are used to obtain the face uxes
whenever a cell is completely lled with one phase or another. When the
cell is near the interface between two phases, the geometric reconstruc-
tion scheme is used.
The geometric reconstruction scheme represents the interface between
uids using a piecewise-linear approach. In FLUENT this scheme is the
most accurate and is applicable for general unstructured meshes. The
geometric reconstruction scheme is generalized for unstructured meshes
actual interface shape
interface shape represented by
the donor-acceptor scheme
interface shape represented by
the geometric reconstruction
(piecewise-linear) scheme
Figure 20.2.1: Interface Calculations
from the work of Youngs [273]. It assumes that the interface between
two uids has a linear slope within each cell, and uses this linear shape
for calculation of the advection of uid through the cell faces. (See
Figure 20.2.1.)
The rst step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position
of the linear interface relative to the center of each partially-lled cell,
based on information about the volume fraction and its derivatives in
the cell. The second step is calculating the advecting amount of uid
through each face using the computed linear interface representation and
information about the normal and tangential velocity distribution on the
face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using
the balance of uxes calculated during the previous step.
When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent !
solution must be computed. Also, if you are using a conformal grid
(i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the boundaries where two
subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided (zero-
thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit
them, as described in Section 5.7.8.
The Donor-Acceptor Scheme
In the donor-acceptor approach, the standard interpolation schemes that
are used in FLUENT are used to obtain the face uxes whenever a cell
is completely lled with one phase or another. When the cell is near
the interface between two phases, a donor-acceptor scheme is used
to determine the amount of uid advected through the face [93]. This
scheme identies one cell as a donor of an amount of uid from one phase
and another (neighbor) cell as the acceptor of that same amount of uid,
and is used to prevent numerical diusion at the interface. The amount
of uid from one phase that can be convected across a cell boundary is
limited by the minimum of two values: the lled volume in the donor
cell or the free volume in the acceptor cell.
The orientation of the interface is also used in determining the face uxes.
The interface orientation is either horizontal or vertical, depending on
the direction of the volume fraction gradient of the qth phase within
the cell, and that of the neighbor cell that shares the face in question.
Depending on the interfaces orientation as well as its motion, ux values
are obtained by pure upwinding, pure downwinding, or some combination
of the two.
When the donor-acceptor scheme is used, a time-dependent solution !
must be computed. Also, the donor-acceptor scheme can be used only
with quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes. In addition, if you are using a
conformal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the bound-
aries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no
two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will
need to slit them, as described in Section 5.7.8.
The Euler Explicit Scheme
In the Euler explicit approach, FLUENTs standard nite-dierence in-
terpolation schemes are applied to the volume fraction values that were
computed at the previous time step.
n+1
q

n
q
t
V +
f
(U
n
f

n
q,f
) = 0 (20.2-8)
where n + 1 = index for new (current) time step
n = index for previous time step
q,f
= face value of the qth volume fraction, computed
from the rst- or second-order upwind or
QUICK scheme
V = volume of cell
U
f
= volume ux through the face, based on
normal velocity
This formulation does not require iterative solution of the transport equa-
tion during each time step, as is needed for the implicit scheme.
When the Euler explicit scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must !
be computed.
The Implicit Scheme
In the implicit interpolation method, FLUENTs standard nite-dierence
interpolation schemes are used to obtain the face uxes for all cells, in-
cluding those near the interface.
n+1
q

n
q
t
V +
f
(U
n+1
f

n+1
q,f
) = 0 (20.2-9)
Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current
time step (rather than at the previous step, as for the Euler explicit
scheme), a standard scalar transport equation is solved iteratively for
each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.
The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-
state calculations. See Section 20.6.4 for details.
20.2.7 Time Dependence
For time-dependent VOF calculations, Equation 20.2-1 is solved using an
explicit time-marching scheme. FLUENT automatically renes the time
step for the integration of the volume fraction equation, but you can
inuence this time step calculation by modifying the Courant number.
You can choose to update the volume fraction once for each time step, or
once for each iteration within each time step. These options are discussed
in more detail in Section 20.6.12.
20.2.8 Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion
The VOF model can also include the eects of surface tension along the
interface between each pair of phases. The model can be augmented by
the additional specication of the contact angles between the phases and
the walls.
Surface Tension
Surface tension arises as a result of attractive forces between molecules
in a uid. Consider an air bubble in water, for example. Within the
bubble, the net force on a molecule due to its neighbors is zero. At
the surface, however, the net force is radially inward, and the combined
eect of the radial components of force across the entire spherical surface
is to make the surface contract, thereby increasing the pressure on the
concave side of the surface. The surface tension is a force, acting only at
the surface, that is required to maintain equilibrium in such instances.
It acts to balance the radially inward inter-molecular attractive force
with the radially outward pressure gradient force across the surface. In
regions where two uids are separated, but one of them is not in the form
of spherical bubbles, the surface tension acts to minimize free energy by
decreasing the area of the interface.
The surface tension model in FLUENT is the continuum surface force
(CSF) model proposed by Brackbill et al. [25]. With this model, the
addition of surface tension to the VOF calculation results in a source
term in the momentum equation. To understand the origin of the source
term, consider the special case where the surface tension is constant
along the surface, and where only the forces normal to the interface are
considered. It can be shown that the pressure drop across the surface
depends upon the surface tension coecient, , and the surface curvature
as measured by two radii in orthogonal directions, R
1
and R
2
:
p
2
p
1
=
_
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
_
(20.2-10)
where p
1
and p
2
are the pressures in the two uids on either side of the
interface.
In FLUENT, a formulation of CSF model is used, where the surface cur-
vature is computed from local gradients in the surface normal at the
interface. Let n be the surface normal, dened as the gradient of
q
, the
volume fraction of the qth phase.
n =
q
(20.2-11)
The curvature, , is dened in terms of the divergence of the unit normal,
n [25]:
= n (20.2-12)
where
n =
n
|n|
(20.2-13)
The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across
the surface. The force at the surface can be expressed as a volume force
using the divergence theorem. It is this volume force that is the source
term which is added to the momentum equation. It has the following
form:
F
vol
=

pairs ij, i<j
ij
j
+
j
i
1
2
(
i
+
j
)
(20.2-14)
This expression allows for a smooth superposition of forces near cells
where more than two phases are present. If only two phases are present in
a cell, then
i
=
j
and
i
=
j
, and Equation 20.2-14 simplies
to
F
vol
=
ij
i
1
2
(
i
+
j
)
(20.2-15)
where is the volume-averaged density computed using Equation 20.2-4.
Equation 20.2-15 shows that the surface tension source term for a cell is
proportional to the average density in the cell.
Note that the calculation of surface tension eects on triangular and
tetrahedral meshes is not as accurate as on quadrilateral and hexahedral
meshes. The region where surface tension eects are most important
should therefore be meshed with quadrilaterals or hexahedra.
When Surface Tension Eects are Important
The importance of surface tension eects is determined based on the
value of two dimensionless quantities: the Reynolds number, Re, and
the capillary number, Ca; or the Reynolds number, Re, and the We-
ber number, We. For Re 1, the quantity of interest is the capillary
number:
Ca =
U
(20.2-16)
and for Re 1, the quantity of interest is the Weber number:
We =

LU
2
(20.2-17)
where U is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension eects can be ne-
glected if Ca 1 or We 1.
Wall Adhesion
An option to specify a wall adhesion angle in conjunction with the sur-
face tension model is also available in the VOF model. The model is
taken from work done by Brackbill et al. [25]. Rather than impose this
boundary condition at the wall itself, the contact angle that the uid is
assumed to make with the wall is used to adjust the surface normal in
cells near the wall. This so-called dynamic boundary condition results
in the adjustment of the curvature of the surface near the wall.
If
w
is the contact angle at the wall, then the surface normal at the live
cell next to the wall is
n = n
w
cos
w
+

t
w
sin
w
(20.2-18)
where n
w
and

t
w
are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall,
respectively. The combination of this contact angle with the normally
calculated surface normal one cell away from the wall determine the local
curvature of the surface, and this curvature is used to adjust the body
force term in the surface tension calculation.
The contact angle
w
is the angle between the wall and the tangent to
the interface at the wall, measured inside the rst phase of the pair listed
in the Wall panel, as shown in Figure 20.2.2.
w
wall
interface
first phase
second phase
Figure 20.2.2: Measuring the Contact Angle
20.3 Mixture Model
The mixture model, like the VOF model, uses a single-uid approach.
It diers from the VOF model in two respects:
The mixture model allows the phases to be interpenetrating. The
volume fractions
q
and
p
for a control volume can therefore be
equal to any value between 0 and 1, depending on the space occu-
pied by phase q and phase p.
The mixture model allows the phases to move at dierent velocities,
using the concept of slip velocities. (Note that the phases can also
be assumed to move at the same velocity, and the mixture model
is then reduced to a homogeneous multiphase model.)
The mixture model solves the continuity equation for the mixture, the
momentum equation for the mixture, the energy equation for the mix-
ture, and the volume fraction equation for the secondary phases, as well
as algebraic expressions for the relative velocities (if the phases are mov-
ing at dierent velocities).
20.3.1 Continuity Equation for the Mixture
The continuity equation for the mixture is
t
(
m
) + (
m
v
m
) = m (20.3-1)
where v
m
is the mass-averaged velocity:
v
m
=
n
k=1
k
v
k
m
(20.3-2)
and
m
is the mixture density:
m
=
n
k=1
k
(20.3-3)
20.3 Mixture Model
k
is the volume fraction of phase k.
m represents mass transfer due to cavitation (described in Section 20.5)
or user-dened mass sources.
20.3.2 Momentum Equation for the Mixture
The momentum equation for the mixture can be obtained by summing
the individual momentum equations for all phases. It can be expressed
as
t
(
m
v
m
) + (
m
v
m
v
m
) = p +
_
m
_
v
m
+v
T
m
__
+
m
g +

