Biology 2 Revision Notes - Solvent - The liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution. - Solute - a dissolved substance in water.

- Turgid - when a cell swells up. - Flaccid - when a cell shrivels up. - Hypertonic - when a solution outside the cell contains a higher concentration of solute molecules than inside the cell. - Hypotonic - when a solution outside the cell contains a lower concentration of solute molecules than inside the cell. - Isotonic - when a solution outside the cell contains the same concentration of solute molecules as inside the cell. Light Carbon dioxide + Water -------------- Glucose + Oxygen Chlorophyll 6CO2 + 6H2O -------------- C6H12O6 + 6O2 The rate of photosynthesis is dependent upon many factors: - Heat - the higher the heat the more energy for photosynthesis (although if it is too hot the enzymes may be denatured). - Light - the more light, the more energy for photosynthesis. - Carbon Dioxide - the more carbon dioxide the faster the rate of photosynthesis. - Water - the more water the faster the rate of photosynthesis. When farmers grow plants they often do this in greenhouses with gas burners, lights and a watering system. The greenhouses trap the heat and the gas burners make more heat and carbon dioxide. The lights provide more light energy and the watering system provides enough water. This way the farmers are trying to get past all the limiting factors and make the fruit or vegetables as big as possible. A substrate is a specific chemical that the enzyme can react with. The substrate has to fit into the active site of the enzyme. Enzymes work in the same way as many reactions - the particles of enzyme need to collide with other particles so a reaction can occur. We can change the rate of the reaction that enzymes work at in the same way as we would if we wanted to change the rate of any reaction... 1. We could increase the temperature as this would make the enzymes move faster making them more likely to bump into other particles (but only up until a certain temperature because after that the enzyme like all proteins will denature and stop working). 2. We can increase the enzyme or substrate concentration so they are more likely to collide. 3. We can increase the surface area of the substrate so there is more area for the enzyme to collide with. Enzymes are specific in their job - they only react on one type of chemical, this is because their active site has a specific 3D shape. Each enzyme has a preferred working environment - a

specific pH and temperature that they work in (our enzymes work best at 37c and that is why body temperature is 37c!). - Amylase - is produced by the salivary glands and small intestine and breaks down starch into glucose (sugar). - Protease - is produced by the stomach and breaks down proteins into amino acids. Protease works best in acidic pH's of the stomach. - Lipase - is produced by the pancreas and small intestine. Lipase works best in alkaline conditions and the liver produces bile to make the small intestine alkaline.Enzymes are used commercially in biological washing powders to digest stains (washing powders contain proteases, lipases and carbohydratases), in making baby food which is partly digested adult food (baby food contains proteases) and in making sugar and diet foods (these foods contain an enzyme called isomerase which converts glucose into the much sweeter fructose). Aerobic respiration - Glucose + Oxygen -------------- Carbon dioxide + Water Some animals and plants may go through phases where they do not get enough oxygen. Other cells such as bacteria and fungi live without oxygen. In these cases the cells respire by anaerobic respiration (without oxygen). This does not make as much energy and can build up toxic by-products. In yeast and many plants the by-product is an alcohol called ethanol. The word equation for this is... Glucose ---- carbon dioxide +alcohol In humans and other animals the by-product is lactic acid and if the levels build up too much can cause aches and cramps. The word equation for this is... Glucose ---- carbon dioxide + lactic acid The body has to keep the core at a constant temperature of 37c. To do this, it has lots of ways in helping increase and decrease the temperature of the body. Some of these are voluntary and some are autonomic. Voluntary controls are anything that we do to keep ourselves warm (eg drinking hot drinks, turning on the heating, exercise, eating hot food and putting on more clothes) or to cool ourselves down (eg drinking cold drinks, taking cold showers, sitting in the shade, eating cold food and removing clothing). Automomic means that you cannot control it - eg you can't control your sweating or if you blush.

The body monitors the temperature of the blood using a part of the brain called the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. If it detects the temperature is too hot or too cold, then it takes action to bring it back to 37c. Their job is to filter the blood and make sure that it has the correct balance or water, sugar, salts, amino acids and other dissolved gases. It does this by a process of ultra filtration and selective re-absorption. Basically speaking it empties everything out of the blood and then selects back the bits that it needs.

To regulate blood sugar, the glucose concentration in the blood is monitored by the pancreas. If the glucose concentration is too high, then the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin which travels in the blood and causes fat, liver and muscle cells to take up glucose. This will bring the sugar levels back to normal. If the blood glucose is too low, then again it is detected by the pancreas, but this time it releases a hormone called glucagon which travels in the blood and makes fat, liver and muscle cells release sugar back into the bloodstream.

Type 1 Diabetes is caused because the body does not make insulin and therefore the blood sugar levels can get too high. This can be treated by getting people to inject themselves with insulin after they have eaten a meal. Type 2 Diabetes is caused when the fat, liver and muscle cells do not respond to the insulin and the blood sugar levels remain high. In this case, the sufferer has to make sure that the avoid food with lots of sugar in.

Organisms can reproduce in 2 ways... By asexual reproduction where a cell divides in two or an animal splits in two creating two identical organisms (this reproduction is used by small single celled organisms such as yeast as well as by plants when cuttings are taken.) By sexual reproduction when chromosomes are mixed from both parents to create a new organism (this happens in bigger animals and plants which produce flowers). To fully understand genetics, we need to know how cells divide. There are two main processes mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is where two exact copies of the cell are made. This is used for growth and repair in most animals and plants (and as the method of reproduction is very small organisms which are only one or two cells big). Meiosis is the process where a cell splits to make sperm and eggs (or pollen and ova in plants); each sex cell contains half of the genetic material (1 of the pair of each chromosome).