F +
_
n
k=1
k
v
dr,k
v
dr,k
_
(20.3-4)
where n is the number of phases,

F is a body force, and
m
is the
viscosity of the mixture:
m
=
n
k=1
k
(20.3-5)
v
dr,k
is the drift velocity for secondary phase k:
v
dr,k
= v
k
v
m
(20.3-6)
20.3.3 Energy Equation for the Mixture
The energy equation for the mixture takes the following form:
t
n
k=1
(
k
k
E
k
) +
n
k=1
(
k
v
k
(
k
E
k
+p)) = (k
e
T) +S
E
(20.3-7)
where k
e
is the eective conductivity (k +k
t
, where k
t
is the turbulent
thermal conductivity, dened according to the turbulence model being
used). The rst term on the right-hand side of Equation 20.3-7 represents
energy transfer due to conduction. S
E
includes any other volumetric heat
sources.
In Equation 20.3-7,
E
k
= h
k
k
+
v
2
k
2
(20.3-8)
for a compressible phase, and E
k
= h
k
for an incompressible phase,
where h
k
is the sensible enthalpy for phase k.
20.3.4 Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity
The relative velocity (also referred to as the slip velocity) is dened as the
velocity of a secondary phase (p) relative to the velocity of the primary
phase (q):
v
qp
= v
p
v
q
(20.3-9)
The drift velocity and the relative velocity (v
qp
) are connected by the
following expression:
v
dr,p
= v
qp
k=1
m
v
qk
(20.3-10)
FLUENTs mixture model makes use of an algebraic slip formulation. The
basic assumption of the algebraic slip mixture model is that, to prescribe
an algebraic relation for the relative velocity, a local equilibrium between
the phases should be reached over short spatial length scales. The form
of the relative velocity is given by
v
qp
=
qp
a (20.3-11)
where a is the secondary-phase particles acceleration and
qp
is the par-
ticulate relaxation time. Following Manninen et al. [150]
qp
is of the
form:
20.3 Mixture Model
qp
=
(
m
p
)d
2
p
18
q
f
drag
(20.3-12)
where d
p
is the diameter of the particles (or droplets or bubbles) of
secondary phase p, and the drag function f
drag
is taken from Schiller
and Naumann [202]:
f
drag
=
_
1 + 0.15Re
0.687
Re 1000
0.0183Re Re > 1000
(20.3-13)
and the acceleration a is of the form
a = g (v
m
)v
m
v
m
t
(20.3-14)
The simplest algebraic slip formulation is the so-called drift ux model,
in which the acceleration of the particle is given by gravity and/or a
centrifugal force and the particulate relaxation time is modied to take
into account the presence of other particles.
Note that, if the slip velocity is not solved, the mixture model is reduced
to a homogeneous multiphase model. In addition, the mixture model can
be customized (using user-dened functions) to use a formulation other
than the algebraic slip method for the slip velocity. See the separate
UDF Manual for details.
20.3.5 Volume Fraction Equation for the Secondary Phases
From the continuity equation for secondary phase p, the volume fraction
equation for secondary phase p can be obtained:
t
(
p
p
) + (
p
p
v
m
) = (
p
p
v
dr,p
) (20.3-15)
20.4 Eulerian Model
To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conserva-
tion equations for momentum and continuity is solved, to a multiphase
model, additional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In
the process of introducing additional sets of conservation equations, the
original set must also be modied. The modications involve, among
other things, the introduction of the volume fractions
1
,
2
, . . .
n
for
the multiple phases, as well as a mechanism for the exchange of momen-
tum between the phases.
Details about the Eulerian multiphase model are presented in the fol-
lowing subsections:
Section 20.4.1: Volume Fractions
Section 20.4.2: Conservation Equations
Section 20.4.3: Interphase Exchange Coecients
Section 20.4.4: Solids Pressure
Section 20.4.5: Solids Shear Stresses
Section 20.4.6: Granular Temperature
Section 20.4.7: Turbulence Models
Section 20.4.8: Solution Method in FLUENT
20.4.1 Volume Fractions
The description of multiphase ow as interpenetrating continua incorpo-
rates the concept of phasic volume fractions, denoted here by
q
. Vol-
ume fractions represent the space occupied by each phase, and the laws
of conservation of mass and momentum are satised by each phase in-
dividually. The derivation of the conservation equations can be done
by ensemble averaging the local instantaneous balance for each of the
phases [3] or by using the mixture theory approach [22].
The volume of phase q, V
q
, is dened by
20.4 Eulerian Model
V
q
=
_
V
q
dV (20.4-1)
where
n
q=1
q
= 1 (20.4-2)
The eective density of phase q is

q
=
q
q
(20.4-3)
where
q
is the physical density of phase q.
20.4.2 Conservation Equations
The general conservation equations from which the equations solved by
FLUENT are derived are presented in this section, followed by the solved
equations themselves.
Equations in General Form
Conservation of Mass
The continuity equation for phase q is
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
) =
n
p=1
m
pq
(20.4-4)
where v
q
is the velocity of phase q and m
pq
characterizes the mass transfer
from the p
th
to q
th
phase. From the mass conservation one can obtain
m
pq
= m
qp
(20.4-5)
and
m
pp
= 0 (20.4-6)
Conservation of Momentum
The momentum balance for phase q yields
t
(
q
q
v
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
n
p=1
(
R
pq
+ m
pq
v
pq
) +
q
(
F
q
+

F
lift,q
+

F
vm,q
) (20.4-7)
where
q
is the q
th
phase stress-strain tensor
q
=
q
q
(v
q
+v
T
q
) +
q
(
q
2
3
q
) v
q
I (20.4-8)
Here
q
and
q
are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q,

F
q
is an
external body force,

F
lift,q
is a lift force,

F
vm,q
is a virtual mass force,
R
pq
is an interaction force between phases, and p is the pressure shared
by all phases.
v
pq
is the interphase velocity, dened as follows. If m
pq
> 0 (i.e., phase
p mass is being transferred to phase q), v
pq
= v
p
; if m
pq
< 0 (i.e., phase
q mass is being transferred to phase p), v
pq
= v
q
; and v
pq
= v
qp
.
Equation 20.4-7 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the in-
terphase force

R
pq
. This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion,
and other eects, and is subject to the conditions that

R
pq
=
R
qp
and
R
qq
= 0.
FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the following form:
n
p=1
R
pq
=
n
p=1
K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) (20.4-9)
where K
pq
(= K
qp
) is the interphase momentum exchange coecient
(described in Section 20.4.3).
20.4 Eulerian Model
Lift Forces
For multiphase ows, FLUENT can include the eect of lift forces on
the secondary phase particles (or droplets or bubbles). These lift forces
act on a particle mainly due to velocity gradients in the primary-phase
ow eld. The lift force will be more signicant for larger particles, but
the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not
appropriate for closely packed particles or for very small particles.
The lift force acting on a secondary phase p in a primary phase q is
computed from [57]
F
lift
= 0.5
q
p
|v
q
v
p
| (v
q
) (20.4-10)
The lift force F
lift
will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum
equation for both phases (F
lift,q
= F
lift,p
).
In most cases, the lift force is insignicant compared to the drag force, so
there is no reason to include this extra term. If the lift force is signicant
(e.g., if the phases separate quickly), it may be appropriate to include this
term. By default, F
lift
is not included. The lift force and lift coecient
can be specied for each pair of phases, if desired.
Virtual Mass Force
For multiphase ows, FLUENT includes the virtual mass eect that
occurs when a secondary phase p accelerates relative to the primary
phase q. The inertia of the primary-phase mass encountered by the
accelerating particles (or droplets or bubbles) exerts a virtual mass
force on the particles [57]:
F
vm
= 0.5
p
q
_
d
q
v
q
dt

d
p
v
p
dt
_
(20.4-11)
The term
dq
dt
denotes the phase material time derivative of the form
d
q
()
dt
=
()
t
+ (v
q
) (20.4-12)
The virtual mass force F
vm
will be added to the right-hand side of the
momentum equation for both phases (F
vm,q
= F
vm,p
).
The virtual mass eect is signicant when the secondary phase density
is much smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient
bubble column). By default, F
vm
is not included.
Equations Solved by FLUENT
The equations for uid-uid and granular multiphase ows, as solved by
FLUENT, are presented here for the general case of an n-phase ow.
Continuity Equation
The volume fraction of each phase is calculated from a continuity equa-
tion:
t
(
q
) + (
q
v
q
) =
1
q
_
_
n
p=1
m
pq
q
d
q
q
dt
_
_
(20.4-13)
The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the
condition that the volume fractions sum to one (given by Equation 20.4-2),
allows for the calculation of the primary-phase volume fraction. This
treatment is common to uid-uid and granular ows.
Fluid-Fluid Momentum Equations
The conservation of momentum for a uid phase q is
t
(
q
q
v
q
) + (
q
q
v
q
v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
q
q
g +
q
(
F
q
+

F
lift,q
+

F
vm,q
) +
n
p=1
(K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) + m
pq
v
pq
)
(20.4-14)
20.4 Eulerian Model
Here g is the acceleration due to gravity and

F
q
,

F
lift,q
, and

F
vm,q
are as
dened for Equation 20.4-7.
Fluid-Solid Momentum Equations
Following the work of [2, 32, 50, 76, 131, 145, 167, 235], FLUENT uses a
multi-uid granular model to describe the ow behavior of a uid-solid
mixture. The solid-phase stresses are derived by making an analogy be-
tween the random particle motion arising from particle-particle collisions
and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into account the
inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of
the particle velocity uctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and
pressure of the solid phase. The kinetic energy associated with the parti-
cle velocity uctuations is represented by a pseudothermal or granular
temperature which is proportional to the mean square of the random
motion of particles.
The conservation of momentum for the uid phases is similar to Equa-
tion 20.4-14, and that for the s
th
solid phase is
t
(
s
s
v
s
) + (
s
s
v
s
v
s
) =
s
p p
s
+
s
+
s
s
g +
s
(
F
s
+

F
lift,s
+

F
vm,s
) +
N
l=1
(K
ls
(v
l
v
s
) + m
ls
v
ls
) (20.4-15)
where p
s
is the s
th
solids pressure, K
ls
= K
sl
is the momentum exchange
coecient between uid or solid phase l and solid phase s, N is the
total number of phases, and

F
q
,

F
lift,q
, and

F
vm,q
are as dened for
Equation 20.4-7.
20.4.3 Interphase Exchange Coecients
It can be seen in Equations 20.4-14 and 20.4-15 that momentum exchange
between the phases is based on the value of the uid-uid exchange
coecient K
pq
and, for granular ows, the uid-solid and solid-solid
exchange coecients K
ls
.
Fluid-Fluid Exchange Coecient
For uid-uid ows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets
or bubbles. This has an impact on how each of the uids is assigned
to a particular phase. For example, in ows where there are unequal
amounts of two uids, the predominant uid should be modeled as the
primary uid, since the sparser uid is more likely to form droplets or
bubbles. The exchange coecient for these types of bubbly, liquid-liquid
or gas-liquid mixtures can be written in the following general form:
K
pq
=

p
p
f
p
(20.4-16)
where f, the drag function, is dened dierently for the dierent exchange-
coecient models (as described below) and
p
, the particulate relax-
ation time, is dened as
p
=

p
d
2
p
18
q
(20.4-17)
where d
p
is the diameter of the bubbles or droplets of phase p.
Nearly all denitions of f include a drag coecient (C
D
) that is based on
the relative Reynolds number (Re). It is this drag function that diers
among the exchange-coecient models.
For the model of Schiller and Naumann [202]
f =
C
D
Re
24
(20.4-18)
where
C
D
=
_
24(1 + 0.15Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(20.4-19)
and Re is the relative Reynolds number. The relative Reynolds
number for the primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained
from
20.4 Eulerian Model
Re =

q
|v
p
v
q
|d
p
q
(20.4-20)
The relative Reynolds number for secondary phases p and r is
obtained from
Re =

rp
|v
r
v
p
|d
rp
rp
(20.4-21)
where
rp
=
p
p
+
r
r
is the mixture viscosity of the phases p
and r.
The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it is
acceptable for general use for all uid-uid pairs of phases.
For the Morsi and Alexander model [163]
f =
C
D
Re
24
(20.4-22)
where
C
D
= a
1
+
a
2
Re
+
a
3
Re
2
(20.4-23)
and Re is dened by Equation 20.4-20 or 20.4-21. The as are
dened as follows:
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
=
_
_
0, 18, 0 0 < Re < 0.1
3.690, 22.73, 0.0903 0.1 < Re < 1
1.222, 29.1667, 3.8889 1 < Re < 10
0.6167, 46.50, 116.67 10 < Re < 100
0.3644, 98.33, 2778 100 < Re < 1000
0.357, 148.62, 47500 1000 < Re < 5000
0.46, 490.546, 578700 5000 < Re < 10000
0.5191, 1662.5, 5416700 Re 10000
(20.4-24)
The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting
the function denition frequently over a large range of Reynolds
numbers, but calculations with this model may be less stable than
with the other models.
For the symmetric model
K
pq
=

p
(
p
p
+
q
q
)f
pq
(20.4-25)
where
pq
=
(
p
p
+
q
q
)(
dp+dq
2
)
2
18(
p
p
+
q
q
)
(20.4-26)
and
f =
C
D
Re
24
(20.4-27)
where
C
D
=
_
24(1 + 0.15Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(20.4-28)
and Re is dened by Equation 20.4-20 or 20.4-21.
The symmetric model is recommended for ows in which the sec-
ondary (dispersed) phase in one region of the domain becomes the
primary (continuous) phase in another. For example, if air is in-
jected into the bottom of a container lled halfway with water,
the air is the dispersed phase in the bottom half of the container;
in the top half of the container, the air is the continuous phase.
This model can also be used for the interaction between secondary
phases.
You can specify dierent exchange coecients for each pair of phases.
It is also possible to use user-dened functions to dene exchange coe-
cients for each pair of phases. If the exchange coecient is equal to zero
(i.e., if no exchange coecient is specied), the ow elds for the uids
will be computed independently, with the only interaction being their
complementary volume fractions within each computational cell.
20.4 Eulerian Model
Fluid-Solid Exchange Coecient
The uid-solid exchange coecient K
sl
can be written in the following
general form:
K
sl
=

s
s
f
s
(20.4-29)
where f is dened dierently for the dierent exchange-coecient models
(as described below), and
s
, the particulate relaxation time, is dened
as
s
=

s
d
2
s
18
l
(20.4-30)
where d
s
is the diameter of particles of phase s.
All denitions of f include a drag function (C
D
) that is based on the
relative Reynolds number (Re
s
). It is this drag function that diers
among the exchange-coecient models.
For the Syamlal-OBrien model [234]
f =
C
D
Re
s
l
24v
2
r,s
(20.4-31)
where the drag function has a form derived by Dalla Valle [47]
C
D
=
_
_
0.63 +
4.8
_
Re
s
/v
r,s
_
_
2
(20.4-32)
This model is based on measurements of the terminal velocities of
particles in uidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a
function of the volume fraction and relative Reynolds number [193]:
Re
s
=

l
d
s
|v
s
v
l
|
l
(20.4-33)
where the subscript l is for the l
th
uid phase, s is for the s
th
solid
phase, and d
s
is the diameter of the s
th
solid phase particles.
The uid-solid exchange coecient has the form
K
sl
=
3
s
l
4v
2
r,s
d
s
C
D
_
Re
s
v
r,s
_
|v
s
v
l
| (20.4-34)
where v
r,s
is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase [73]:
v
r,s
= 0.5
_
A0.06Re
s
+
_
(0.06Re
s
)
2
+ 0.12Re
s
(2B A) +A
2
_
(20.4-35)
with
A =
4.14
l
(20.4-36)
and
B = 0.8
1.28
l
(20.4-37)
for
l
0.85, and
B =
2.65
l
(20.4-38)
for
l
> 0.85.
This model is appropriate when the solids shear stresses are dened
according to Syamlal et al. [235] (Equation 20.4-52).
For the model of Wen and Yu [262], the uid-solid exchange coef-
cient is of the following form:
K
sl
=
3
4
C
D
l
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(20.4-39)
where
20.4 Eulerian Model
C
D
=
24
l
Re
s
_
1 + 0.15(
l
Re
s
)
0.687
_
(20.4-40)
and Re
s
is dened by Equation 20.4-33.
This model is appropriate for dilute systems.
The Gidaspow model [76] is a combination of the Wen and Yu
model [262] and the Ergun equation [62].
When
l
> 0.8, the uid-solid exchange coecient K
sl
is of the
following form:
K
sl
=
3
4
C
D
l
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(20.4-41)
where
C
D
=
24
l
Re
s
_
1 + 0.15(
l
Re
s
)
0.687
_
(20.4-42)
When
l
0.8,
K
sl
= 150
s
(1
l
)
l
l
d
2
s
+ 1.75
s
|v
s
v
l
|
d
s
(20.4-43)
This model is recommended for dense uidized beds.
Solid-Solid Exchange Coecient
The solid-solid exchange coecient K
ls
has the following form [233]:
K
ls
=
3 (1 +e
ls
)
_
2
+C
fr,ls
2
8
_
l
(d
l
+d
s
)
2
g
0,ls
2
_
l
d
3
l
+
s
d
3
s
_ |v
l
v
s
|
(20.4-44)
where
e
ls
= the coecient of restitution (described in
Section 20.4.4)
C
fr,ls
= the coecient of friction between the l
th
and s
th
solid-phase particles (C
fr,ls
= 0)
d
l
= the diameter of the particles of solid l
g
0,ls
= the radial distribution coecient (described in
Section 20.4.4)
20.4.4 Solids Pressure
For granular ows in the compressible regime (i.e., where the solids vol-
ume fraction is less than its maximum allowed value), a solids pressure is
calculated independently and used for the pressure gradient term, p
s
,
in the granular-phase momentum equation. Because a Maxwellian ve-
locity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is
introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids
pressure and viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic
term and a second term due to particle collisions:
p
s
=
s
s
+ 2
s
(1 +e
ss
)
2
s
g
0,ss
s
(20.4-45)
where e
ss
is the coecient of restitution for particle collisions, g
0,ss
is the
radial distribution function, and
s
is the granular temperature. FLU-
ENT uses a default value of 0.9 for e
ss
, but the value can be adjusted
to suit the particle type. The granular temperature
s
is proportional
to the kinetic energy of the uctuating particle motion, and will be de-
scribed later in this section. The function g
0,ss
(described below in more
detail) is a distribution function that governs the transition from the
compressible condition with <
s,max
, where the spacing between
the solid particles can continue to decrease, to the incompressible con-
dition with =
s,max
, where no further decrease in the spacing can
occur. A value of 0.63 is the default for
s,max
, but you can modify it
during the problem setup.
20.4 Eulerian Model
Radial Distribution Function
The radial distribution function, g
0
, is a correction factor that modies
the probability of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase
becomes dense. This function may also be interpreted as the nondimen-
sional distance between spheres:
g
0
=
s +d
p
s
(20.4-46)
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 20.4-46 it can be
observed that for a dilute solid phase s , and therefore g
0
1. In
the limit when the solid phase compacts, s 0 and g
0
. The radial
distribution function is closely connected to the factor of Chapman
and Cowlings [32] theory of non-uniform gases. is equal to one for a
rare gas, and increases and tends to innity when the molecules are so
close together that motion is not possible.
In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution
function. FLUENT employs that proposed in [167]:
g
0
=
_
_
1
_

s
s,max
_1
3
_
_
1
(20.4-47)
When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 20.4-47 is
extended to
g
0,ll
=
_
_
1
_

l
l,max
_1
3
_
_
1
(20.4-48)
where
l,max
is specied by you during the problem setup, and
g
0,lm
=
d
m
g
0,ll
+d
l
g
0,mm
d
m
+d
l
(20.4-49)
20.4.5 Solids Shear Stresses
The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising from
particle momentum exchange due to translation and collision. A fric-
tional component of viscosity can also be included to account for the
viscous-plastic transition that occurs when particles of a solid phase reach
the maximum solid volume fraction.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are
added to give the solids shear viscosity:
s
=
s,col
+
s,kin
+
s,fr
(20.4-50)
Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [76, 235]
s,col
=
4
5
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 +e
ss
)
_
_
1/2
(20.4-51)
Kinetic Viscosity
FLUENT provides two expressions for the kinetic part.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [235]:
s,kin
=

s
d
s
6 (3 e
ss
)
_
1 +
2
5
(1 +e
ss
) (3e
ss
1)
s
g
0,ss
_
(20.4-52)
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [76] is also avail-
able:
s,kin
=
10
s
d
s
96
s
(1 +e
ss
) g
0,ss
_
1 +
4
5
g
0,ss
s
(1 +e
ss
)
_
2
(20.4-53)
20.4 Eulerian Model
Bulk Viscosity
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular par-
ticles to compression and expansion. It has the following form from Lun
et al. [145]:
s
=
4
3
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 +e
ss
)
_
_
1/2
(20.4-54)
Note that the bulk viscosity is set to a constant value of zero, by default.
It is also possible to select the Lun et al. expression or use a user-dened
function.
Frictional Viscosity
In dense ow at low shear, where the secondary volume fraction for
a solid phase nears the packing limit, the generation of stress is mainly
due to friction between particles. The solids shear viscosity computed by
FLUENT does not, by default, account for the friction between particles.
If the frictional viscosity is included in the calculation, FLUENT uses
Schaeers [200] expression:
s,fr
=
p
s
sin
2
I
2D
(20.4-55)
where p
s
is the solids pressure, is the angle of internal friction, and I
2D
is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. It is also possible
to specify a constant or user-dened frictional viscosity.
20.4.6 Granular Temperature
The granular temperature for the s
th
solids phase is proportional to the
kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. The transport
equation derived from kinetic theory takes the form [50]
3
2
_
t
(
s
s
) + (
s
s
v
s
s
)
_
= (p
s
I +
s
) : v
s
(k
s
s
)
s
+
ls
(20.4-56)
where
(p
s
I +
s
) : v
s
= the generation of energy by the
solid stress tensor
k
s
s
= the diusion of energy (k
s
is the
diusion coecient)
s
= the collisional dissipation of energy
ls
= the energy exchange between the l
th
uid or solid phase and the s
th
solid
phase
Equation 20.4-56 contains the term k
s
s
describing the diusive ux
of granular energy.
The collisional dissipation of energy,
s
, represents the rate of energy
dissipation within the s
th
solids phase due to collisions between particles.
This term is represented by the expression derived by Lun et al. [145]
m
=
12(1 e
2
ss
)g
0,ss
d
s
2
s
3/2
s
(20.4-57)
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random uctuations in particle
velocity from the s
th
solids phase to the l
th
uid or solid phase is repre-
sented by
ls
[76]:
ls
= 3K
ls
s
(20.4-58)
FLUENT currently uses an algebraic relation for the granular tempera-
ture. This has been obtained by neglecting convection and diusion in
the transport equation, Equation 20.4-56 [235].
20.4.7 Turbulence Models
To describe the eects of turbulent uctuations of velocities and scalar
quantities in a single phase, FLUENT uses various types of closure mod-
els, as described in Chapter 10. In comparison to single-phase ows,
20.4 Eulerian Model
the number of terms to be modeled in the momentum equations in mul-
tiphase ows is large, and this makes the modeling of turbulence in
multiphase simulations extremely complex.
FLUENT provides three methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase
ows within the context of the k- models:
mixture turbulence model (default)
dispersed turbulence model
turbulence model for each phase
The choice of model depends on the importance of the secondary-phase
turbulence in your application.
Note that the descriptions of each method below are presented based !
on the standard k- model. The multiphase modications to the RNG
and realizable k- models are similar, and are therefore not presented
explicitly.
Mixture Turbulence Model
The mixture turbulence model is the default multiphase turbulence model.
It represents the rst extension of the single-phase k- model, and it is
applicable when phases separate, for stratied (or nearly stratied) mul-
tiphase ows, and when the density ratio between phases is close to 1. In
these cases, using mixture properties and mixture velocities is sucient
to capture important features of the turbulent ow.
The k and equations describing this model are as follows:
t
(
m
k) + (
m
v
m
k) =
_
t,m
k
k
_
+G
k,m
m
(20.4-59)
and
t
(
m
)+(
m
v
m
) =
_
t,m
_
+
k
(C
1
G
k,m
C
2
m
) (20.4-60)
where the mixture density and velocity,
m
and v
m
, are computed from
m
=
N
i=1
i
(20.4-61)
and
v
m
=
N
i=1
i
v
i
N
i=1
i
(20.4-62)
the turbulent viscosity,
t,m
, is computed from
t,m
=
m
C
k
2
(20.4-63)
and the production of turbulence kinetic energy, G
k,m
, is computed from
G
k,m
=
t,m
(v
m
+ (v
m
)
T
) : v
m
(20.4-64)
The constants in these equations are the same as those described in
Section 10.4.1 for the single-phase k- model.
Dispersed Turbulence Model
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the con-
centrations of the secondary phases are dilute. In this case, interparticle
collisions are negligible and the dominant process in the random motion
of the secondary phases is the inuence of the primary-phase turbulence.
Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phases can therefore be given in
20.4 Eulerian Model
terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of
the particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time.
The model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous
phase and the rest are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Assumptions
The dispersed method for modeling turbulence in FLUENT involves the
following assumptions:
A modied k- model for the continuous phase: Turbulent predic-
tions for the continuous phase are obtained using the standard k-
model supplemented with extra terms that include the interphase
turbulent momentum transfer.
Tchen-theory correlations for the dispersed phases: Predictions for
turbulence quantities for the dispersed phases are obtained using
the Tchen theory of dispersion of discrete particles by homogeneous
turbulence [91].
Interphase turbulent momentum transfer: In turbulent multiphase
ows, the momentum exchange terms contain the correlation be-
tween the instantaneous distribution of the dispersed phases and
the turbulent uid motion. It is possible to take into account the
dispersion of the dispersed phases transported by the turbulent
uid motion.
A phase-weighted averaging process: The choice of averaging pro-
cess has an impact on the modeling of dispersion in turbulent multi-
phase ows. A two-step averaging process leads to the appearance
of uctuations in the phase volume fractions. When the two-step
averaging process is used with a phase-weighted average for the tur-
bulence, however, turbulent uctuations in the volume fractions do
not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted averaging, so no volume
fraction uctuations are introduced into the continuity equations.
Turbulence in the Continuous Phase
The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged uctuating quan-
tities. The Reynolds stress tensor for continuous phase q takes the fol-
lowing form:
q
=
2
3
(
q
k
q
+
q
t,q

U
q
)I +
q
t,q
(
U
q
+
U
q
T
) (20.4-65)
where

U
q
is the phase-weighted velocity.
The turbulent viscosity
t,q
is written in terms of the turbulent kinetic
energy of phase q:
t,q
=
q
C
k
2
q
q
(20.4-66)
and a characteristic time of the energetic turbulent eddies is dened as
t,q
=
3
2
C
k
q
q
(20.4-67)
where
q
is the dissipation rate and C
= 0.09.
The length scale of the turbulent eddies is
L
t,q
=
_
3
2
C
k
3
2
q
q
(20.4-68)
Turbulent predictions are obtained from the modied k- model:
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
U
q
k
q
) = (
q
t,q
k
k
q
) +
q
G
k,q
q
+
kq
(20.4-69)
and
20.4 Eulerian Model
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
U
q
q
) = (
q
t,q
q
) +
q
k
q
(C
1
G
k,q
C
2
q
) +
q
(20.4-70)
Here
kq
and
q
represent the inuence of the dispersed phases on
the continuous phase q, and G
k,q
is the production of turbulent kinetic
energy, as dened in Section 10.4.4. All other terms have the same
meaning as in the single-phase k- model.
The term
kq
can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the
continuous phase and takes the following form, where M represents the
number of secondary phases:
kq
=
M
p=1
K
pq
q
(< v
q
v
p
> +(
U
p

U
q
) v
dr
) (20.4-71)
which can be simplied to
kq
=
M
p=1
K
pq
q
(k
pq
2k
q
+v
pq
v
dr
) (20.4-72)
where k
lq
is the covariance of the velocities of the continuous phase q and
the dispersed phase l (calculated from Equation 20.4-80 below), v
pq
is the
relative velocity, and v
dr
is the drift velocity (dened by Equation 20.4-85
below).
q
is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. [61]:
q
= C
3
q
k
q
kq
(20.4-73)
where C
3
= 1.2.
Turbulence in the Dispersed Phase
Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to evaluate
dispersion coecients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic
energy of each dispersed phase.
The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial eects
acting on a dispersed phase p is dened as
F,pq
=
p
p
K
1
pq
_
q
+C
V
_
(20.4-74)
The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories,
mainly aected by the crossing-trajectory eect [43], is dened as
t,pq
=

t,q
_
(1 +C
2
)
(20.4-75)
where
=
|v
pq
|
t,q
L
t,q
(20.4-76)
and
C
= 1.8 1.35 cos

2
(20.4-77)
where is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean
relative velocity. The ratio between these two characteristic times is
written as
pq
=

t,pq
F,pq
(20.4-78)
Following Simonin [212], FLUENT writes the turbulence quantities for
dispersed phase p as follows:
20.4 Eulerian Model
k
p
= k
q
_
b
2
+
pq
1 +
pq
_
(20.4-79)
k
pq
= 2k
q
_
b +
pq
1 +
pq
_
(20.4-80)
D
t,pq
=
1
3
k
pq
t,pq
(20.4-81)
D
p
= D
t,pq
+
_
2
3
k
p
b
1
3
k
pq
_
F,pq
(20.4-82)
b = (1 +C
V
)
_
q
+C
V
_
1
(20.4-83)
and C
V
= 0.5 is the added-mass coecient.
Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer
The turbulent drag term for multiphase ows (K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) in Equa-
tion 20.4-9) is modeled as follows, for dispersed phase p and continuous
phase q:
K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) = K
pq
(
U
p

U
q
) K
pq
v
dr
(20.4-84)
The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 20.4-84 contains the
drift velocity:
v
dr
=
_
D
p
pq
D
q
pq
q
_
(20.4-85)
Here D
p
and D
q
are diusivities, and
pq
is a turbulent Schmidt number.
When using Tchen theory in multiphase ows, FLUENT assumes D
p
=
D
q
= D
t,pq
and the default value for
pq
is 0.67.
The drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in the volume frac-
tion. When multiplied by the exchange coecient K
pq
, it serves as a
correction to the momentum exchange term for turbulent ows. This
correction is not included, by default, but you can enable it during the
problem setup.
Turbulence Model for Each Phase
The most general multiphase turbulence model solves a set of k and
transport equations for each phase. This turbulence model is the ap-
propriate choice when the turbulence transfer among the phases plays a
dominant role.
Note that, since FLUENT is solving two additional transport equations
for each secondary phase, the per-phase turbulence model is more com-
putationally intensive than the dispersed turbulence model.
Transport Equations
The Reynolds stress tensor and turbulent viscosity are computed using
Equations 20.4-65 and 20.4-66. Turbulence predictions are obtained from
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
U
q
k
q
) = (
q
t,q
k
k
q
) + (
q
G
k,q
q
) +
N
l=1
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,l
l
+
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,q
q
(20.4-86)
and
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
U
q
q
) = (
q
t,q
q
) +
q
k
q
(C
1
q
G
k,q
C
2
q
+
20.4 Eulerian Model
C
3
(
N
l=1
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,l
l
+
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)

t,q
q
))
(20.4-87)
The terms C
lq
and C
ql
can be approximated as
C
lq
= 2
C
ql
= 2
_

lq
1 +
lq
_
(20.4-88)
where
lq
is dened by Equation 20.4-78.
Interphase Turbulent Momentum Transfer
The turbulent drag term (K
pq
(v
p
v
q
) in Equation 20.4-9) is modeled as
follows, where l is the dispersed phase (replacing p in Equation 20.4-9)
and q is the continuous phase:
N
l=1
K
lq
(v
l
v
q
) =
N
l=1
K
lq
(
U
l

U
q
)
N
l=1
K
lq
v
dr,lq
(20.4-89)
Here

U
l
and

U
q
are phase-weighted velocities, and v
dr,lq
is the drift ve-
locity for phase l (computed using Equation 20.4-85, substituting l for
p). Note that FLUENT will compute the diusivities D
l
and D
q
directly
from the transport equations, rather than using Tchen theory (as it does
for the dispersed turbulence model).
As noted above, the drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in
the volume fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coecient K
lq
,
it serves as a correction to the momentum exchange term for turbulent
ows. This correction is not included, by default, but you can enable it
during the problem setup.
The turbulence model for each phase in FLUENT accounts for the eect
of the turbulence eld of one phase on the other(s). If you want to
modify or enhance the interaction of the multiple turbulence elds and
interphase turbulent momentum transfer, you can supply these terms
using user-dened functions.
20.4.8 Solution Method in FLUENT
For Eulerian multiphase calculations, FLUENT uses the Phase Coupled
SIMPLE (PC-SIMPLE) algorithm [244] for the pressure-velocity cou-
pling. PC-SIMPLE is an extension of the SIMPLE algorithm [172] to
multiphase ows. The velocities are solved coupled by phases, but in a
segregated fashion. The block algebraic multigrid scheme used by the
coupled solver described in [260] is used to solve a vector equation formed
by the velocity components of all phases simultaneously. Then, a pres-
sure correction equation is built based on total volume continuity rather
than mass continuity. Pressure and velocities are then corrected so as to
satisfy the continuity constraint.
The Pressure-Correction Equation
For incompressible multiphase ow, the pressure-correction equation takes
the form
n
k=1
_
k
+
k
v
k
+
k
v
k
n
l=1
m
lk
_
= 0 (20.4-90)
where v
k
is the velocity correction for the k
th
phase and v
k
is the value
of v
k
at the current iteration. The velocity corrections are themselves
expressed as functions of the pressure corrections.
Volume Fractions
The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations.
In discretized form, the equation of the k
th
volume fraction is
20.5 Cavitation Eects
a
p,k
k
=
nb
(a
nb,k
nb,k
) +b
k
= R
k
(20.4-91)
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to
one,
n
k=1
k
= 1 (20.4-92)
Cavitation eects can be included in two-phase ows when the mixture
model or Eulerian model is used. This section provides information
about the cavitation model used in FLUENT.
20.5.1 Overview and Limitations of the Cavitation Model
A liquid at constant temperature can be subjected to a decreasing pres-
sure, which may fall below the saturated vapor pressure. The process of
rupturing the liquid by a decrease of pressure at constant temperature
is called cavitation. The liquid contains micro-bubbles of air or nuclei,
and under decreasing pressure these may grow and form cavities.
The cavitation model, designed for two interpenetrating uids, models
the formation of bubbles when the local pressure becomes less than the
vaporization pressure. The cavitation model can be used with the mix-
ture model (with or without slip velocities) or the Eulerian multiphase
model.
The following assumptions are made in the cavitation model:
The system under investigation involves only two phases.
Bubbles are neither created nor destroyed.
The population or number of bubbles per unit volume is known in
advance.
The following limitations apply to the cavitation model in FLUENT:
The cavitation model cannot be used with the VOF model, because
the surface tracking schemes for the VOF model are incompatible
with the interpenetrating continua assumption of the cavitation
model.
The cavitation model can be used only for multiphase simula-
tions that use the mixture or Eulerian model and involve only
two phases. It is always preferable to solve for cavitation using the
mixture model without slip velocity; Eulerian multiphase or slip
velocities can be turned on if the problem suggests that there is
signicant slip between phases.
With the cavitation model, only the secondary phase can be com-
pressible; the primary phase must be incompressible.
Volume and Number of Bubbles
The volume of the individual bubbles is changing with respect to space
and time and denoted by
(r, t) =
4
3
R
3
(20.5-1)
where R is the bubble radius.
The volume fraction of vapor is dened as
v
=

1 +
(20.5-2)
where is the population or number of bubbles per unit volume of liquid.
The Volume Fraction Equation
The volume fraction equation is derived from the continuity equation for
the mixture (m). After some manipulation, assuming an incompressible
liquid (l), the following expression can be obtained:
t
(
p
) +(
p
v
m
) =

l
(1 +)
2
d
dt
+

v
m
d
v
dt
(20.5-3)
Bubble Dy namics
Since cavitation bubbles will form in a liquid at low temperatures, FLU-
ENT models the cavitating ow as isothermal, neglecting the latent heat
of vaporization. The Rayleigh-Plesset equation relates the pressure and
the bubble volume :
R
d
2
R
dt
2
+
3
2
_
dR
dt
_
2
=
p
B
p
l
R
4

l
l
R
dR
dt
(20.5-4)
Here p
B
denotes the pressure within the bubble, represented by the sum
of a partial pressure (p
v
) of the vapor and a partial pressure of non-
condensable gas (p), and is the surface tension coecient.
To simplify the calculation, FLUENT assumes that the process of bubble
growth and collapse is given by
dR
dt
=
_
_
_
_
2(p
B
p)
3
l
, p
v
> p
_
2(p
B
p)
3
l
, p
v
< p
(20.5-5)
20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
This section provides instructions and guidelines for using the VOF,
mixture, and Eulerian multiphase models. Information is presented in
the following subsections:
Section 20.6.1: Steps for Using the General Multiphase Models
Section 20.6.2: Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Sim-
ulations
Section 20.6.3: Enabling the Multiphase Model and Specifying the
Number of Phases
Section 20.6.4: Selecting the VOF Formulation
Section 20.6.5: Dening a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow
Section 20.6.6: Including Cavitation Eects
Section 20.6.7: Overview of Dening the Phases
Section 20.6.8: Dening Phases for the VOF Model
Section 20.6.9: Dening Phases for the Mixture Model
Section 20.6.10: Dening Phases for the Eulerian Model
Section 20.6.11: Including Body Forces
Section 20.6.12: Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF
Model
Section 20.6.13: Selecting a Turbulence Model for an Eulerian Mul-
tiphase Calculation
Section 20.6.14: Setting Boundary Conditions
Section 20.6.15: Setting Initial Volume Fractions
Section 20.6.16: Inputs for Compressible VOF and Mixture Model
Calculations
Section 20.6.17: Inputs for Solidication/Melting VOF Calcula-
tions
20.6.1 Steps for Using the General Multiphase Models
The procedure for setting up and solving a general multiphase problem
is outlined below, and described in detail in the subsections that fol-
low. Remember that only the steps that are pertinent to general multi-
phase calculations are shown here. For information about inputs related
to other models that you are using in conjunction with the multiphase
model, see the appropriate sections for those models.
See also Section 20.6.2 for guidelines on simplifying Eulerian multiphase
simulations.
1. Enable the multiphase model you want to use (VOF, mixture, or
Eulerian) and specify the number of phases. For the VOF model,
specify the VOF formulation as well.
Dene Models Multiphase...
See Sections 20.6.3 and 20.6.4 for details.
2. Copy the material representing each phase from the materials data-
base.
Dene Materials...
If the material you want to use is not in the database, create a
new material. See Section 7.1.2 for details about copying from
the database and creating new materials. See Section 20.6.16 for
additional information about specifying material properties for a
compressible phase (VOF and mixture models only).
If your model includes a particulate (granular) phase, you will need !
to create a new material for it in the uid materials category (not
the solid materials category).
3. Dene the phases, and specify any interaction between them (e.g.,
surface tension if you are using the VOF model, slip velocity func-
tions if you are using the mixture model, or drag functions if you
are using the Eulerian model).
Dene Phases...
See Sections 20.6.720.6.10 for details.
4. (Eulerian model only) If the ow is turbulent, dene the multiphase
turbulence model.
Dene Models Viscous...
See Section 20.6.13 for details.
5. If body forces are present, turn on gravity and specify the gravita-
tional acceleration.
Dene Operating Conditions...
6. Specify the boundary conditions, including the secondary-phase
volume fractions at ow boundaries and (if you are modeling wall
adhesion in a VOF simulation) the contact angles at walls.
Dene Boundary Conditions...
7. Set any model-specic solution parameters.
Solve Controls Solution...
See Sections 20.6.12 and 20.7 for details.
8. Initialize the solution and set the initial volume fractions for the
secondary phases.
Solve Initialize Patch...
9. Calculate a solution and examine the results.
See Sections 20.7 and 20.8 for details.
20.6.2 Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase
Simulations
Once you have determined that the Eulerian multiphase model is ap-
propriate for your problem (as described in Sections 18.4 and 20.1), you
should consider the computational eort required to solve your multi-
phase problem. The required computational eort depends strongly on
the number of transport equations being solved and the degree of cou-
pling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a large number of
highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high.
Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to
the simplest form possible.
Instead of trying to solve your multiphase ow in all of its complexity
on your rst solution attempt, you can start with simple approximations
and work your way up to the nal form of the problem denition. Some
suggestions for simplifying a multiphase ow problem are listed below:
Use a hexahedral or quadrilateral mesh (instead of a tetrahedral
or triangular mesh).
Reduce the number of phases.
You may nd that even a very simple approximation will provide you
with useful information about your problem.
See Section 20.7.3 for more solution strategies for Eulerian multiphase
calculations.
20.6.3 Enabling the Multiphase Model and Specify ing the
Number of Phases
To enable the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian multiphase model, select Vol-
ume of Fluid, Mixture, or Eulerian as the Model in the Multiphase Model
panel (Figure 20.6.1).
Dene Models Multiphase...
The panel will expand to show the relevant inputs for the selected mul-
tiphase model.
If you selected the VOF model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
VOF formulation (see Section 20.6.4)
Figure 20.6.1: The Multiphase Model Panel
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 20.6.11)
If you selected the mixture model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
whether or not to compute the slip velocities (see Section 20.6.5)
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 20.6.11)
(optional) cavitation eects (see Section 20.6.6)
If you selected the Eulerian model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
(optional) cavitation eects (see Section 20.6.6)
To specify the number of phases for the multiphase calculation, enter the
appropriate value in the Number of Phases eld. You can specify up to
20 phases.
20.6.4 Selecting the VOF Formulation
To specify the VOF formulation to be used, select the appropriate VOF
Scheme under VOF Parameters in the Multiphase Model panel.
The VOF formulations that are available in FLUENT are as follows:
Time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction interpolation
scheme: This formulation should be used whenever you are inter-
ested in the time-accurate transient behavior of the VOF solution.
To use this formulation, select Geo-Reconstruct (the default) as the
VOF Scheme. FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady
formulation with rst-order discretization for time in the Solver
panel.
Time-dependent with the donor-acceptor interpolation scheme:
This formulation should be used instead of the time-dependent
formulation with the geometric reconstruction scheme if your mesh
contains highly twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases, the donor-
acceptor scheme may provide more accurate results.
To use this formulation, select Donor-Acceptor as the VOF Scheme.
FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with
rst-order discretization for time in the Solver panel.
Time-dependent with the Euler explicit interpolation scheme: Since
the donor-acceptor scheme is available only for quadrilateral and
hexahedral meshes, it cannot be used for a hybrid mesh containing
twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases, you should use the time-
dependent Euler explicit scheme. This formulation can also be
used for other cases in which the geometric reconstruction scheme
does not give satisfactory results, or the ow calculation becomes
unstable.
To use this formulation, select Euler Explicit as the VOF Scheme.
FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with
rst-order discretization for time in the Solver panel.
While the Euler explicit time-dependent formulation is less com-
putationally expensive than the geometric reconstruction scheme,
the interface between phases will not be as sharp as that predicted
with the geometric reconstruction scheme. To reduce this diusiv-
ity, it is recommended that you use the second-order discretization
scheme for the volume fraction equations. In addition, you may
want to consider turning the geometric reconstruction scheme back
on after calculating a solution with the implicit scheme, in order
to obtain a sharper interface.
Time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme: This for-
mulation can be used if you are looking for a steady-state solution
and you are not interested in the intermediate transient ow behav-
ior, but the nal steady-state solution is dependent on the initial
ow conditions and/or you do not have a distinct inow boundary
for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme, and
enable an Unsteady calculation in the Solver panel (opened with
the Dene/Models/Solver... menu item).
The issues discussed above for the Euler explicit time-dependent !
formulation also apply to the implicit time-dependent formulation.
You should take the precautions described above to improve the
sharpness of the interface.
Steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formu-
lation can be used if you are looking for a steady-state solution,
you are not interested in the intermediate transient ow behavior,
and the nal steady-state solution is not aected by the initial ow
conditions and there is a distinct inow boundary for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme.
The issues discussed above for the Euler explicit time-dependent !
formulation also apply to the implicit steady-state formulation.
You should take the precautions described above to improve the
sharpness of the interface.
For the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, if you are !
using a conformal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the
boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are
no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you
will need to slit them, as described in Section 5.7.8.
Examples
To help you determine the best formulation to use for your problem,
examples that use dierent formulations are listed below:
jet breakup: time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction
scheme (or the donor-acceptor or Euler explicit scheme if prob-
lems occur with the geometric reconstruction scheme)
shape of the liquid interface in a centrifuge: time-dependent with
the implicit interpolation scheme
ow around a ships hull: steady-state with the implicit interpola-
tion scheme
20.6.5 Dening a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow
If you are using the mixture model, you have the option to disable the
calculation of slip velocities and solve a homogeneous multiphase ow
(i.e., one in which the phases all move at the same velocity). By default,
FLUENT will compute the slip velocities for the secondary phases, as de-
scribed in Section 20.3.4. If you want to solve a homogeneous multiphase
ow, turn o Slip Velocity under Mixture Parameters.
20.6.6 Including Cavitation Eects
For mixture and Eulerian calculations, it is possible to include the eects
of cavitation. To enable the cavitation model, turn on Cavitation under
Interphase Mass Transfer in the Multiphase Model panel.
Next you will specify two parameters to be used in the calculation of mass
transfer due to cavitation. Specication of these parameters should be in
agreement with the characteristic parameters of the ow under investiga-
tion: Reynolds number and cavitation number. Under Cavitation Param-
eters in the Multiphase Model panel, set the Vaporization Pressure (p
v
in
Equation 20.5-5) and the Bubble Number Density ( in Equation 20.5-2).
The default value of is 10000, as recommended by Kubota et al. [119].
The default value of p
v
is 2367.8, the vaporization pressure for water at
ambient temperature.
See Section 20.5 for details about modeling cavitation.
20.6.7 Overview of Dening the Phases
To dene the phases (including their material properties) and any inter-
phase interaction (e.g., surface tension and wall adhesion for the VOF
model, slip velocity function for the mixture model, drag functions for
the Eulerian model), you will use the Phases panel (Figure 20.6.2).
Dene Phases...
Each item in the Phase list in this panel is one of two types, as indicated
in the Type list: primary-phase indicates that the selected item is the
primary phase, and secondary-phase indicates that the selected item is a
secondary phase. To specify any interaction between the phases, click
the Interaction... button.
Instructions for dening the phases and interaction are provided in Sec-
tions 20.6.8, 20.6.9, and 20.6.10 for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian
models, respectively.
Figure 20.6.2: The Phases Panel
20.6.8 Dening Phases for the VOF Model
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and
secondary phases and their interaction in a VOF calculation are provided
below.
In general, you can specify the primary and secondary phases whichever !
way you prefer. It is a good idea, especially in more complicated prob-
lems, to consider how your choice will aect the ease of problem setup.
For example, if you are planning to patch an initial volume fraction of 1
for one phase in a portion of the domain, it may be more convenient to
make that phase a secondary phase. Also, if one of the phases is com-
pressible, it is recommended that you specify it as the primary phase to
improve solution stability.
Recall that only one of the phases can be compressible. Be sure that !
you do not select a compressible material (i.e., a material that uses the
compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of the phases.
Dening the Primary Phase
To dene the primary phase in a VOF calculation, follow these steps:
1. Select phase-1 in the Phase list.
2. Click Set..., and the Primary Phase panel (Figure 20.6.3) will open.
Figure 20.6.3: The Primary Phase Panel
3. In the Primary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appro-
priate material in the Phase Material drop-down list.
5. Dene the material properties for the Phase Material.
(a) Click Edit..., and the Material panel will open.
(b) In the Material panel, check the properties, and modify them
if necessary. (See Chapter 7 for general information about
setting material properties, Section 20.6.16 for specic infor-
mation related to compressible VOF calculations, and Sec-
tion 20.6.17 for specic information related to melting/solidi-
cation VOF calculations.)
If you make changes to the properties, remember to click !
Change before closing the Material panel.
6. Click OK in the Primary Phase panel.
Dening a Secondary Phase
To dene a secondary phase in a VOF calculation, follow these steps:
1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.
2. Click Set..., and the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 20.6.4) will
open.
Figure 20.6.4: The Secondary Phase Panel for the VOF Model
3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
5. Dene the material properties for the Phase Material, following the
procedure outlined above for setting the material properties for the
primary phase.
6. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.
Including Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion Eects
As discussed in Section 20.2.8, the importance of surface tension eects
depends on the value of the capillary number, Ca (dened by Equa-
tion 20.2-16), or the Weber number, We (dened by Equation 20.2-17).
Surface tension eects can be neglected if Ca 1 or We 1.
Note that the calculation of surface tension eects will be more accu- !
rate if you use a quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh in the area(s) of the
computational domain where surface tension is signicant. If you can-
not use a quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh for the entire domain, then
you should use a hybrid mesh, with quadrilaterals or hexahedra in the
aected areas.
If you want to include the eects of surface tension along the interface
between one or more pairs of phases, as described in Section 20.2.8, click
Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 20.6.5).
Figure 20.6.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for the VOF Model
Follow the steps below to include surface tension (and, if appropriate,
wall adhesion) eects along the interface between one or more pairs of
phases:
1. Turn on the Surface Tension option.
2. If you want to include wall adhesion, turn on the Wall Adhesion op-
tion. (When Wall Adhesion is enabled, you will need to specify the
contact angle at each wall as a boundary condition (as described
in Section 20.6.14.)
3. For each pair of phases between which you want to include the
eects of surface tension, specify a constant surface tension coef-
cient. All surface tension coecients are equal to 0 by default,
representing no surface tension eects along the interface between
the two phases.
For calculations involving surface tension, it is recommended that you !
also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the Body Force Formu-
lation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment improves solution
convergence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of the pressure
gradient and surface tension forces in the momentum equations. See
Section 22.3.3 for details.
20.6.9 Dening Phases for the Mixture Model
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and
secondary phases and their interaction for a mixture model calculation
are provided below.
Recall that only one of the phases can be compressible. Be sure that !
you do not select a compressible material (i.e., a material that uses the
compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of the phases.
The procedure for dening the primary phase in a mixture model cal-
culation is the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 20.6.8 for
details.
Dening a Secondary Phase
To dene a secondary phase in a mixture model calculation, follow these
steps:
open.
Figure 20.6.6: The Secondary Phase Panel for the Mixture Model
same procedure you used to set the material properties for the
primary phase (see Section 20.6.8). For a particulate phase (which
must be placed in the uid materials category, as mentioned in
Section 20.6.1), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles,
droplets, or particles of this phase (d
p
in Equation 20.3-12). You
can specify a constant value, or use a user-dened function. See
the separate UDF Manual for details about user-dened functions.
Dening the Slip Velocity
If you are solving for slip velocities during the mixture calculation, and
you want to modify the slip velocity denition, click Interaction... to
open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 20.6.7).
Figure 20.6.7: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model
Under Slip Velocity, you can specify the slip velocity function for each
secondary phase with respect to the primary phase by choosing the ap-
propriate item in the adjacent drop-down list.
Select maninnen-et-al (the default) to use the algebraic slip method
of Manninen et al. [150], described in Section 20.3.4.
Select none if the secondary phase has the same velocity as the
primary phase (i.e., no slip velocity).
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the slip veloc-
ity. See the separate UDF Manual for details.
20.6.10 Dening Phases for the Eulerian Model
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary
and secondary phases and their interaction for an Eulerian multiphase
calculation are provided below.
The procedure for dening the primary phase in an Eulerian multiphase
calculation is the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 20.6.8 for
details.
Dening a Non-Granular Secondary Phase
To dene a non-granular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in an
Eulerian multiphase calculation, follow these steps:
open.
primary phase (see Section 20.6.8).
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles
or droplets of this phase. You can specify a constant value, or use
a user-dened function. See the separate UDF Manual for details
about user-dened functions.
Figure 20.6.8: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Non-Granular Phase
Dening a Granular Secondary Phase
To dene a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in an Eulerian
multiphase calculation, follow these steps:
open.
Figure 20.6.9: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase
primary phase (see Section 20.6.8). For a granular phase (which
must be placed in the uid materials category, as mentioned in
Section 20.6.1), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of
the particles of this phase:
Diameter species the diameter of the particles. You can select
constant in the drop-down list and specify a constant value, or
select user-dened to use a user-dened function. See the sep-
arate UDF Manual for details about user-dened functions.
Granular Viscosity species the kinetic part of the granular viscos-
ity of the particles (
s,kin
in Equation 20.4-50). You can select
constant (the default) in the drop-down list and specify a con-
stant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute the value using
Equation 20.4-52, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 20.4-53, or select user-dened to use a user-dened
function.
Granular Bulk Viscosity species the solids bulk viscosity (
q
in Equa-
tion 20.4-8). You can select constant (the default) in the drop-
down list and specify a constant value, select lun-et-al to com-
pute the value using Equation 20.4-54, or select user-dened
to use a user-dened function.
Frictional Viscosity species a shear viscosity based on the viscous-
plastic ow (
s,fr
in Equation 20.4-50). By default, the fric-
tional viscosity is neglected, as indicated by the default se-
lection of none in the drop-down list. If you want to include
the frictional viscosity, you can select constant and specify
a constant value, select schaeer to compute the value using
Equation 20.4-55, or select user-dened to use a user-dened
function.
Angle of Internal Friction species a constant value for the angle
used in Schaeers expression for frictional viscosity (Equa-
tion 20.4-55). This parameter is relevant only if you have
selected schaeer or user-dened for the Frictional Viscosity.
Packing Limit species the maximum volume fraction for the gran-
ular phase (
s,max
). For monodispersed spheres the packing
limit is about 0.63, which is the default value in FLUENT. In
polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres can ll the small
gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.
Dening the Interaction Between Phases
For both granular and non-granular ows, you will need to specify the
drag function to be used in the calculation of the momentum exchange
coecients. For granular ows, you will also need to specify the restitu-
tion coecient(s) for particle collisions. It is also possible to include an
optional lift force and/or virtual mass force (described below) for both
granular and non-granular ows.
To specify these parameters, click Interaction... to open the Phase Inter-
action panel (Figure 20.6.10).
Figure 20.6.10: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Eulerian Model
Specifying the Drag Function
FLUENT allows you to specify a drag function for each pair of phases.
Follow the steps below:
1. Click the Drag tab to display the Drag Function inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate drag function from
the corresponding drop-down list.
Select schiller-naumann to use the uid-uid drag function
described by Equation 20.4-19. The Schiller and Naumann
model is the default method, and it is acceptable for general
use in all uid-uid multiphase calculations.
Select morsi-alexander to use the uid-uid drag function de-
scribed by Equation 20.4-23. The Morsi and Alexander model
is the most complete, adjusting the function denition fre-
quently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but calcula-
tions with this model may be less stable than with the other
models.
Select symmetric to use the uid-uid drag function described
by Equation 20.4-28. The symmetric model is recommended
for ows in which the secondary (dispersed) phase in one re-
gion of the domain becomes the primary (continuous) phase
in another. For example, if air is injected into the bottom of
a container lled halfway with water, the air is the dispersed
phase in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of
the container, the air is the continuous phase.
Select wen-yu to use the uid-solid drag function described by
Equation 20.4-40. The Wen and Yu model is applicable for
dilute phase ows, in which the total secondary phase volume
fraction is signicantly lower than that of the primary phase.
Select gidaspow to use the uid-solid drag function described
by Equation 20.4-42. The Gidaspow model is recommended
for dense uidized beds.
Select syamlal-obrien to use the uid-solid drag function de-
scribed by Equation 20.4-32. The Syamlal-OBrien model is
recommended for use in conjunction with the Syamlal-OBrien
model for granular viscosity.
Select syamlal-obrien-symmetric to use the solid-solid drag func-
tion described by Equation 20.4-44. The symmetric Syamlal-
OBrien model is appropriate for a pair of solid phases.
Select constant to specify a constant value for the drag func-
tion, and then specify the value in the text eld.
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the drag
function (see the separate UDF Manual for details).
If you want to temporarily ignore the interaction between two
phases, select none.
Specifying the Restitution Coecients (Granular Flow Only)
For granular ows, you need to specify the coecients of restitution for
collisions between particles (e
ls
in Equation 20.4-44 and e
ss
in Equa-
tion 20.4-45). In addition to specifying the restitution coecient for
collisions between each pair of granular phases, you will also specify the
restitution coecient for collisions between particles of the same phase.
Follow the steps below:
1. Click the Collisions tab to display the Restitution Coecient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, specify a constant restitution coecient.
All restitution coecients are equal to 0.9 by default.
Including the Lift Force
For both granular and non-granular ows, it is possible to include the
eect of lift forces (F
lift
in Equation 20.4-10) on the secondary phase
particles, droplets, or bubbles. These lift forces act on a particle, droplet,
or bubble mainly due to velocity gradients in the primary-phase ow
eld. In most cases, the lift force is insignicant compared to the drag
force, so there is no reason to include it. If the lift force is signicant
(e.g., if the phases separate quickly), you may want to include this eect.
Note that the lift force will be more signicant for larger particles, but !
the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not
appropriate for closely packed particles or for very small particles.
To include the eect of lift forces, follow these steps:
1. Click the Lift tab to display the Lift Coecient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate specication method
from the corresponding drop-down list. Note that, since the lift
forces for a particle, droplet, or bubble are due mainly to velocity
gradients in the primary-phase ow eld, you will not specify lift
coecients for pairs consisting of two secondary phases; lift coe-
cients are specied only for pairs consisting of a secondary phase
and the primary phase.
Select none (the default) to ignore the eect of lift forces.
Select constant to specify a constant lift coecient, and then
specify the value in the text eld.
Select user-dened to use a user-dened function for the lift
coecient (see the separate UDF Manual for details).
Including the Virtual Mass Force
For both granular and non-granular ows, it is possible to include the
virtual mass force (F
vm
in Equation 20.4-11) that is present when
a secondary phase accelerates relative to the primary phase. The vir-
tual mass eect is signicant when the secondary phase density is much
smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient bubble col-
umn).
To include the eect of the virtual mass force, turn on the Virtual Mass
option in the Phase Interaction panel. The virtual mass eect will be
included for all secondary phases; it is not possible to enable it just for
a particular phase.
20.6.11 Including Body Forces
In many cases, the motion of the phases is due, in part, to gravitational
eects. To include this body force, turn on Gravity in the Operating
Conditions panel and specify the Gravitational Acceleration.
For VOF calculations, you should also turn on the Specied Operating
Density option in the Operating Conditions panel, and set the Operat-
ing Density to be the density of the lightest phase. (This excludes the
buildup of hydrostatic pressure within the lightest phase, improving the
round-o accuracy for the momentum balance.) If any of the phases is
compressible, set the Operating Density to zero.
For VOF and mixture calculations involving body forces, it is recom- !
mended that you also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the
Body Force Formulation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment
improves solution convergence by accounting for the partial equilibrium
of the pressure gradient and body forces in the momentum equations.
20.6.12 Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF
Model
If you are using the time-dependent VOF formulation in FLUENT, an
explicit solution for the volume fraction is obtained either once each time
step or once each iteration, depending upon your inputs to the model.
You also have control over the time step used for the volume fraction
calculation.
To compute a time-dependent VOF solution, you will need to enable
the Unsteady option in the Solver panel (and choose the appropriate
Unsteady Formulation, as discussed in Section 22.15.1). If you choose the
Geo-Reconstruct, Donor-Acceptor, or Euler Explicit scheme, FLUENT will
turn on the rst-order unsteady formulation for you automatically, so
you need not visit the Solver panel yourself.
Dene Models Solver...
There are two inputs for the time-dependent calculation in the Multiphase
Model panel:
By default, FLUENT will solve the volume fraction equation(s) once
for each time step. This means that the convective ux coecients
appearing in the other transport equations will not be completely
updated each iteration, since the volume fraction elds will not
change from iteration to iteration.
If you want FLUENT to solve the volume fraction equation(s) at
every iteration within a time step, turn on the Solve VOF Every
Iteration option under VOF Parameters. When FLUENT solves these
equations every iteration, the convective ux coecients in the
other transport equations will be updated based on the updated
volume fractions at each iteration.
In general, if you anticipate that the location of the interface will
change as the other ow variables converge during the time step,
you should enable the Solve VOF Every Iteration option. This situa-
tion arises when large time steps are being used in hopes of reaching
a steady-state solution, for example. If small time steps are being
used, however, it is not necessary to perform the additional work
of solving for the volume fraction every iteration, so you can leave
this option turned o. This choice is the more stable of the two,
and requires less computational eort per time step than the rst
choice.
If you are using sliding meshes, using the Solve VOF Every Itera- !
tion option may yield more accurate results, although at a greater
computational cost.
When FLUENT performs a time-dependent VOF calculation, the
time step used for the volume fraction calculation will not be the
same as the time step used for the rest of the transport equations.
FLUENT will rene the time step for VOF automatically, based
on your input for the maximum Courant Number allowed near the
free surface. The Courant number is a dimensionless number that
compares the time step in a calculation to the characteristic time
of transit of a uid element across a control volume:
t
x
cell
/v
uid
(20.6-1)
In the region near the uid interface, FLUENT divides the volume
of each cell by the sum of the outgoing uxes. The resulting time
represents the time it would take for the uid to empty out of the
cell. The smallest such time is used as the characteristic time of
transit for a uid element across a control volume, as described
above. Based upon this time and your input for the maximum
allowed Courant Number, a time step is computed for use in the
VOF calculation. For example, if the maximum allowed Courant
number is 0.25 (the default), the time step will be chosen to be
at most one-fourth the minimum transit time for any cell near the
interface.
Note that these inputs are not required when the implicit scheme is used.
20.6.13 Selecting a Turbulence Model for an Eulerian
Multiphase Calculation
If you are using the Eulerian model to solve a turbulent ow, you will
need to choose one of the three turbulence models described in Sec-
tion 20.4.7 in the Viscous Model panel (Figure 20.6.11).
The procedure is as follows:
1. Select k-epsilon under Model.
2. Select the desired k-epsilon Model and any other related parameters,
as described for single-phase calculations in Section 10.10.
3. Under k-epsilon Multiphase Model, indicate the desired multiphase
turbulence model (see Section 20.4.7 for details about each):
Select Mixture to use the mixture turbulence model. This is
the default model.
Select Dispersed to use the dispersed turbulence model. This
model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continu-
ous phase and the rest are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Select Per Phase to use a k- turbulence model for each phase.
This model is appropriate when the turbulence transfer among
the phases plays a dominant role.
Figure 20.6.11: The Viscous Model Panel for an Eulerian Multiphase
Calculation
Including Source Terms
By default, the interphase momentum, k, and sources are not included
in the calculation. If you want to include any of these source terms,
you can enable them using the multiphase-options command in the
define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence/ text menu. Note
that the inclusion of these terms can slow down convergence noticeably.
If you are looking for additional accuracy, you may want to compute a
solution rst without these sources, and then continue the calculation
with these terms included. In most cases these terms can be neglected.
20.6.14 Setting Boundary Conditions
Multiphase boundary conditions are set in the Boundary Conditions panel
(Figure 20.6.12), but the procedure for setting multiphase boundary con-
ditions is slightly dierent than for single-phase models. You will need
to set some conditions separately for individual phases, while other con-
ditions are shared by all phases (i.e., the mixture), as described in detail
below.
Dene Boundary Conditions...
Figure 20.6.12: The Boundary Conditions Panel
Boundary Conditions for the Mixture and the Individual Phases
The conditions you need to specify for the mixture and those you need
to specify for the individual phases will depend on which of the three
multiphase models you are using. Details for each model are provided
below.
VOF Model
If you are using the VOF model, the conditions you need to specify for
each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Table 20.6.1.
For an exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, mass ow inlet, outlet
vent, pressure inlet, pressure outlet, or velocity inlet, there are no
conditions to be specied for the primary phase. For each sec-
ondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a con-
stant, a prole (see Section 6.25), or a user-dened function (see
the separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are specied for
the mixture.
For an axis, fan, outow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid,
symmetry, or wall zone, all conditions are specied for the mixture;
there are no conditions to be set for the individual phases.
For a uid zone, mass sources are specied for the individual phases,
and all other sources are specied for the mixture.
If the uid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specied for
the mixture.
If the uid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option
in the Fluid panel for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if rele-
vant) are also specied for the mixture. The resistance coecients
and direction vectors, however, are specied separately for each
phase. See Section 6.19.6 for details about these inputs. All other
conditions are specied for the mixture.
See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type of
boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld boundary is not available with
the VOF model.
Table 20.6.1: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the VOF Model
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan nothing volume fraction all others
inlet vent
intake fan
mass ow inlet
outlet vent
pressure inlet
pressure outlet
velocity inlet
axis nothing nothing all others
fan
outow
periodic
porous jump
radiator
solid
symmetry
wall
pressure far-eld not available not available not available
uid mass source; mass source; porous zone;
other porous other porous porosity;
inputs inputs all others
Mixture Model
If you are using the mixture model, the conditions you need to specify
for each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Table 20.6.2.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no con-
ditions to be specied for the primary phase. For each secondary
phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant, a pro-
le (see Section 6.25), or a user-dened function (see the separate
UDF Manual). All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, mass ow inlet, or pressure inlet, you
will specify for the mixture which direction specication method
will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary or Direction
Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specication method,
you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and ow-direction
components for the individual phases. For each secondary phase,
you will need to set the volume fraction (as described above). All
other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual
phases. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume
fraction (as described above). All other conditions are specied for
the mixture.
For an axis, fan, outow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid,
symmetry, or wall zone, all conditions are specied for the mixture;
there are no conditions to be set for the individual phases.
For a uid zone, mass sources are specied for the individual phases,
and all other sources are specied for the mixture.
the mixture.
See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type of
boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld boundary is not available with
the mixture model.
Table 20.6.2: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the Mixture Model
exhaust fan nothing volume fraction all others
outlet vent
pressure outlet
inlet vent coord. system; coord. system; dir. spec.
intake fan ow direction ow direction; method;
mass ow inlet volume fraction all others
pressure inlet
velocity inlet velocity velocity; all others
volume fraction
fan
outow
periodic
porous jump
radiator
solid
symmetry
wall
uid mass source; mass source; porous zone;
other porous other porous porosity;
inputs inputs all others
Eulerian Model
If you are using the Eulerian model, the conditions you need to specify
for each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Tables 20.6.3,
20.6.4, 20.6.5, and 20.6.6. Note that the specication of turbulence pa-
rameters will depend on which of the three multiphase turbulence models
you are using, as indicated in Tables 20.6.420.6.6. See Sections 20.4.7
and 20.6.13 for more information about multiphase turbulence models.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no
conditions to be specied for the primary phase if you are modeling
laminar ow or using the mixture turbulence model (the default
multiphase turbulence model).
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction
as a constant, a prole (see Section 6.25), or a user-dened function
(see the separate UDF Manual). If the phase is granular, you will
also need to set its granular temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to
specify the turbulence boundary conditions for the mixture; if you
are using the dispersed turbulence model, you will need to specify
them for the primary phase; if you are using the per-phase turbu-
lence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, mass ow inlet, or pressure inlet, you
will specify for the mixture which direction specication method
will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary or Direction
Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specication method,
you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and ow-direction
components for the individual phases.
(as described above). If the phase is granular, you will also need
to set its granular temperature.
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual
phases.
(as described above). If the phase is granular, you will also need
to set its granular temperature.
For an axis, outow, periodic, solid, or symmetry zone, all condi-
tions are specied for the mixture; there are no conditions to be
set for the individual phases.
For a wall zone, shear conditions are specied for the individual
phases; all other conditions are specied for the mixture.
For a uid zone, all source terms and xed values are specied for
the individual phases, unless you are using the mixture turbulence
model or the dispersed turbulence model. If you are using the mix-
ture turbulence model, source terms and xed values for turbulence
are specied instead for the mixture; if you are using the dispersed
turbulence model, they are specied only for the primary phase.
the mixture.
See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type
of boundary. Note that the pressure far-eld, fan, porous jump, and
radiator boundaries are not available with the Eulerian model.
Table 20.6.3: Phase-Specic and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(for Laminar Flow)
exhaust fan nothing volume fraction; all others
outlet vent gran. temperature
pressure outlet
mass ow inlet volume fraction; all others
pressure inlet gran. temperature
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
outow
periodic
solid
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
fan
porous jump
radiator
uid all source terms; all source terms; porous zone;
all xed values; all xed values; porosity;
other porous other porous all others
inputs inputs
(with the Mixture Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan nothing volume fraction; all others
pressure outlet
mass ow inlet volume fraction; all others
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
outow
periodic
solid
symmetry
fan
porous jump
radiator
uid other source other source source terms
terms; terms; for turbulence;
other xed other xed xed values
values; values; for turbulence;
other porous other porous porous zone;
inputs inputs porosity;
all others
(with the Dispersed Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
pressure outlet
intake fan ow direction; ow direction; method
mass ow inlet turb. parameters; volume fraction; all others
velocity inlet velocity; velocity; all others
turb. parameters volume fraction;
gran. temperature
outow
periodic
solid
symmetry
fan
porous jump
radiator
uid momentum, mass, momentum and porous zone;
turb. sources; mass sources; porosity;
momentum, mass, momentum and all others
turb. xed values; mass xed values;
other porous other porous
inputs inputs
(with the Per-Phase Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
outlet vent turb. parameters;
pressure outlet gran. temperature
intake fan ow direction; ow direction; method;
mass ow inlet turb. parameters volume fraction; all others
pressure inlet turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
velocity inlet velocity; velocity; all others
turb. parameters volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
outow
periodic
solid
symmetry
fan
porous jump
radiator
uid momentum, mass, momentum, mass, porous zone;
turb. sources; turb. sources; porosity;
momentum, mass, momentum, mass, all others
turb. xed values; turb. xed values;
other porous other porous
inputs inputs
Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions
The steps you need to perform for each boundary are as follows:
1. Select the boundary in the Zone list in the Boundary Conditions
panel.
2. Set the conditions for the mixture at this boundary, if necessary.
(See above for information about which conditions need to be set
for the mixture.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select mixture.
(b) If the current Type for this zone is correct, click Set... to open
the corresponding panel (e.g., the Pressure Inlet panel); oth-
erwise, choose the correct zone type in the Type list, conrm
the change (when prompted), and the corresponding panel
will open automatically.
(c) In the corresponding panel for the zone type you have selected
(e.g., the Pressure Inlet panel, shown in Figure 20.6.13), specify
the mixture boundary conditions.
Figure 20.6.13: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Mixture
Note that only those conditions that apply to all phases, as
described above, will appear in this panel.
For a VOF calculation, if you enabled the Wall Adhesion op- !
tion in the Phase Interaction panel, you can specify the con-
tact angle at the wall for each pair of phases (as shown in
Figure 20.6.14).
The contact angle (
w
in Figure 20.2.2) is the angle between
the wall and the tangent to the interface at the wall, measured
inside the rst phase of the pair listed in the Wall panel. For
example, if you are setting the contact angle between the oil
and air phases in the Wall panel shown in Figure 20.6.14,
w
is measured inside the oil phase.
The default value for all pairs is 90 degrees, which is equiv-
alent to no wall adhesion eects (i.e., the interface is normal
to the adjacent wall). A contact angle of 45
, for example,
corresponds to water creeping up the side of a container, as
is common with water in a glass.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the mixture boundary
conditions.
3. Set the conditions for each phase at this boundary, if necessary.
(See above for information about which conditions need to be set
for the individual phases.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase (e.g., water).
Note that, when you select one of the individual phases (rather !
than the mixture), only one type of zone appears in the Type
list. It is not possible to assign phase-specic zone types at
a given boundary; the zone type is specied for the mixture,
and it applies to all of the individual phases.
(b) Click Set... to open the panel for this phases conditions (e.g.,
the Pressure Inlet panel, shown in Figure 20.6.15).
(c) Specify the conditions for the phase. Note that only those
conditions that apply to the individual phase, as described
above, will appear in this panel.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the phase-specic bound-
ary conditions.
Figure 20.6.14: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with
Wall Adhesion
Figure 20.6.15: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Phase
Steps for Copy ing Boundary Conditions
The steps for copying boundary conditions for a multiphase ow are
slightly dierent from those described in Section 6.1.5 for a single-phase
ow. The modied steps are listed below:
1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click the Copy... button. This
will open the Copy BCs panel.
2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you
want to copy.
3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to
copy the conditions.
4. In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase for which you want to
copy the conditions (either mixture or one of the individual phases).
Note that copying the boundary conditions for one phase does !
not automatically result in the boundary conditions for the other
phases and the mixture being copied as well. You need to copy the
conditions for each phase on each boundary of interest.
5. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the selected phases (or mix-
tures) boundary conditions on the zones selected in the To Zones
list to be the same as that phases conditions on the zone selected
in the From Zone list. (You cannot copy a subset of the conditions,
such as only the thermal conditions.)
See Section 6.1.5 for additional information about copying boundary
conditions, including limitations.
20.6.15 Setting Initial Volume Fractions
Once you have initialized the ow (as described in Section 22.13), you
can dene the initial distribution of the phases. For a transient simula-
tion, this distribution will serve as the initial condition at t = 0; for a
steady-state simulation, setting an initial distribution can provide added
stability in the early stages of the calculation.
You can patch an initial volume fraction for each secondary phase using
the Patch panel.
Solve Initialize Patch...
If the region in which you want to patch the volume fraction is dened
as a separate cell zone, you can simply patch the value there. Otherwise,
you can create a cell register that contains the appropriate cells and
patch the value in the register. See Section 22.13.2 for details.
20.6.16 Inputs for Compressible VOF and Mixture Model
Calculations
If you are using the VOF or mixture model for a compressible ow, note
the following:
Only one of the phases can be compressible (i.e., you can select the
ideal gas law for the density of only one phases material).
If you are using the VOF model, for stability reasons it is better
(although not required) if the primary phase is compressible.
If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure
inlet or intake fan) the specied value for temperature at that
boundary will be used as total temperature for the compressible
phase, and as static temperature for the other phases (which are
incompressible).
See Section 8.5 for more information about compressible ows.
20.6.17 Inputs for Solidication/Melting VOF Calculations
If you are including melting or solidication in your VOF calculation,
note the following:
It is possible to model melting or solidication in a single phase or
in multiple phases.
For phases that are not melting or solidifying, you must set the
latent heat (L), liquidus temperature (T
liquidus
), and solidus tem-
perature (T
solidus
) to zero.
See Chapter 21 for more information about melting and solidication.
20.7 Solution Strategies for General Multiphase Problems
Solution strategies for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models are pro-
vided in Sections 20.7.1, 20.7.2, and 20.7.3, respectively.
20.7.1 Solution Strategies for the VOF Model
Several recommendations for improving the accuracy and convergence of
the VOF solution are presented here.
Setting the Reference Pressure Location
The site of the reference pressure can be moved to a location that will
result in less round-o in the pressure calculation. By default, the refer-
ence pressure location is the center of the cell at or closest to the point
(0,0,0). You can move this location by specifying a new Reference Pres-
sure Location in the Operating Conditions panel.
The position that you choose should be in a region that will always
contain the least dense of the uids (e.g., the gas phase, if you have a
gas phase and one or more liquid phases). This is because variations in
the static pressure are larger in a more dense uid than in a less dense
uid, given the same velocity distribution. If the zero of the relative
pressure eld is in a region where the pressure variations are small, less
round-o will occur than if the variations occur in a eld of large non-
zero values. Thus in systems containing air and water, for example, it is
important that the reference pressure location be in the portion of the
domain lled with air rather than that lled with water.
Pressure Interpolation Scheme
For all VOF calculations, you should use the body-force-weighted pres-
sure interpolation scheme or the PRESTO! scheme.
20.7 Solution Strategies for General Multiphase Problems
Discretization Scheme Selection for the Implicit and Euler
Explicit Formulations
When the implicit or Euler explicit scheme is used you should use the
second-order or QUICK discretization scheme for the volume fraction
equations in order to improve the sharpness of the interface between
phases.
Pressure-Velocity Coupling and Under-Relaxation for the
Time-Dependent Formulations
Another change that you should make to the solver settings is in the
pressure-velocity coupling scheme and under-relaxation factors that you
use. The PISO scheme is recommended for transient calculations in
general. Using PISO allows for increased values on all under-relaxation
factors, without a loss of solution stability. You can generally increase
the under-relaxation factors for all variables to 1 and expect stability
and a rapid rate of convergence (in the form of few iterations required
per time step). For calculations on tetrahedral or triangular meshes,
an under-relaxation factor of 0.70.8 for pressure is recommended for
improved stability with the PISO scheme.
As with any FLUENT simulation, the under-relaxation factors will need
to be decreased if the solution exhibits unstable, divergent behavior with
the under-relaxation factors set to 1. Reducing the time step is another
way to improve the stability.
Under-Relaxation for the Steady -State Formulation
If you are using the steady-state implicit VOF scheme, the under-relaxation
factors for all variables should be set to values between 0.2 and 0.5 for
improved stability.
20.7.2 Solution Strategies for the Mixture Model
Setting the Under-Relaxation Factor for the Slip Velocity
You should begin the mixture calculation with a low under-relaxation
factor for the slip velocity. A value of 0.2 or less is recommended. If the
solution shows good convergence behavior, you can increase this value
gradually.
Calculating an Initial Solution
For some cases (e.g., cyclone separation), you may be able to obtain a
solution more quickly if you compute an initial solution without solving
the volume fraction and slip velocity equations. Once you have set up
the mixture model, you can temporarily disable these equations and
compute an initial solution.
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity
in the Equations list. You can then compute the initial ow eld. Once
a converged ow eld is obtained, turn the Volume Fraction and Slip
Velocity equations back on again, and compute the mixture solution.
20.7.3 Solution Strategies for the Eulerian Model
Calculating an Initial Solution
To improve convergence behavior, you may want to compute an initial
solution before solving the complete Eulerian multiphase model. There
are two methods you can use to obtain an initial solution for an Eulerian
multiphase calculation:
Set up and solve the problem using the mixture model (with or
without slip velocities) instead of the Eulerian model. You can then
enable the Eulerian model, complete the setup, and continue the
calculation using the mixture-model solution as a starting point.
Set up the Eulerian multiphase calculation as usual, but compute
the ow for only the primary phase. To do this, deselect Volume
20.8 Postprocessing for General Multiphase Problems
Fraction in the Equations list in the Solution Controls panel. Once
you have obtained an initial solution for the primary phase, turn
the volume fraction equations back on and continue the calculation
for all phases.
You should not try to use a single-phase solution obtained without the !
mixture or Eulerian model as a starting point for an Eulerian multiphase
calculation. Doing so will not improve convergence, and may make it
even more dicult for the ow to converge.
Temporarily Ignoring Lift and Virtual Mass Forces
If you are planning to include the eects of lift and/or virtual mass
forces in a steady-state Eulerian multiphase simulation, you can often
reduce stability problems that sometimes occur in the early stages of the
calculation by temporarily ignoring the action of the lift and the virtual
mass forces. Once the solution without these forces starts to converge,
you can interrupt the calculation, dene these forces appropriately, and
continue the calculation.
Each of the three general multiphase models provides a number of ad-
ditional eld functions that you can plot or report. You can also report
ow rates for individual phases for all three models, and display velocity
vectors for the individual phases in a mixture or Eulerian calculation.
Information about these postprocessing topics is provided in the follow-
ing subsections:
Section 20.8.1: Available Postprocessing Variables
Section 20.8.2: Displaying Velocity Vectors for Individual Phases
Section 20.8.3: Reporting Fluxes for Individual Phases
Section 20.8.4: Reporting Forces on Walls for Individual Phases
Section 20.8.5: Reporting Flow Rates for Individual Phases
20.8.1 Available Postprocessing Variables
When you use one of the general multiphase models, several additional
eld functions will be available for postprocessing, as listed in this sec-
tion. See Chapter 27 for a complete list of eld functions and their def-
initions. Chapters 25 and 26 explain how to generate graphics displays
and reports of data.
VOF Model
For VOF calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric
reports of the following additional items:
Volume fraction of phase-n (in the Phases... category)
Density of phase-n (in the Density... category)
Molecular Viscosity of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Thermal Conductivity of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Specic Heat of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Enthalpy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Total Enthalpy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Total Energy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Internal Energy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
The non-phase-specic variables that are available (e.g., Molecular Viscos-
ity and Thermal Conductivity) represent mixture quantities. The thermal
quantities listed above will be available only for calculations that include
the energy equation.
Mixture Model
For calculations with the mixture model, you can generate graphical
plots or alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:
phase-n Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Relative Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n X, Y, Z, etc. Velocity (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Relative X, Y, Z, etc. Velocity (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Stream Function (in the Velocity... category)
Diameter of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Thermal Conductivity of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Specic Heat of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
Enthalpy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Total Enthalpy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Total Energy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
Internal Energy of phase-n (in the Temperature... category)
The non-phase-specic variables that are available (e.g., Velocity Magni-
tude and X Velocity) represent mixture quantities. The thermal quanti-
ties listed above will be available only for calculations that include the
energy equation.
Note that if you read a mixture-model data le into FLUENT, you will !
need to run the solver for one iteration before plotting or reporting the
items listed above. (This is not necessary if you plot or report these
variables for a data set that you just computed in the current FLUENT
session.)
Eulerian Model
For Eulerian multiphase calculations you can generate graphical plots or
alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:
phase-n Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Relative Velocity Magnitude (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n X, Y, Z, etc. Velocity (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Relative X, Y, Z, etc. Velocity (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Stream Function (in the Velocity... category)
phase-n Turbulent Viscosity (in the Turbulence... category)
phase-n Wall Yplus (in the Turbulence... category)
phase-n Turbulent Kinetic Energy (in the Turbulence... category)
phase-n Turbulent Dissipation Rate (in the Turbulence... category)
phase-n Production of k (in the Turbulence... category)
Diameter of phase-n (in the Properties... category)
phase-n Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category)
phase-n X, Y, Z Wall Shear Stress (in the Wall Fluxes... category)
phase-n Skin Friction Coecient (in the Wall Fluxes... category)
The availability of the turbulence quantities listed above will depend on
which multiphase turbulence model you used in the calculation.
Note that if you read an Eulerian multiphase data le into FLUENT, you !
will need to run the solver for one iteration before plotting or reporting
the items listed above. (This is not necessary if you plot or report these
variables for a data set that you just computed in the current FLUENT
session.)
20.8.2 Display ing Velocity Vectors for Individual Phases
For mixture and Eulerian calculations, it is possible to display velocity
vectors for the individual phases using the Vectors panel.
Display Vectors...
To display the velocity of a particular phase, select phase-n Velocity
(where phase-n is replaced by the name of the phase of interest, e.g., air-
bubbles Velocity) in the Vectors Of drop-down list. You can also choose
Relative phase-n Velocity to display the phase velocity relative to a mov-
ing reference frame. To display the mixture velocity v
m
(relevant for
mixture model calculations only), select Velocity (or Relative Velocity for
the mixture velocity relative to a moving reference frame).
20.8.3 Reporting Fluxes for Individual Phases
When you use the Flux Reports panel to compute uxes through bound-
aries, you will be able to specify whether the report is for the mixture
or for an individual phase.
Report Fluxes...
Select mixture in the Phase drop-down list at the bottom of the panel
to report uxes for the mixture, or select the name of a phase to report
uxes just for that phase.
20.8.4 Reporting Forces on Walls for Individual Phases
For Eulerian calculations, when you use the Force Reports panel to com-
pute forces or moments on wall boundaries, you will be able to specify
the individual phase for which you want to compute the forces.
Report Forces...
Select the name of the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list on the
left side of the panel.
20.8.5 Reporting Flow Rates for Individual Phases
You can obtain a report of mass ow rate for each phase (and the mix-
ture) through each ow boundary using the report/mass-flow text
command:
report mass-flow
When you specify the phase of interest (the mixture or an individual
phase), FLUENT will list each zone, followed by the mass ow rate
through that zone for the specied phase. An example is shown below.
/report> mf
(mixture water air)
domain id/name [mixture] air
zone 10 (spiral-press-outlet): -1.2330244
zone 3 (pressure-outlet): -9.7560663
zone 11 (spiral-vel-inlet): 0.6150589
zone 8 (spiral-wall): 0
zone 1 (walls): 0
zone 4 (velocity-inlet): 4.9132133
net mass-flow: -5.4608185

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Chapter 20.

= 1.8 1.35 cos

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